eCheat.com RSS Feedhttps://www.echeat.com/ Spartan society Spartan Society Student’s Name Institution Outline 1 Introduction 3 2 Spartan Society and Social Classes 3 2.1 Upbringing 3 2.2 Social Classes 4 3 Spartan Military 5 3.1 War with Persia 5 3.2 War with Athens 6 4 The Downfall of Spartans 7 5 References 8 1 Introduction Spartan society refers to a community of warriors that lived during primordial Greece. The society was militaristic and is remembered for its military prowess, specifically after conquering the Athens during the Peloponnesian battle. The Spartan way of life revolved around state loyalty as well as serving in the military. As early as seven years, the boys were enrolled in a thorough military training along with joining a socialization program. The training was referred to as “Agoge”, and the boys were mainly taught about endurance, serving and discipline. The women did not serve in the military; hence, they had more freedom than the men. The society was divided into social classes, which depended on individual’s status. Unfortunately, the Spartans were eventually conquered by Thebes, resulting in the decline of the empire. 2 Spartan Society and Social Classes 2.1 Upbringing The Spartans brought up their children as a community. The early years of a child’s life were spent with peers. While girls enjoyed freedom, the boys’ lives were not totally free. This is because, from a young age, the boys were taken away from their parent’s care and enrolled into “Agoge” or military training (Garland, 1998). The objective of the training was to ensure that Spartan Society continued to have a strong military. Also, the education the boys received emphasized on high levels of discipline, submission and endurance. Unlike normal education, which concentrates on teaching children how to write and read, Spartans taught their children how to follow orders and how to fight. The training would continue up to the age of sixteen. The young adults would graduate to become a secret police force for their society. They lived in the wild. The education was finalized once the young adults became twenty years and became liable to take part in military service. The young men were required to spend all their time in the army barracks, as they had not yet attained full citizenship (Garland, 1998). However, at the age of thirty they were awarded full citizenship to become Spartan. At this age, the men could now live with their families, although they were still expected to spend more time with peers (Garland, 1998). The girls were also enrolled in a training program, which entailed rigorous physical education. They were taught how to 2016-08-22T23:39:22.587-04:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/Spartan-society-35215.aspx HISTORY The Aztecs Civilization The Aztecs came in the scenario pretty much around the time when the Incas were appearing as the powerful contenders in South America. Around the 1200s and early 1300s, the people in present day Mexico used to live in three big rival cities – Tenochtitlan, Texcoco and Tlacopan. Around 1325, these rivals created an alliance and thus the new state was brought under the rule of the Valley of Mexico. Back then, the people preferred the name Mexica than to the Aztecs. The rise of the Aztecs was within a century of the fall of another influential civilization in Mexico and Central America – the Mayans. The city of Tenochtitlan was the military power, which spearheaded the conquest of new territory. But the Aztec emperor didn’t rule every city, state directly. Local governments would remain in place, but was forced to pay varying amounts of tribute to the Triple Alliance. In the early 1500s, the Aztec civilization was indeed at the height of its power. But then, Spanish arrived with their expansion plans. This eventually led to a huge battle between the Incas and the alliance of Spanish conquistadors and the native allies they had assembled led by the famous (or rather infamous) Hernan Cortes in 1521. A defeat in this decisive battle eventually led to the fall of once famous Aztec empire. The Incas Civilization The Incas was the largest Empire in North America in the Pre-Columbian era. This civilization flourished in the areas of present day Ecuador, Peru and Chile and had its administrative, military and political center located at Cusco which lies in modern day Peru. The Incas had their societies pretty well established, and the empire was in a rapid bloom since it’s beginning. The Incas were devout followers of the Sun God Inti. They had a king who was referred to as “Sapa Inca” meaning the child of the Sun. The first Inca emperor Pachacuti transformed it from a modest village to a great city laid out in the shape of a puma. He went to expand the tradition of ancestor worship. When the king died, his son would get all the power, but all his wealth would be distributed among his other relatives, who would in return preserve his mummy and sustain his political influence. This significantly led to a sudden rise in power of the Incas. The Incas went on to become 2016-04-16T02:11:39.757-04:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/HISTORY-35188.aspx The Warrior Hector The Warrior Hector Hector is the eldest son of Priam, the king of Trojan. Being the first-born and the bravest among the Trojan warriors, he is the rightful heir of the kingdom. His leadership skills receive praises since he is a thoughtful leader. Moreover, many people admire him as a result of his devotion to his family, friends, and the community. As such, Hector’s character represents a great son, a caring husband to Andromache, a father, and a trusted friend. As the heir to the throne, Hector already shows responsibility to the community by defending it and advocating for justice for all the people. Hector’s leadership helps Trojan defeat the Achaeans by pushing them back to their ships and later burning them. However, just like many other warriors, he is also full of pride. Hector is a great man who is family-oriented. The motivation for Hector’s fighting is the responsibility to his family, as well as, the city. His parents are the leaders of Troy; his father is the king and his mother the queen. As he fights for the protection of his city, Hector is also protecting his parents. Moreover, his interactions with his wife and son show a high level of responsibility for their wellbeing. Hector shows his love for the family when he holds his child in his arms and prays for him. He prays to Jove their God to make his child follow his footsteps or even perform better. He continues to pray that he becomes the hero that his mother will be proud of when he goes battling to revenge the lives of their soldiers (McCarty, Ambrus & Homer, 2004). Hector is also a man who is performing his duties as required. He even goes ahead to criticize his brother Paris claiming that he lacks the courage to fight for his city even after leading it to the trouble that resulted in war. He criticizes Paris saying that he has brought disgrace upon himself for stealing another man’s woman. He further claims that his brother will make the Achaeans mock them because of Paris’s weaknesses (McCarty, Ambrus & Homer, 2004). His love for duty shows up when he refuses to sit with his mother and enjoy a glass of wine while other warriors are on the battlefield. However, he also shows respect from the way he refuses to take the wine when he tells his mother not to bring 2015-10-23T07:50:25.193-04:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/The-Warrior-Hector-35146.aspx Helpful Books Concering Oresteia and Gender Conflict 2014-10-13T20:59:28.05-04:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/Helpful-Books-Concering-Oresteia-and-Gender-Conflict-35056.aspx Why was Christian Europe was slow to react to the fall of Constantinople in 1453 and the continuing threat from the Ottoman Turks Christian Europe was slow to react to the fall of Constantinople in 1453 and the continuing threat from the Ottoman Turks. There were a number of reasons for this reaction. The first major reason was that there was a not a lot of unity in the Western European states and they were either fighting wars against other Christian nations or fighting civil wars. They were too preoccupied in their own affairs to go on a religious crusade. The second reason was simply fear. The Western countries had faced these Ottoman Turks in the battlefield at Nicopolis in 1396 and had lost comprehensively. The memories of this loss and the slaughter of the Christian forces remained in the minds of the defeated nations for a long time. The final reason for the inaction of Western Christian countries was the presence of Hungary. The Hungarians provided a blockade for the Western Europeans and prevented the Ottomans from marching into more Central and Western Europe and they defended their country very well for a long period of time. The first aspect to look at when dealing with this question was the disunity between the Western nations. For the Christian nations to be able to defeat the Turks they would have to be unified. “It was of course necessary to drive the Turks from the Danube line, which only a coalition of Christian states could accomplish.” The Christian states were anything but unified at the time. England and France were engaged in a long war with each other. While this Hundred Years War was happening England and France were not concerned with any other European problems. It was recognised at the time that in order for a holy war to be fought, peace between these countries was needed. Efforts were made by numerous Popes to try to end this conflict. “Oh, how much better to fight against the Turkish enemies of our faith than the present fratricidal strife.” Also this war was draining both France and England of resources so they could not financially support a potential religious war with the Ottomans until their own issues were resolved. The Spanish were too busy fighting Muslims on their own soil to be concerned with the Turks on the other side of Europe. Another reason for the Western inaction was fear. This fear of the Ottomans was instilled into the minds of the Western 2013-08-10T18:26:23.587-04:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/Why-was-Christian-Europe-was-slow-to-react-to-the-fall-of-Constantinople-in-1453-and-the-continuing-threat-from-the-Ottoman-Turks-34924.aspx Compare and contrast the presentation of Themistocles and Aristides in Plutarch’s Lives In Plutarch’s Lives, Plutarch sets out to parallel lives of historically important people from Greek and Roman history. The common theme is comparing a Greek figure with a Roman one. However, because some of the people written about are living during the same time as each other, it is also possible to compare how Plutarch presents them. This is true of Greek figures Themistocles and Aristides, who were paired off with Roman figures Camillus and Cato the elder respectively. They were rivals in Athenian politics and Plutarch actually compares them directly in their biographies. These comparisons are not uncommon in Plutarch. There are certain aspects to how they are presented by Plutarch which need some analysis. The first thing that is noticeable is the different presentation of Themistocles from his own biography to that of Aristides. In Themistocles, he is portrayed as a young man lacking direction, who is roused by the great Greek victory over the Persians at Marathon. “....though he was still a young man when the battle at Marathon was fought and the generalship of Miltades was in everybody’s mouth, he was seen thereafter to be wrapped in his own thoughts for the most parts, and was sleepless o’ nights, and refused invitations to his customary drinking parties” [3.3]. This is in sharp contrast to Plutarch’s portrayal of him in Aristides. In this biography Plutarch shows that Aristides and Themistocles had a long engaging political rivalry which preceded the battle of Marathon. “However, since Themistocles was a reckless agitator, and opposed and thwarted him in every measure of state, Aristides himself was almost compelled- partly in self-defence, and partly to curtail his adversary’s power, which was increasing through the favour of the many- to set himself in opposition to what Themistocles was trying to do” [3.1]. A possible reason for this could be that Plutarch’s wrote Aristides much later then he wrote Themistocles. This is important because it shows how Plutarch’s writing could be influenced by his sources. When he wrote Themistocles he was more influenced by the writing of Herodotus and Thucydides. “At the time, therefore, when Plutarch wrote this life of Themistocles, a time when he was much more under the influence of Herodotus, Thucydides, and contemporary witnesses to the career of his hero then when he wrote the much later life of Aristides”. While writing Aristides he is more influenced by history which 2013-08-10T18:20:25.66-04:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/Compare-and-contrast-the-presentation-of-Themistocles-and-Aristides-in-Plutarch’s-Lives-34923.aspx Scipio Africanus: The Greatest Roman General When trying to decide on the greatest roman general, there are a few outstanding candidates to put forward for nomination. Julius Caesar, Lucius Cornelius Sulla, Pompey the Great and Scipio Africanus are some generals who could all make a legitimate claim for this title. To properly judge who was the greatest, many different categories needed to be closely examined and also many elements are shared amongst them which contributed to their greatness. These elements include such things as strategic and tactical excellence, charismatic leadership, their victory records, personal courage, intellect and knowledge into the strengths and weaknesses of their opposition. Indeed another aspect which had to be considered was the actual calibre of the men they were pitted against and the strength of the armies they had to militarily overcome. With all these considerations taken into account, Scipio Africanus would seem to be the outstanding candidate to be called the greatest roman general. There are several vital aspects of Scipio Africanus’ career which elevates him into the role of greatest. Over the course of this essay we will explore a specific aspect of Scipio’s career, which highlight his military brilliance. The first aspect to examine is the early career of Scipio, where in the Second Punic War, a young Scipio showed his character and willingness to lead in situations where others had already failed or were unwilling to take on the responsibility of leadership for the rest of the war in Spain. “.....that no one dared to take the command in Spain. When suddenly Publius Cornelius, son of Publius who had fallen in Spain, who was about twenty-four years of age, declared himself a candidate, and took his station on a eminence by which he could be seen by all.” Scipio arrived in Spain in 210BC, and soon set about showing Rome and other Roman generals that victory did not lie solely in numbers. He decided that with an army of far less numbers than that of the various Carthaginian armies, the best way to make an impact in Spain was not to take the Carthaginian armies on one by one, but to launch a masterful surprise attack on the Carthaginian stronghold at New Carthage. This is where Scipio shows his first sign of military genius. He carefully planned out a brilliant strategy that would lead to the Roman capture of the almost impenetrable New Cartage. This included marching 2013-08-10T18:01:04.24-04:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/Scipio-Africanus-The-Greatest-Roman-General-34920.aspx Do you agree with John Maxwell O'Brien's statement that a "metamorphosis" occurred in the character of Alexander after the battle at Gaugamela in 331 BC? John Maxwell O’ Brien contends that Alexander the Great’s personality suffered a metamorphosis after the battle of Gaugamela in 331BC. This statement places O’ Brien on one side of an ongoing debate about the personality of Alexander. This contention is that Alexander was a good man and leader until he crossed into the East, where he became power-mad and corrupt. The other side of this argument has a more sympathetic view on Alexander’s behaviour in the East, whereby his actions can be explained as one of a cultural unifier. When discussing which side of these arguments holds more truth, one must discuss the elements of Alexander’s personality and behaviour after the Battle of Gaugamela, which gives credence to O’ Brien’s metamorphosis theory. The first and most obvious place to start is Alexander’s newfound ‘orientalism’, after his conquering of Persia. This included Alexander wearing elements of Persian dress, the appointment of 30,000 Persian ‘Epigoni’ and the attempted introduction of Persian customs, such as ‘proskynesis’. This caused much resentment towards Alexander from his Macedonian and Greek subjects, who saw this as Alexander favouring Persian ways over Macedonian. Issues arose from Alexander’s new Persian ideals such as bowing down before him (proskynesis), as Persians did to their King. This was something which the Macedonians were not accustomed to and “did not perform the act, considering it appropriate only for gods and, when performed for the Great King (who was not a god, though everything just short of it) as a mark of Oriental servility.” The historian Callisthenes was a loud voice in the objections to this practice and his denouncement of the act of proskynesis, and as he saw it, Alexander’s new god-like self-opinion, would find him implicated in a plot to assassinate Alexander. The ‘Pages Plot’ was important because it shows how formerly devoted followers of Alexander were suddenly compelled to plot against his life. The incident which supposedly led to this showed a difference in Alexander’s treatment of his people as Arrian described. “He was led to copy Persian extravagance and the habit of barbaric kings of treating their subjects as inferior beings.” Hermolaus orchestrated the plot because of his humiliating disciplining by the king after a hunting incident. When the plot was discovered Callisthenes was implicated and put to death like the others involved, although his involvement seemed unlikely. Before his death Hermolaus declared “That it is no 2013-08-10T16:11:07.97-04:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/Do-you-agree-with-John-Maxwell-O-Brien-s-statement-that-a-"metamorphosis"-occurred-in-the-character-of-Alexander-after-the-battle-at-Gaugamela-in-331-BC-34908.aspx The Tokugawa Shogunate The Tokugawa Shogunate Use this URL to view the essay with the pictures http://www.echeat.com/siteimages/PaperFiles/32318121_tokugawa_shogunate.docx The Tokugawa Shogunate has gone down in history as a repressive feudal police state. The Tokugawa Shogunate, or Bakufu, (also known as the Edo bakufu,) ruled at a time when an economy based on agriculture and commerce had fully developed to give Japan complete stability. (1. Sword Arts Wiki). Shogun Tokugawa Ieyasu The Tokugawa period began in 1603, this was when the warring states period of history is about to end (3.Tokugawa). Tokugawa Ieyasu consolidated his control of Japan at the battle of Sekigahara (1). In 1603, Ieyasu was appointed Shogun by the emperor. The administration of Japan was a task given by the imperial Court in Kyoto to the Tokugawa family. The Tokugawa continued to rule Japan for 265 years. This period is known as the Edo period and gets its name from the capital city of Edo, now Tokyo (2 Dynasty of Tokugawa Shoguns), they ruled until the Meiji Restoration when the Shoguns were stripped of their power and reduced in rank to Ronin. (2.) Unlike any of his predecessors, Ieyasu was able to establish a dynasty (2). He redistributed land among the daimyo: more loyal vassals received strategically more important domains accordingly. Every daimyo was also required to spend every second year in Edo.The Tokugawa Bakufu maintained power through absolute control. The Daimyos were prevented from rebelling through the use of hostages held by the Shogun and by a system known as alternate attendance. a Daimyo was required to be in attendance at the Shogun’s court in Edo for several months out of a year (1). This statue of Ieyasu stands on the grounds of the Okazaki Castle Park He was required to spend the remainder of the year at his estates while leaving his family in Edo. This gave the Tokugawa Shogun hostages and diverted the Daimyo’s wealth from military investment to maintaining two residences in a style befitting his position as well as paying for regular lavish processions between Edo and their fiefs. Okazaki Castle The Tokugawa Bakufu also forbade any maintenance or improvement of fortifications without its express permission. Not only were the Daimyos forbidden from maintaining their own fortifications, they were also required to maintain public works. These public works included the fortifications of the Tokugawa (2.) The Tokugawa Shoguns also maintained surveillance 2012-03-23T18:01:21.25-04:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/The-Tokugawa-Shogunate-34524.aspx Ancient Babylonia This paper is a question and answer discussion of some aspects of life in ancient Babylonia. (3+ pages; 4 sources; MLA citation style) I Introduction This paper answers specific questions about the civilization of ancient Babylonia, and is in a question-answer format. II Answers to the Questions 1. Explain the importance of the topic to someone unfamiliar with it. Ancient cultures are important because they help us understand who we are, where we came from; and our beliefs, values and behavior. The ancient Babylonians gave us many things, including the concept of impartial justice; the 24-hour day; the idea that a circle contained 360 degrees; and what is generally believed to be the oldest epic poem in history, “Gilgamesh.” (“Babylonia,” pp. 9-11). Perhaps more importantly today, much of ancient Babylonia lies within modern Iraq. 2. What is the time period involved in the study of ancient Babylonia? Ancient Babylonia was conquered and re-conquered throughout its history, but “[T]he el-Obeid and Warka periods (about 3600-3000 B.C.) represent the beginning of settled culture in Babylonia proper…” (“Babylonia,” p. 9). Babylon finally fell in 514 B.C., thus the extreme range of dates is 3600-514 B.C.; over 3,000 years. 3. What are the most important facts students should know about ancient Babylonia at this time? There were many developments in the ancient world that are important to us today. Perhaps two of the greatest are the idea of government, and the codification of the law. Human civilization arose in the Tigris-Euphrates area: Babylonia, in fact. The first people in the area were known as Sumerians, later Babylonians: “After about 3500 B.C. they established centers of civilizations in towns and cities, called ‘city states’.” (Briquebec, p. 14). Each of these city states, according to the author, had a royal palace, a temple, and an administrative center. This means that some of the earliest ideas of government as a central authority come from ancient Babylonia. I’ve already mentioned the idea of equality of justice. It comes to us from the Code of Hammurabi, which is indeed one of the most vital developments in all history. Hammurabi “realized that good government depended upon justice which the people could understand, so he collected together the old laws and customs, improved them and added new ones of his own.” (Unstead, p. 33). Not only did this mean that the law would be applied to all people in the 2011-10-26T13:47:33.42-04:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/Ancient-Babylonia-34126.aspx Roman Army 93CE The Roman Army 93 CE The Roman Army’s organization was far more sophisticated than the armies of the world in which it faced in battle. The Roman Army operated its campaigns with such organization and structure; it is almost as though you were looking at a modern day military. The term household servants, as referenced by Josephus, it nothing less than the volunteer of the modern day. In Roman times, it was the household servants’ duty to bear arms in its homeland defense. The Roman Army operated its campaigns with the upmost preparedness in order to defeat their enemy. They were well equipped, well nourished and well sheltered to establish stamina. Josephus provides with great detail the lengths the Romans went to, in order to establish discipline within its ranks to have a successful campaign. The Romans never attacked first, for they would always have the enemy attack with aggression first. This was their way of justifying the necessary means of opposing aggressive forces and eventual victory. The Romans not only used their campaigns to conquer land or destroy their enemies, but used their campaigns as training exercises for future campaigns. By learning new tactics, techniques and procedures the enemy was using, the Romans were able to counter every move the enemy made. The Romans never left a battle like a bottle half empty, they finished the battle to ensure future battles would never exist. The Romans never over worked their soldiers, by allowing them the maximum allowed time for rest, to ensure 100% full capabilities on the battlefield. They also used primitive measures for obtaining intelligence on their enemies before engaging them in battle. Intelligence preparation of the battlefield was means to all the military campaigns under Roman rule and their success. The Romans established camps as though they were cities. The enemy never really had a clear chance of defeating the Romans on their ground of choosing. Carefully planned defense positions were designated and structured to deter any attack that may occur at any time and any place. Within these camps, the soldiers and officers basically had a small city to themselves, which provided them with the luxuries of everyday life. This helped the moral of the soldiers and mental preparedness for future battles. The Roman Army was so far ahead of the other armies it faced, it is almost amazing. The Roman Army would go on to be 2008-11-16T16:49:24-05:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/Roman-Army-93CE--33865.aspx Augustus Caesar Born Gaius Octavius, Augustus was born in September of 63 B.C. Octavius' father, Gaius Octavius, was a praetor for two years until he died in 58 B.C. Therefore, Octavius grew up without a father for most of his life. Through Octavius' long life of seventy-seventy years, he accomplished a great deal. He reduced the size of the Senate, he was an integral part of the second triumvirate, and he was elected the Pontifex Maximus, just to name a few of these accomplishments. Octavius received the name Augustus by holding the consulship and receiving various awards. This title was not given out to just anyone. In order to receive this title, one must be a large contributor to the city (Boardman 533-534). Octavius Caesar was related to the famous Julius Caesar through Octavius' mother. Atria was Octavius' grandmother and Julius Caesar's sister, therefore making Octavius his great-nephew. When Julius Caesar was murdered in 44 B.C., his will read that Octavius was to be adopted by him, making Octavius his son and heir to the Roman Empire. Also, in his will it stated that every citizen of Rome would receive a cash gift. Octavius rushed to Rome to take his throne, but when he arrived in Rome, he realized the Antony had already taken control of the city. He could not persuade Antony to release the money in Julius Caesar's treasury so he had to borrow all the money he could to give the gifts to the citizens. Julius Octavius Caesar was only eighteen when he was thrust into the world of hate and greed. Even though he was supposed to be the ruler of Rome, he had to march on Rome in order to get any respect from Cassius and Brutus. Cassius and Brutus were the head of the conspiracy to kill Julius Caesar. Ironically, Augustus comes back to kill Cassius and Brutus for the power. (Hornblower, Companion 105). When Augustus became emperor, he tried to drastically reduce the size of the Senate on several occasions. Unlike Julius Caesar, he did not think just anyone should be allowed to be a Senator. He thought all those who were unworthy to be a Senator were to be kicked out of office. After many futile attempts, he abandoned the quest to eliminate those he felt were unworthy to be a Senator. Also, Augustus had to be careful and not step on too many toes because 2008-11-09T09:25:26-05:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/Augustus-Caesar--33846.aspx The Myth of Day and Night The Myth of Day and Night Once upon a time, there was a town called D-town. IT was the home of all the gods of the ATL, the leading state in Fruitoria, the land of milk and honies. The people in Fruitoria enjoyed a higher standard of living than any other group of people in the world because the ATLien, the god of the whole world, originated from Fruitoria, the D-Town to be exact, and showed extreme favoritism upon these people. The ATLien had personally assigned his favorite cousin, Supacris, to look over and protect D-town from any jealous enemies that might try to destroy the most beautiful city and people in all the land. From day one, Supacris had his work cut out for him. Not only did the ATLien take this job, very seriously, but he also promised to severely punish anyone who failed to live up to his standards. The ATLien requires the leader of D-town to instruct his citizens to follow the strict guidelines that have been set before them. For thousands of years, the citizens of D-town followed these rules, but lately, things changed. Supacris will call upon his great leadership skills to return his fellow D-townians to their former state. For Supacris and his fellow gods of the ATL, life was good because the citizens had been committed to keeping their morals, as the gods asked. However, for some unapparent reason, the citizens of the ATL took a turn for the worst. They started partying all night and became lazy. Many of the men and women slacked off on their jobs and the kids refused to attend school. Churches that were once jam-packed were now near empty. The gods were dumfounded. What caused the citizens to blatantly disobey the strict rules that were in place for them? While all the other gods sat around dumbfounded, Supacris decided to leave his colonial style castle to visit the people of D-town, to see if they will find it in their hearts to clean up their act before the ATLien becomes angry and punishes them all. As Supacris rode his chariot through the streets, he saw streets that were once spotless now cluttered with trash. He saw beautiful homes destroyed. He saw many people who were once working 2007-03-20T04:08:46-04:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/The-Myth-of-Day-and-Night-32851.aspx Islam-Change Over Time PreIslam-Umayyad/Muhammad-Abassid The spread of Islam throughout the world was among the most significant worldwide movements in history. Beginning as the faith of a small community of believers in Arabia in the seventh century, Islam rapidly became one of the major world religions. The core of this faith is the belief that Muhammad (570-632), a respected businessman in Mecca, a commercial and religious center in western Arabia, received revelations from God that have been preserved in the Qur'an. The core of Islam remains the same today after 1396 years. Islam still translates to “submission” and Muslims still live by the Qur’an and follow the 5 Pillars of Islam. However, throughout the Pre-Islamic, Umayyad, and Abbasid eras, the political structure that governed the societies that followed Islam differed over the years with some minor continuity. The pre-Islamic era lasted from 400 B.C until the revelation of the Prophet Mohammad in 610 C.E. The lack of Islam evidently created a lack of true unity. The basic social unit of the Bedouin was the kin-related clan. The struggle to survive in the unrelenting Arabian environment led to strong dependence in one’s family and clan. Clans could never rest to maintain everyday lives with their necessities met. Clans were also linked to larger tribal groupings, however these tribal units seldom met together. Additionally, clans would often feud over water rights, animals, or even perceived sights to clan members’ honor, all of which often led to violence. The base religion of the pre-Islamic era was polytheistic, which may have led to the segregation and rivalry between cans. Occasionally, clans would meet as tribes during times of war or severe crisis. On a more local level, clan councils were groups legislatures that determined the distribution and use of water resources, maintaining watering places and maintaining grazing lands, all of which was essential to maintaining the herds on which Bedouin life depended. Clan councils traditionally were led by family leaders, or shaykhs. Though normally elected by councils of elder advisors, the shaykhs were almost always men with large herds, several wives, many children, and many retainers. The political structure was very loose and was subject to change instantaneously to reflect the current situations of the area. In Muslim tradition, the sociopolitical community that was created in Medina during the time of the Muhammad-Umayyad era provides the model 2007-03-04T18:54:36-05:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/Islam-Change-Over-Time-PreIslam-Umayyad-Muhammad-Abassid-32719.aspx Analysis of Ancient Israeli Tunnels Analysis of Ancient Israeli Tunnels One of the latest findings in the archeological world was recently revealed to the public on March this year in the village of Kfar Kana, North of Israel. Several subterranean galleries, passageways and pits were discovered leading scholars to believe that they were used as hiding places during the first Jewish war in the middle of the first century A.D. At a first assumption, the tunnels seem they were very well planned in advance. One hypothesis could be that the Hebrews built those tunnels not only as a place of safety but also for protecting their belongings and to preserve their history, similar to the Dead Sea scrolls found in caves. I also believe they were not specifically there for a war against the Romans. The Jewish people have been persecuted since the beginning of times of their history. In some regions of our modern world, they are still not welcome. The hebrews were very protective of their culture, so is more likely that the galleries were constructed to shield themselves not only from Romans but from anyone that could rise against or persecute them any given time. Throughout the excavations areas, archeologists found several pits not only on the ground but inside homes too. I presume the pits located inside the dwellings were there probably for easier transportation of supplies such as food and household materials, and for a more secure escape in case of a sudden enemy attack. Archeologists also found several jars inside the chambers, commonly used to store food at that time. Yardenna Alexandre, the archeologist in charge of the excavations, said "The pits are connected to each other by short tunnels, and it seems that they were used as hiding refuges—a kind of concealed subterranean home—that were built prior to the Great Revolt against the Romans.” Those people had suffered so much excruciating punishment from enemies through the centuries that if they were sensing a new persecution, it would make perfectly sense to start building secret tunnels to protect themlseves. Alexandre said he thinks the pits and tunnels were there before the revolt. One of my theories is that 2007-03-04T17:54:46-05:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/Analysis-of-Ancient-Israeli-Tunnels-32708.aspx Summary of Alexander The Great Alexander The Great Alexander the Great (356-323 bc), king of Macedonia, conqueror of the Persian Empire, and one of the greatest military geniuses of all times. Alexander, born in Pella, the ancient capital of Macedonia, was the son of Philip II, king of Macedonia, and of Olympias, a princess of Epirus. Aristotle was Alexander's tutor; he gave Alexander a thorough training in rhetoric and literature and stimulated his interest in science, medicine, and philosophy. In the summer of 336 bc Philip was assassinated, and Alexander ascended to the Macedonian throne. He found himself surrounded by enemies at home and threatened by rebellion abroad. Alexander disposed quickly of all conspirators and domestic enemies by ordering their execution. Then he descended on Thessaly (Thessalia), where partisans of independence had gained ascendancy, and restored Macedonian rule. Before the end of the summer of 336 bc he had reestablished his position in Greece and was elected by a congress of states at Corinth. In 335 bc as general of the Greeks in a campaign against the Persians, originally planned by his father, he carried out a successful campaign against the defecting Thracians, penetrating to the Danube River. On his return he crushed in a single week the threatening Illyrians and then hastened to Thebes, which had revolted. He took the city by storm and razed it, sparing only the temples of the gods and the house of the Greek lyric poet Pindar, and selling the surviving inhabitants, about 8000 in number, into slavery. Alexander's promptness in crushing the revolt of Thebes brought the other Greek states into instant and abject submission. Alexander began his war against Persia in the spring of 334 bc by crossing the Hellespont (modern Dardanelles) with an army of 35,000 Macedonian and Greek troops; his chief officers, all Macedonians, included Antigonus, Ptolemy, and Seleucus. At the river Granicus, near the ancient city of Troy, he attacked an army of Persians and Greek mercenaries totaling 40,000 men. His forces defeated the enemy and, according to tradition, lost only 110 men; after this battle all the states of Asia Minor submitted to him. In passing through Phrygia he is said to have cut with his sword the Gordian knot. Continuing to advance southward, Alexander encountered the main Persian army, commanded by King Darius III, at Issus, in northeastern Syria. The size of Darius's army is unknown; the ancient tradition that it contained 500,000 2007-02-22T01:33:20-05:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/Summary-of-Alexander-The-Great-32687.aspx Napoleon's Leadership The French Conqueror Napoleon Bonaparte achieved greatness through his leadership over one of the greatest army of all time and assisting in the amalgamation of the French Revolution, which introduced new forms of government; although, none managed to survive beyond the revolution. During the 19th century, he managed conquering most of Europe and he took great measures to recalibrate the nations he ruled. His battle tactics were described as dignified and courageous that made his wars look like a masterful game of chess. Nevertheless, Napoleon had also made mistakes that costed his soldiers their lives being abolished in a battle against Russia. Napoleon had superb battle tactics that used speed and surprise to his advantage. His army was well trained and professional and assured Napoleon win after win. He defeated the armies of Austria, Russia, and Prussia and forced their armies to come to terms with him. His ambitions were on a grand-scale of obtaining unlimited power to rule the world, but Napoleon was overwhelmed by Russia, resulting with a discrepancy of over a half million soldiers. Do Napoleon intentions indicate that he was a tyrant, as his pursuits costed many solders and innocent countrymen their lives? June 1812, Napoleon alliance with Alexander had plummeted, resulting with an invasion on Russia. Russia retreated further east and burned all resources that France relied on. As France moved into Moscow, resources were unsatisfying for an over-sized army and winter was among them with minus forty temperatures. A disastrous retreat followed from Moscow, as of guerrilla warfare, was a definite crucial point for the French Empire as an army that was once 614,000 strong, returned with only 40,000 men. Thereafter, all of Europe united against him, although he brilliantly fought on against impractical odds until his soldiers struggle forced them to discontinue the struggle but was defeated at The Battle of Waterloo. After being captured, he was exiled to Saint Helena until his death in 1821. Long before Napoleon met his match, he knew Britain needed to trade with other countries in order to prosper and attempted stopping all its trades with The Continental System. This system prohibited any countries in his empire to make trades with Britain and any other country that allowed British ships to dock would undergo the ruthless consequences at hand. This blockade of Britain 2007-02-21T23:58:40-05:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/Napoleon-s-Leadership-32685.aspx History of Mayan Culture History of Mayan Culture The mysterious culture of ancient Maya once covered a vast geographic area in Central and South America. Their civilization extended to parts of what are now Mexico, Honduras, and El Salvador, and most of Guatemala and Belize. The Mayans first settled in 1500BC. The Mayans environment consisted of tropical rainforests, which was also one of their main sources of resources, they turned the jungles into great cities. The rainforest would provide them with food, clothing, weapons, tools, and many more useful items. It rained almost everyday, but the temperature was not cold at least in the daytime. The environment played a major role in what the Mayans culture became, they needed rain and heat to survive both the humans and the animals. The Mayans learned the methods of doing things like planting crops, making clothing, jewelry etc. The Mayans grew mainly maize (corn), beans, and squash together with yucca, manioc, and sweet potatoes. APPEARANCE Beauty was very important to the Mayan people. Though beauty through the Mayan eye was very unusual from today’s definition of the word. To make their heads longer, Mayan babies heads were squeezed between two pieces of wood. Another thing they did was to break their nose and reshape it, to make it look more hooked. Body Piercing and body painting was one of the major parts of how Mayans looked. Most Mayans were tanned and had black hair and eyes. Both men and women had long hair, which was braided into two or four braids. They wore very little clothing but it was very decorative, with the fanciest piece of clothing being headdresses worn by nobles. Their bodies were painted differently according to tradition and occasions. Priests wore blue, warriors wore red and black, and teenagers wore white. Jewelry was a very important part of appearance. LANGUAGE, EDUCATION, ASTRONOMY The Mayans had over 800 symbols for their writing system. It is said to be the most complex form of writing. The most important eastern Maya languages are Quiche, and Cakchiquel. The largest western Maya language is Tzeltal, spoken in Chiapas Mex. The Mayans had another 15 languages. The Mayans way of education was taught to only the higher authority such as priests, 2006-12-18T17:54:14-05:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/History-of-Mayan-Culture-32009.aspx Mesopotamian Scribes The Scribes of Mesopotamia More than 5,000 years ago, a glorious civilization called Mesopotamia arose in the area between the Tigris and Euphrates Rivers. This civilization took advantage of its countless benefits. If there were any obstacles, the Mesopotamians adapted. Soon, great cities emerged as a result of the discovery of farming, and there was a surplus of food. Because of this surplus, not everyone had to farm, which allowed non-farming people to cull their expertise in other fields, so to say. These people created different careers and products, which in turn promoted trade: you have something I want, I have something you want…let’s switch. As new products were introduced and more people began to trade, and on a larger scale, people needed to keep track of their possessions and their transactions. This is when writing developed…and with it scribes (Haywood 22-24). According to Oxford’s Compact English Dictionary(2006), the word scribe, meaning a person who copies out documents, is rooted in the Latin word for write, scribere. But scribes and their language have existed far longer than Latin. In fact, many ancient scribes created Latin’s roots. The earliest written language was pictographic, or writing with pictures, and was used to communicate basic information about crops and taxes. As the need for writing changed, pictograms evolved into cuneiform, a more complex form of writing that can also transcribe any language, and was. The Mesopotamians, having developed it, used cuneiform, but the nearby Elamites, Hittites, and Urartians used it too, since they themselves lacked a written language. Just as the language the scribes used developed, so too did their tools. With pictograms, scribes used a pointed stylus, probably crafted from a reed, to scratch the needed symbol into a soft clay or wax tablet. But with cuneiform, the point was squared off, hence the wedge-shaped letters (The British Museum). The stylus was one of a scribe’s most important tools, however, it was not the only instrument used. Sometimes scribes would use cylinder seals made of stone or metal, and on which scenes of men, animals, and gods were carved. A seal could be rolled over a tablet of clay and act as a signature. Some people, though, didn’t need seals, or else were too poor, so they simply used their fingernail to sign (The British Museum). Tablets were very common mediums for communication, but there were a great many styles of tablets in use. Made of 2006-12-15T05:55:33-05:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/Mesopotamian-Scribes--31992.aspx Foundations of Greek Civilization Foundations of Greek Civilization The mythological Greek tradition serves as an example image of gender differences and perception of the Greek custom. The interpretations of the sexes offer historical background to Greek society. Through depicting the mythological works one can find unique differences that characterize both men and women. Women especially hold an interesting role. Certain characteristics and traits help define the role of women and give historical insight to the role of women that is perceived and should be achieved. Through the general interpretation of women in Greek mythology one can find whether this mythical portrayal compliments or contradicts the role of women perceived in historical Greek society. The myth of Greek creation signifies important feminine features that are prevalent through many of the mythological stories. The Earth holds female character and is able to produce offspring absent of male presence. A common feminine trait that is portrayed in the story of creation is trickery and deception. Rhea plots a trick to deceive Crounes from killing her last child Zeus. Deception is known as a tactic in both sexes but is more predominantly feminine. Another feature depicting gender difference is the notion of struggle. The struggle between men and women to claim rights and uphold power is a battle between the sexes. The wife verse husband struggle for the reproductive rights creates a power controversy. The women fight from birth but men want the power. An example of this could be when Heaven permits Earth’s birth of children. This outrages Earth and precedes her to plot a trick of revenge. Then comes the creation of feminine creature. Pandora is born. Her name means “All Gifts.” This is due to the fact that all gods influenced her creation in some way. This symbolizes the significance of gift giving in Greek culture. From Pandora stem the Greek goddesses. They are portrayed as women with large breasts and a thick stomach. The enlarged abdomen symbolizes pregnancy and the notion of being a nurturing mother and creator of life. They uphold the elements of being a motherly figure. Greek women were supposed to remain pure and abstinent until married. Once married they were expected to serve as mothers and faithful wives 2006-11-17T01:48:55-05:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/Foundations-of-Greek-Civilization-31780.aspx Happiness in Greek and Roman Literature Happiness in Greek and Roman Literature The issue of happiness reoccurs constantly in Greek and Roman mythology. Among this is the right to bear arms when attacked. Yet David Strussel brings an important issue in this discussion, namely that in order to fully understand the theological repurcussions of these events in light of later religious underpinnings, we must look at the theoretical implications of the Rosetta Stone. The links of this isn't limited to the Aegean Sea, far from it. Traces of fragments can be seen all the way in India. What does this mean? It suggests that plausibility that the "Stone" was actually fabricated years later. In order to fully understand, we must understand the game of cricket. In a highly controversial action, six top Indian players, including skipper Sourav Ganguly and master batsman Sachin Tendulkar were handed down harsh punishments by the match-referee for the second India-South Africa Test. Virender Sehwag was suspended for the third Test to be played at Centurion Park from November 24 on the charge of excessive appealing. This means that Sehwag, who made a century on his debut in the first Test, will miss the final match of the series. Sachin Tendulkar was found guilty of tampering with the ball and handed down a suspended one-match sentence and fined 75 per cent of his match-fee. He will, therefore, be able to play in the third Test but would be banned for one match if he repeats the offence. Former England captain Mike Denness, who is the match referee for the series, is believed to have conveyed these decisions to the Indian team management this evening after two meetings with Tendulkar, who had been accused of tampering with the ball during a three-over spell yesterday. Denness summoned Ganguly, who was accused of failing to control his players, as also four other Indian players -- Sehwag, Harbhajan Singh, Shiv Sunder Das and wicketkeeper Deep Dasgupta -- on the charge of excessive appealing. Denness, who consulted ICC headquarters in London during the day, is expected to formally announce his decision tomorrow but sources in the Indian camp disclosed the unprecedented sentences imposed by him. Ganguly was given a suspended sentence for one Test match and two one-dayers. He is therefore eligible to play but could be banned for these matches if he repeated the offence of not controlling his players. Harbhajan, Das and Dasgupta have also been found guilty 2006-10-03T20:12:46-04:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/Happiness-in-Greek-and-Roman-Literature-31482.aspx Aztecs Part One Introduction Settlers and Society This is part one in my report on the Ancient Aztec civilization - more will be coming soon! Introduction – Who were they? When most people think of ancient civilizations they think of civilizations from thousands of years ago. However, not all ancient civilizations are in fact, that ancient. The Aztecs of America fell only just under 500 years ago, in 1524, to Spanish invaders. The Aztecs existed for hundreds of years, the first recorded leader or Tlatoani, reined from 1367, but it is believed the Aztecs lived for many, many more years before hand. Wandering Settlers The Aztecs were once a small tribe of wandering hunters, looking for a permanent home. They had with them a statue of their sun god Huitzilopochtli, who they believed guided them. It is said Huitzilopochtli told the Aztecs (known then as the Tenocha tribe) that when they saw an eagle on a cactus, they should build their city there. The Aztecs arrived at the Toltec empire in around 12-13th centuries AD, which had been destroyed in around 1000AD. The only land left was a small island in the Lake Texoco, so the Aztecs decided to settle there. At first they had to pay tributes to the stronger, more settled tribe of the Tepanecs, but the Tenocha tribe along with three other tribes conquered the Tepanecs, and soon after the Tenocha tribe conquered all other strong tribes to become the strongest tribe in the valley. Now that the other tribes had to pay tributes to them, the Tenocha tribe decided they needed a city. Soon after they decided this, they saw the eagle sitting on the cactus, and built their city Tenochtitlan, on and around that spot. Today, Mexico City stands on and around the ruins of Tenochtitlan. Aztec Society In Aztec society there were 10 main ranks of the people, Tlatoani (king, or speaker), Ciuacoatl (Snake Woman, king’s deputy), the four military commanders, chief officials, lesser officials, craftsmen, merchants, ‘ordinary’ people, peasants and slaves. The Tlatoani (Aztec for speaker) was in charge of foreign affairs and war, while his deputy the Snake Woman was in charge of laws, taxes, food and building. Nobody is quite sure why the king’s deputy was called Snake Woman, because it is believed this position was only ever held by a man. The Tlatoani was always the greatest warrior, elected by the chief officials. The Tlatoani always offered his officials, who were also 2006-09-04T02:20:04-04:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/Aztecs-Part-One-Introduction-Settlers-and-Society-31429.aspx Ancient Aztec Civilization and Culture Ancient Aztec Civilization and Culture The Aztec Nation A distant sound is heard. It sounds like a deep drum being hit with a heavy instrument. You hear it again and strain your eyes in the direction of the sound. All around you is dense jungle. Snakes slither between your legs. You hear the sound once again. In front of you is a dense stand of ferns. You part them and look down into a wide open valley. The valley gets so wide and it is so green that it takes your breath away. But that is not what you are looking at. You are staring at a huge city with glittering buildings shining in the spring sunlight. Smoke rises up from some of the many houses. You can see and hear children playing in the wide open fields in front of the shining buildings. Lamas and chickens are being bought and sold. You see bags of gold jewelry being bought and sold. Beyond the market place you can watch a religious ceremony. You hear the scream of a person being sacrificed to one of the gods. Beyond the city there are roads made of stone and canals full of pedestrians and canos. Who are these people and what are they doing here you wonder? The above paragraph describes what an early explorer in Mexico might have seen between 1400 and 1500 AD. The Aztec nation is one of the largest and most advanced Indian nations to ever exist on earth. Just about every part of the Aztec life was advance to such a state that at that time of the world the people were living better than many European nations. The Aztec nation is unique in its history, economy, environment, and way of life then any other nation at that time. Perhaps three to four thousand years ago, small bands of hunting-gathering peoples made their way across the land bridge that was the frozen Bering Strait, migrated southward through what is now Alaska, Canada, the United States, Central America, South America, and Mexico, settling along the way. One such hunting- gathering group settled in the Central Valley of what is now Mexico (Nicholson 1985). There is a long history of civilizations in the Central Valley of Mexico; as early as several centuries before Christ agricultural tribes had already settled, and by the birth of Christ had established as their great religious 2006-07-30T20:55:31-04:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/Ancient-Aztec-Civilization-and-Culture-30836.aspx Comparing the Ancient Empires of Rome and China Comparing the Ancient Empires of Rome and China The ancient civilization of Rome was far superior to ancient China in many ways, government and leadership being the two most important ways. Rome’s government was more detailed and left no room for error. It was well thought out and the structure was very defined all though out Roman history, while the Chinese government changed every time a new ruler came to power. Rome also produced better leaders like Caesar and Augustus. China’s government lacked the essential parts needed to make a great government and leaders; neither was as great as the Rome’s. The structure of the Roman government was far better than China’s government because the Chinese lacked many things the Roman government had. The Roman government was made up of the Senate, Emperor, the Consul and Proconsul, the assemblies, priests, and other Roman officials. The Senate was originally a board of elders who advised the king. Later it became comprised of ex-office holders and its decrees developed the force of law. Often it was understood that a measure had to be approved by the Senate before it could be voted on in the Assembly. The Emperor was like a president. A dictator was put in control over the state only for extreme emergences. The dictator could only hold office for up to six months and while in charge he had absolute power. This allowed the ruler deal with what ever emergences were at hand without having to wast time and go threw the government to get stuff done. The Consul, chief executive officer, could only (theoretically) hold office for one year, and couldn’t be consul for another 10 years. Eventually proconsuls were created, men who were given some of the powers of a consul, especially for commands far from Rome, such as being governors of provinces. The assemblies were the gathering of people to vote on laws and such. The priests also played an important role in the Roman government. There was a Pontifex maximus, and 9 other pontiffs which were like the high priest and other priests. The other Roman officials included Tribunes had the power to veto, Censor had the power to remove unworthy people from senate, Questors financial people, and Aediles supervised public works. There were many more jobs and positions 2006-07-24T19:14:48-04:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/Comparing-the-Ancient-Empires-of-Rome-and-China-30601.aspx Similarities and Differences between Ancient Greece and Rome Similarities and Differences between Ancient Greece and Rome Both the Roman and the Athenian civilization enjoyed recreation and cherished 2006-06-16T18:54:53-04:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/Similarities-and-Differences-between-Ancient-Greece-and-Rome-29649.aspx An Overview of the Ancient Mayan Empire An Overview of the Ancient Mayan Empire The Mayan Empire was one of the most innovative and interesting civilizations. It was an ancient civilization that was one of the most advanced and innovative ones. They inhabited the Yucatan peninsula and the empire lasted for about 3500 years ending around the year 1500 AD. It is considered the greatest civilization among the original cultures of the western hemisphere. The empire was located in what is now known as Central America. They lived in the area that is now Belize, Honduras, Mexico, and Guatemala. The whole are lies south of the tropic of cancer, and north of the equator. It contained over 120,000 sq miles, which is the about the size of Great Britain, or a little bit smaller than California. It is believed that the Mayan empire contained over one million people. It is mainly hot, and a large rainforest has developed there. The main basis of the economy was agriculture with most people being farmers. The primary crop was maize. Other crops raised were cotton, beans, squash, and cacao. The cotton was used to make clothing since the Mayans had superior skills in spinning, weaving, and dyeing. They made major farming innovations such as irrigation systems. The climate is very hot from May to August and rainy through the rest of the year, so the farmers have a lot of free time to serve the king. This serving time helped make the amazing developments from the Maya. By far, the major innovations and skills were in astronomy. Mayan priests would consistently take measurements using tools such as a forked stick. Using their amazing astronomical knowledge, they were able to predict future eclipses. They were also able to chart the complex motions of the sun and other astronomical bodies. Using this knowledge, they designed a calendar that was the most complex and accurate of all ancient calendars. In fact, it was only 19 minutes per year off from the actual calendar. It even contained month and week divisions. One of these months was only five days long, called the Wayeb, and was considered unlucky. In mathematics, the Mayans were quite intelligent. They developed a number system using a combination of dots and bars. These dots and bars were stacked together in piles of twenty, with the dot meaning one and the bar meaning five. They also made the original discovery of the number zero. This is 2006-06-12T20:33:37-04:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/An-Overview-of-the-Ancient-Mayan-Empire-29366.aspx A History of Writing in Human Civilization A history of writing in human civilization What is this civilized thing called writing? Modern linguists define writing as a system of human communication by means of conventional, agreed-upon signals that represent language. The signs must be capable of being sent and received, mutually understood, and they must correspond to spoken words. Each written means began with simple pictures and plain strokes or dots - adequate for recording objects and numbers. Of all the creation of man, writing is our most exquisite intellectual accomplishment. Contrary to a popular belief ,writing was invented not once but possibly as many as six separate times, in very distant places. Man approached writing by lengthy stages: the development of speech; the invention of pictures; the need to reinforce memory by storing information; the realization that pictures could be used for purpose; and finally, the difficult trial and error process of adapting pictures so that they represented the sounds of speech. The Origin of writing is seen through the development of civilizations over certain periods of historical times and places. Though writing developed not much more than 5000 years ago-----only yesterday in the long calendar of man’s emergence------its roots, like those of so many other inventions, lie further back in the past. (Clairborne, p.11) Writing was invented in order to record business activities. Certain people needed to be able to keep track and records of various things. It was impossible to rely on a man’s memory for every detail, a new method was needed to keep reliable records. As cities grew more complex, so did writing. Over 500 years of evolution the outward appearance and internal structure of writing changed. The social conditions that gave rise to writing are described as a phenomenon called the urban revolution. (Clairborne, p 20). Like speech, of which it is an extension, writing requires the capacity to make mental leaps. All languages include a few imitative words that literally sound like the ideas they represent—such as cough, buzz. But the number of things or actions that can be identified by sound is very limited, so that the vocabularies of all languages, are overwhelmingly composed of arbitrary sounds whose relationships to their meanings are purely a matter of convention. When did human speech embodying such arbitrary abstractions begin to develop? 100,000 years ago our ancestors and even homo erectus a million years ago, were capable of speech. 40,000 years 2006-06-06T15:06:24-04:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/A-History-of-Writing-in-Human-Civilization-29077.aspx Persepolis Ancient Persia Persepolis was rediscovered in A.D 1620, after being hidden by its own ruins since 330 B.C. Many people came to visit Persepolis in the next centuries, but the excavation of the ruins did not begin until 1931, when the Oriental Institute of the University of Chicago sponsored the excavation of the ancient site. The first excavation was conducted by Ernst Herzfeld and Friedrich Krefter which led to the onsite reconstruction of the 'Harem'. In 1932 and 1937 the oriental Institute excavated two low mounds south-east of Persepolis, The first mound contained four levels of prehistoric houses dated from about 4000 B.C. On the first floor some of the walls where preserved well and on them where huge yellow and red geometric wall paintings, on the floor there where knives, cooking pots that still contained the bones of meat that was being cooked, along with beautiful and sophisticated hand painted pottery. Because the main level of the house was preserved so well, it suggests that the settlement had been abandoned. The Second mound was comprised of earlier remains from about 4600 B.C, nothing of significance was found. Shortly afterwards In 1934 Erich F. Schmidt took charge, he continued very large scale excavations until 1939 when his excavations where stopped suddenly at the outbreak of World War two in Europe. Over this eight year period, excavation worked not only in the centre of Persepolis, but also on a number of other site that where within a radius of 10km The Persian Expedition worked in the royal centre of Persepolis and also at a number of sites that fell within a radius of 10 km. During the last years of excavating, the University Museum in Philadelphia, and the Museum of Fine Arts in Boston had joined the Oriental Institute in order to cope with the huge excavation. The Iranian Archaeological Service continued the excavation and restoration of Persepolis after the war. The Construction of Persepolis started under the ruling of Darius the great between 520 and 330 B.C. Darius constructed the monumental stairway, The Triple Portal, his private palace, as well as beginning the Apadana and the treasure when he died in 486 B.C. His work continued under the control of his son Xerxes I until 465 B.C. He finished his fathers work on the Apadana and also constructing the structure which is known as haren, as well as beginning the work on the Throne 2006-03-19T10:42:52-04:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/Persepolis-Ancient-Persia-28593.aspx Aztec Empire The Aztec Indians, who are known for their domination of southern and central Mexico, ruled between the 14th and 16th centuries. Their comes from from Azatlan, the homeland of the north. The Aztecs also call themselves Mexica and there language came from the Nahuatlans wich is branch of the Uto-Aztecan family. The Aztecs were formed after the Toltec people occurred when hundreds of civilians came towards Lake texcoco. Late families were unfortunate and were forced to go to the swamp lands. In the swamp lands there was only one piece of land to farm on and it was totally surrounded by more marshes . The Aztec families some how converted these disadvantages to a might empire known as they Aztec Empire. People say the empire was partially formed by a deeply believed legend. As the the legend went it said that Aztec people would create a empire on in a swampy place where they would see an eagle eating a snake while perched on a cactus which is growing out of a rock in the swamplands. This is what priests claimed they saw while entering the new land. By the year 1325 Their capital city was finished. They called it Tenochtitlan. In the the capital city aqueducts (piping) were constructed, bridges were built, and chinapas were made. Chinapas were little islands formed by pilled up mud. On these chinapas Aztecs grew corn, beans, chili peppers, squash, tomatoes, and tobacco. Tenochtitlan (the capital city) was covered in giant religious statues in order to pay their respects to the gods. In the Aztec religion numerous gods controlled an Aztec’s daily life. Some of these gods include: Uitzilpochtli (the sun god), Coyolxauhqui (the moon goddess), Tlaloc (the rain god), and Quetzalcoatl (the inventor of the calendar and writing). Another part of the Aztec religion was human sacrifices. For their sacrifices the priest would lay the man or woman over a convex (rounded) stone, then he would take a sharp knife and cut the victims heart out. They did this because they believed that good gods could prevent bad gods from doing evil things and they also believed that good gods got their strength from human blood and hearts so they had sacrifices in order to keep their gods strong. For major rituals warriors were sacrificed, for the warrior this was one of the greatest honors and for minor rituals prisoners were used. In 2005-06-19T16:40:10-04:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/Aztec-Empire--26982.aspx The Hammurabi Code Hammurabi’s Laws One could guess that the laws enacted by Amorite King Hammurabi to Babylonians during the 1700’s B.C. what the Holy Scriptures are to Christians today. Hammurabi was chosen by King Anum and Illil lord of heaven and earth to “destroy the evil and the wicked that the strong might not oppress the weak... to give light to the land.” Since Hammurabi was chosen to represent their god Marduk, to establish laws in the best interest of the people, it is understandable why one would think of Moses the “law giver” from the Holy Bible in contrast. While it was originally thought that Hammurabi created the laws that became known as the “Code of Hammurabi,” no such claim to power or fame is given to Moses in the Bible. Hammurabis’ laws were found to have their origin from a body of long-standing Sumerian laws that he used to summarize the code of laws he enacted. The Code of Hammurabi was an “attempt to incorporate every phase of life into law, covering topics like: commerce, trade, parental and domestic relations, slavery, libel, slander, theft, marriage, adultery, divorce, property rights and ownership, and employer-employee regulations”. Hammurabi like his predecessors attempted to appease the deities, while protecting the people through alliances and war. He managed to have a peaceful reign until the last decade of his life when he fought with his enemies and expanded his empire. He combined the newly acquired territory with his inherited lands to form a United Kingdom and his codes were enforced there also. Although Hammurabis’ reign was conquered and declined after his death, his set of laws promulgated to unify his diverse subjects and became an enduring legacy. The code of Hammurabi was inscribed on a seven-foot stele (pillar) and glorified in the temple of Marduk. This stele survived over centuries and was rediscovered in 1901 in Iran and is on display today in the Louvre. Could it be that the code inscribed on a stele that led scholars to think the Mosaic laws were influenced by Hammurabi; or was it because the Mosaic Law (commandments) also addressed property laws, justice and other life issues to the people. The laws handed down to the people by Moses were given directly from God by divine inspiration according to the Holy Bible. While Moses wrote the Ten 2005-06-03T05:52:16-04:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/The-Hammurabi-Code--26817.aspx The Process of Building Stonehenge Research Paper The Process of Building Stonehenge There are probably hundreds of myths and legends about Stonehenge. Various people have attributed the building of this great megalith to the Danes, Romans, Saxons, Greeks, Atlanteans, Egyptians, Phoenicians Celts, King Aurelius Ambrosious, Merlin, and even Aliens. One of the most popular beliefs was that Stonehenge was built by the Druids. These high priests of the Celts, constructed it for sacrificial ceremonies. It was John Aubrey, who first linked Stonehenge to the Druids. Additionally, Dr. William Stukeley, another Stonehenge antiquary, also claimed the Druids were Stonehenge's builders. Stukeley studied Stonehenge a century later than Aubrey and became so involved in the study of the Druid religion that he himself became one. Through his work he was very instrumental in popularizing the theory that Stonehenge was built by Druids. Unfortunately researchers have proven this age-old theory linking Stonehenge's construction to the Druids impossible. Through modern radio carbon dating techniques, scientists have discovered that its builders completed Stonehenge over a thousand years before the Celts ever inhabited this region, eliminating Druids from the possibilities. Usually Druids worshipped in marshes and forests, but it has been verified that they did use Stonehenge occasionally as a temple of worship and sacrifice when they moved into the region. Modern Druids, formally named the Grand Lodge of the Ancient Order of Druids, still congregate at Stonehenge on the midsummer solstice, clad in white robes and hoods. As recently as 1905, the Druids initiated 258 novices inside these stones on midsummer solstice. Today, for fear of its desecration, Stonehenge is usually shut off to public access on midsummer's eve. Most scientists agree on the modern theory that three tribes built Stonehenge at three separate times. In approximately 3000 B.C., it is believe the first people to work on the site were Neolithic agrarians. Archaeologists named them the Windmill Hill people after one of their earthworks on Windmill Hill, which is near Stonehenge. The Windmill Hill peoples built large circular furrows, or hill-top enclosures, dug around a mound and had collective burials in large stone-encased tombs. Most of their burial mounds point east-west. These people were a blend of the local peoples and Neolithic tribe members from Eastern England. They were one of the first semi-nomadic hunting and gathering groups with an agricultural economy and contained a strong reverence for circles and symmetry. They raised cattle, sheep, goats, pigs, grew wheat and mined flint. The Beaker people, or 2005-05-27T07:45:34-04:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/The-Process-of-Building-Stonehenge-Research-Paper-26787.aspx Mesopotamia, Egypt and the Hebrews MESOPOTAMIA, EGYPT AND THE HEBREWS RESEARCH PAPER MESOPOTAMIA Mesopotamia was the land of four primary civilizations: the Sumerian, the Akkadians, the Babylonian and the Assyrians. The Hebrews, like the Akkadians, belong to a group of people known as Semites and from there we can see the influence of Mesopotamian culture in some of the Hebrews traditions. During the same time, civilization began in Egypt, and there can be seen a distinct difference in the social, religious and political system from Mesopotamia; that the link between the two civilizations are the Hebrews, and although no historical records are available aside from the Holy Scriptures, it is believed that the Hebrews settled in Egypt during the era of Hyksos domination in the seventeenth century B.C.E. These three civilizations to be discussed were the foundation of today's society and provided the common era with concrete religious beliefs still practiced today. Evidence of the mechanics on the evolution of social, religious and political values, as well as the fluctuating development of the role of women then and now, are present in these documents, beginning with the oldest document which is most likely the Epic of Gilgamesh, first passed on by word of mouth and later recorded by the Sumerians around the third millennium and finally edited and written down in cuneiform by the Babylonians. This legend appears to have been used by all the civilizations in Mesopotamia in order to satisfy the need to know why we die and to justify the instincts that drove the people of these societies to war, to kill and to control as a must for survival. The gods were the only outlet available to justify such behavior to grant permission to rule, to kill and subdue the weak. The Epic of Gilgamesh does just that: It serves as a model for the warrior, the king and the tragic hero and the standards for divine right, friendship, brotherhood and loyalty. Finally, it becomes evident from the beginning of a higher consciousness that justifies love, brotherhood and loyalty in the midst of this need for war and gods. The Epic is divided into seven main parts: the "Coming of Enkidu", the "Forest Journey", "Ishtar", the "Search for Everlasting Life", the "Story of the Flood", the "Return", and the "Death of Gilgamesh". The Creation of life was, and is, a mystery and therefore must be justified as it shows in the "Coming of Enkidu", 2005-05-15T07:59:57-04:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/Mesopotamia,-Egypt-and-the-Hebrews-26613.aspx Imperial Era of the Qin and Han Dynasty Much of what came to constitute China Proper was unified for the first time in 221 B.C. In that year the western frontier state of Qin, the most aggressive of the Warring States, subjugated the last of its rival states. (Qin in Wade-Giles romanization is Ch’in, from which the English China probably derived.) Once the king of Qin consolidated his power, he took the title Shi Huangdi (First Emperor), a formulation previously reserved for deities and the mythological sage-emperors, and imposed Qin’s centralized, nonhereditary bureaucratic system on his new empire. In subjugating the six other major states of Eastern Zhou, the Qin kings had relied heavily on Legalist scholar-advisers. Centralization, achieved by ruthless methods, was focused on standardizing legal codes and bureaucratic procedures, the forms of writing and coinage, and the pattern of thought and scholarship. To silence criticism of imperial rule, the kings banished or put to death many dissenting Confucian scholars and confiscated and burned their books . Qin aggrandizement was aided by frequent military expeditions pushing forward the frontiers in the north and south. To fend off barbarian intrusion, the fortification walls built by the various warring states were connected to make a 5,000-kilometer-long great wall . What is commonly referred to, as the Great Wall is actually four great walls rebuilt or extended during the Western Han, Sui, Jin, and Ming periods, rather than a single, continuous wall. At its extremities, the Great Wall reaches from northeastern Heilongjiang Province to northwestern Gansu . A number of public works projects were also undertaken to consolidate and strengthen imperial rule. These activities required enormous levies of manpower and resources, not to mention repressive measures. Revolts broke out as soon as the first Qin emperor died in 210 B.C. His dynasty was extinguished less than twenty years after its triumph. The imperial system initiated during the Qin dynasty, however, set a pattern that was developed over the next two millennia. After a short civil war, a new dynasty, called Han (206 B.C.-A.D. 220), emerged with its capital at Chang’an . The new empire retained much of the Qin administrative structure but retreated a bit from centralized rule by establishing vassal principalities in some areas for the sake of political convenience. The Han rulers modified some of the harsher aspects of the previous dynasty; Confucian ideals of government, out of favor during the Qin period, were adopted as 2004-10-30T04:38:51-04:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/Imperial-Era-of-the-Qin-and-Han-Dynasty-25635.aspx