https://www.echeat.com/ 2024-11-13T22:51:51.19-05:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/CMI-45596.aspx Student’s Name Instructor’s Name Module Date of Submission Types of Thinking Test The results from the test are as shown below: Fig#1 Here is how much you scored for every type: Doer: 50% Analyst: 100% Orator: 25% Inventor: 50% Original Thinker: 75% Fig 1: Types of thinking test score, source: psychologia.com The Doer or Concrete Thinking From the results, it is clear that I scored average on concrete thinking. The results imply that I am average on personality related to a doer. For instance, in most cases, I tend to think in practical and in actionable terms to support my dominant side like analytical. Furthermore, given the average score, I take on some of the characters outlined in concrete thinking sports but am not that much into other activities aimed at producing something tangible like an artist. Therefore, while doers contribute to the world by bringing thoughts and ideas together and turning them into reality, I believe scoring average on this type of thinking implies that I take on one side of this orientation. For instance, I believe I am 50% a doer and concrete thinker who comes up with thoughts and ideas, but I need the support of an individual much oriented on this side to turn my ideas into reality. Analytical and abstract thinking Analytical and abstract thinking is one part of this test that I was certain I was going to score highest. The same has been reflected in the score as I got 100% as I expected. Since childhood, I have been interested in understanding many complex and abstract concepts, and I have grown to be an analytical thinker as can be reflected in my score. For instance, I have been interested in understanding the key concepts in the science and mathematics field than other areas like poetry. I have also wanted to be the best analyst so that I can help in solving concepts that bring problems in the business world. I believe this type of thinking is what made me progress in mathematics and sciences while finding trouble in other fields like literature. As an abstract thinker, I like coming up with ideas and solutions that would prove difficult to other people. Additionally, I believe that I am always driven by curiosity in getting to the bottom of something and solving it. Also, I would not say I like assuming things related to a given problem as I have to question everything and its contribution 2020-10-09T11:38:50.6-04:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/Thinking-45495.aspx Watch Jean Kilbourne: The Dangerous Ways Ads See Women. (Jean Kilbourne, 2014), which examines the portrayal of women in advertising and the resulting effects on feminine identity, and Tough Guise: Violence, Media & the Crisis in Masculinity. (ChallengingMedia, 2006), which examines the portrayal of men in the media and the resulting effects on masculine identity. Locate a scholarly article examining a relevant phenomenon in relation to media and gender (e.g., when considering women in advertising, self-esteem, objectification, body shame, or perceptions of attractiveness might be particularly relevant; when considering men in the media, aggression might be particularly relevant; for both, attitudes and gender roles are relevant themes). See the recommended articles for this week for some options. -Focus on women or men for your discussion, depending on the relevant phenomenon you considered in your research above. (You will address the opposite in your replies.). Sexual violence and intimate partner violence are ways through which women bodies have been harmed through sexual objectification (Davidson, & Gervais, 2015). Bissell and Rask (2010) investigated the effect of media on women’s beliefs regarding beauty. The researchers identified media portrayal of thinness as being influential in the desire to be thin for most women. The findings corroborate those of American Psychological Association (2007), which suggested that women and girls have been objectified sexually. In contrast, Morrison and Halton (2009) pointed out that media portrays masculinity with higher levels of aggression and more positive outcomes. -Examine the implications of media portrayals of women or men, given the videos you watched and the article you read. In your discussion, include the following: Violent media have a negative effect on children’s aggressiveness (Bushman, Gollwitzer, & Cruz, 2015). Therefore, media portrayal of gender, sexuality, and masculinity has great implications for the wellbeing of human beings. -Explain how stereotypes, prejudice, and/or discrimination are impacted by media portrayals of women or men. ChallengingMedia (2006) identifies some of the stereotypes among women and men based on masculinity and femininity. Some of these stereotypes lead to prejudice and body shaming, which are negative aspects of sociology. The media are at the forefront of driving these stereotypes through inappropriate advertising and manipulated messages regarding body odor, weight, hair beauty, and others (Kilbourne, 2014). Therefore, media portrayals of men and women contribute to stereotypes and prejudices arising from masculinity, sexuality, and body beauty. Interpret the implications: -How might the portrayal of gender impact behavior and/or mental processes? For example, 2019-03-10T03:20:39.46-04:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/Media-and-gender-45482.aspx Complete the International Personality Item Pool Representation of the NEO PI-RTM. (either the short or long version). -Explain the five domains of personality. The concepts are conscientiousness, agreeableness, neuroticism, openness, and extraversion. Conscientiousness entails a high level of organization, self-discipline, and responsibility. Agreeableness is the ability of being kind and friendly (LeFrancois, 2016). Neuroticism is the tendency to have fluctuating emotions such as anxiety and negative moods. Openness entails high level of inventiveness and curiosity. Finally, extraversion is the tendency to be outgoing, sociable, and lively. -Interpret your score, noting aspects of the assessment that are interesting to you. I completed the International Personality Item Pool Representation of the NEO PI-RTM. The results showed that my level of extraversion is high. It is true that subtle features such as extraversion and taste may not be innocuous (BBC, 2014). Hence, the results indicate that I am lively, outgoing, energetic, and sociable. -Illustrate each dimension of your personality with personal examples. Extraversion: I am very friendly and sociable. Agreeableness: I am very trustworthy and altruistic. Conscientiousness: I am very orderly and self-disciplined. Neuroticism: I am very calm and I rarely become angry. Openness: I accept authority and convention and I hardly try to challenge them. Watch Correlation: Against All Odds: Inside Statistics and read “The interplay between culture and personality”. -Differentiate between malleable versus rigid elements of personality. Malleable elements of personality can be changed through dedication and effort. On the other hand, rigid elements of personality remain the same regardless of effort or dedication. Annenberg Learner (2013) discusses the concept of personality traits as brought about by culture and genes. Based on the video, a significant number of personality traits in twins is rigid while a small number of the traits is malleable. Relate elements of your own personality that may be particularly impacted by social and cultural contexts that you have experienced. Culture is an important tool in the study of personality traits. Culture is an independent variable that acts and shapes an individual’s behavior (Kwan, & Herrmann, 2015). Some elements of my personality have been influenced by social and cultural contexts. These elements include altruism, trustworthiness, and friendliness. Resources: 5 Annenberg Learner. (Producer). (2013). Correlation: Against all odds: Inside statisticse. [Video file]. Retrieved from https://fod.infobase.com/OnDemandEmbed.aspx?token=111531&wID=100753&plt=FOD&loid=0&w=640&h=360&fWidth=660&fHeight=410 BBC. (September 17, 2014). Science: Human body & mind. Retrieved from http://www.bbc.co.uk/science/humanbody/mind/ International Personality Item Pool Representation of the NEO PI-RTM. Retrieved from http://www.personal.psu.edu/~j5j/IPIP/ Kwan, V. S. Y., & Hermann, S. D. (2015). The 2019-03-10T01:18:43.813-05:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/Complete-the-International-Personality-Item-Pool-Representation-of-the-NEO-PI-RTM_-45481.aspx 2019-01-26T06:28:38.28-05:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/Depression-Power-Point-Presentation-45468.aspx Understanding the Nature and Form of Hate Crimes in the United States after Trump Election Name Institution Abstract The proposed study purposes to investigate the nature and dynamics of hate crimes in the United States. This study will be conducted at the backdrop of the United States commitment towards diversity inclusion, which is a critical factor of social sustainable development. Understanding the dynamics and factors responsible for hate can inform the practice on how to realize the goal. The literature on the subject is documented, but it is fragmented and fails to adequately answer the question. Previous studies also exist, but can be generally seen to address aspects of the subject that cannot be directly generalized to the context of the United States. The hypothesis hypotheses are formulated and interested in inquiring whether there a significant relationship between hate crimes (dependent variable) and social media use frequency, the rates of exposure to the presidential campaign content and region demographics. The expected results will be qualitative. Keywords: hate crimes, presidential campaign politics, social media use frequency, regional demographics, the United States Introduction to Introduction Diversity inclusion is one of the social goals that the United States is committed to achieving. It is vital for two main reasons. Firstly, it is a social justice approach that strives to accommodate people, shunning discrimination and marginalization (Mellgren, Andersson & Ivert, 2017). Secondly, diversity is regarded as a source of creativity and innovativeness since it brings forth a diverse mindset that offers solutions to different challenges in life. Unfortunately, diversity in the United States has been presented to be more of a problem than a blessing — it is one of the dimensions in which hate groups exist (Herek, 2017. In this case, a hate group is defined as a group of people that instigates hostility, hatred, and violence towards other members (Pew Research Center, 2016). Hate groups thrive along different cultural dimensions such as ethnicity, race, religion, gender, sexual orientation, and nationality, among others (Carr, 2017). In this regard, the topic of hate crimes becomes important to study because it is one of the ways to achieve diversity inclusion. Interestingly, the issue of the nature and form of hate crimes in the United States is not clearly understood, while literature leaves various gaps. To a large extent, it is marred by debates. On the one hand, for instance, the discussion is characterized by the assertions that the United States is a 2018-12-02T03:24:30.867-05:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/Understanding-the-Nature-and-Form-of-Hate-Crimes-in-the-United-States-after-Trump-Election-45461.aspx Abstract The loss of vision has significant impacts on the lives of the individuals, families, acquaintances, and the society at large. This paper focuses on a population segment consisting of adults who have been confirmed legally blind for less than one year with the condition and enrolled at the Bureau of Services for Blind Persons (BSBP). It aims to reduce the symptoms of depression, anxiety, and social isolation for adults recently diagnosed with legal blindness in the past one year. Adults who lost their eyesight less than a year ago are highly likely to be depressed due to the effects of visual impairment on their careers, social support systems, and mobility. With the increasing number of the visual impaired population in the U.S., there is a need for a theoretical and institutional response to reduce the negative effects caused by depression. More focus is needed for young adults who are in a transitional stage where the majority are concentrating on join post-high school institution, getting the first dream job, and starting serious relationship as well as the elderly who have lost the social ties duet to age and visual impairment. Coping Mechanisms for the Visually Impaired The loss of vision has significant impacts on the lives of the individuals, families, acquaintances, and the society at large. According to Welp, Woodbury, McCoy, Teutsch & National Academies (2016), adults who completely lose their eyesight get frightened and overwhelmed. They are left to wonder about their ability to remain independent, cater for the needed medical costs, keep their places at work, and fend for themselves as well as their families. The health consequences coming with the untimely loss of eyesight is beyond eye and visual system. It affects the quality of life, leading to other effects such as injuries due to falls, mental problems, and general deterioration in social and economic aspects. In the United States, there are organizations which help the blind to cope. This paper focuses on a population segment consisting of adults who have been confirmed legally blind for less than one year with the condition and enrolled at the Bureau of Services for Blind Persons (BSBP). The group recognizes that adults undergo depression, anxiety, and social isolation. Therefore, this group takes the initiative to design mechanisms to assist the newly blind adults to cope in the society. Statement of Purpose According to the latest statistics by the World Health Organization 2018-11-04T03:20:15.333-05:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/Coping-Mechanisms-for-the-Blind-45455.aspx 2018-10-10T19:48:33.087-04:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/De-Colores-y-Regalos-45452.aspx Mr. Fife Name Institution Mr. Fife Anxiety disorders affect people’s quality of life and the ability to engage in activities of daily living. This paper provides the analysis of the case study of Mr. Fife, who is suffering from a psychological disorder. The paper will focus on diagnosis, identification of symptoms, other possible diagnosis, help, and prognosis. Diagnosis and Symptoms From the case study, it is evident that Fife suffered from social anxiety disorder. This diagnosis is based on several symptoms. The first symptom is nervousness, where Fife held that he was going through motions and wanted to lead a normal life. People with social anxiety disorder are nervous and aloof. In addition, Fife had no close friends, which is an indication of the fact that he was detached. People with this kind of disorder often have few friends (Long, 2017). Moreover, Fife was super-conscious, especially when speaking to strangers, which is among the key indicators of the social anxiety disorder. Additionally, Fife suffered from panic attacks. This kind of attack is triggered by one’s fear of receiving negative evaluation (Long, 2017). This is confirmed by the fact that the attack affected Fife when he was with people. Fife also felt increasingly uncomfortable in the social situations and feared that he would do something stupid. This is a common symptom among the people suffering from this kind of disorder and it occurs in the form of a phobia due to their fear of being humiliated or rejected in the social situations. This phobia makes the affected people avoid social settings. For example, Fife avoided public rooms, group settings, and did not date. The symptoms seen in Fife relate to the American Psychiatric Association Criteria (APA). People are diagnosed with social anxiety disorder when they meet all the criteria listed by the APA (Long, 2017). Examples of these criteria include the marked fear of at least one social situation, negative evaluation, and anxiety that is provoked by social situations. The fear that these people have regarding the social situation is endured with intense anxiety, while the anxiety is out of proportion compared to the threat that is caused by the social situation. The anxiety or fear must last for over six months (Long, 2017). In the case of Fife, he dropped out of school two years ago, which is more than the required six months. In addition, the fear affects the occupational life of the 2018-06-23T02:37:48.513-04:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/Mr_-Fife-45444.aspx A Look at the Acceptability of Goal Priming in a Healthcare Setting Chapter 1 Introduction 1.1 Background Motivation in the work place is an ongoing and heavily researched area of organisational behaviour (Latham and Pinder, 2005) and arguably, motivation in the work place is crucial to organisational success and employee wellbeing (Kanfer, 2017). Motivation can be defined as the ‘internal factors that impel action and [the] external factors that can act as inducements to action’ (Locke and Latham, 2004, p.388). It is believed there are three core aspects that affect motivation which are; direction, intensity and duration (Locke and Latham, 2004). Direction looks at the way in which efforts are focused, intensity focuses on ‘how hard a person tries’ and duration looks at persistence, and for how long a person can continue to maintain their efforts. It is believed that a motivated individual will persist until their objective is complete (Robbins and Judge, 2003, p.202). Motivation theories are often divided into two main groups; content and process theories. Content theories aim to explain the specific needs which motivate an individual and give them satisfaction in their work. They place emphasis on the nature of an individual’s needs and what motivates those needs (Dinibutun, 2012). The main content theorists and theories are Maslow’s hierarchy of needs (1943), Aldefer’s ERG theory (1969), Herzberg’s’ two-factor theory (1959) and McClelland’s’ achievement motivation theory (1988). Process theories look at how an individual’s specific needs or set of values impact their job satisfaction (Locke, 1976). They focus on ‘how behaviour is energised, directed, sustained and stopped’ (Gibson et al, 2012, p.129). Common process theories are Vrooms (1964) expectancy theory, Adams (1963) equity theory and Locke’s (1968) Goal setting theory. Goal setting theory lies within the cognitive psychology field (Meichenbaum, 1977) and the theory is supported by a large abundance of evidence, with 90% of studies showing a positive or partially positive result (Locke et al, 1981). The theory assumes that conscious goals are an immediate regulator for human action (Locke et al, 1981). Building on this theory and integrating it with the automaticity model (Bargh, 1990), Latham et al (2017) identified a relationship between priming, goal difficulty and task performance. However, whilst subconscious motivation may show promise, there is growing pressure on organisations to be ‘transparent’ in their actions to reduce corruption, tax avoidance and allow the pubic to see what goes on ‘behind closed doors’ (Roberts, 2009, p.1). Therefore, it is 2017-09-20T12:56:38.98-04:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/A-Look-at-the-Acceptability-of-Goal-Priming-in-a-Healthcare-Setting-45375.aspx Communication Barriers Communication plays a vital part in ensuring the success of any organization. It is the tool that enables workers to reduce inefficiencies and wastage by making sure that they all aim at achieve the goals of the entity. In a society where information has become a necessity, there are several barriers that limit the effectiveness of interpersonal communication and thus interfering with the overall performance of the organization. The situation has been made worse by the fact that the world has become increasingly interconnected, and this has led to people who come from very different backgrounds working together. The paper evaluates the issue of communication barriers and its impact on a worker's output. It seeks to show that the challenge can be eradicated by creating an environment that enables employees to learn the importance of communication and the ways the barriers can be avoided for the betterment of the firm. Report of incidence Recently, I was working in a welfare organization which tries to ensure that poor members of the society are protected from exploitation by their wealthy counterparts. Here, my job was to ensure that all those who were in need of the firm's services were given an opportunity to make their case. In the same workplace, there was an accountant who was of Southeast Asia origin. Given the nature of our responsibilities in the entity, we hardly had an opportunity to interact apart from the occasional mingling during office meetings. However, this soon changed after we engaged each other in a heated argument that almost turned violence in the accounts office. On this particular day, I received an email from his office requiring me to report to him immediately. The memo stated that I had failed to account for some funds allocated to me and that failure to report would result in unwanted consequences. After reading his mail, I was overcome with anxiety and range at the same time. I stormed into his office demanding an explanation for calling me a thief. Though he looked surprised by my claims, this did not stop me from insisting that I get an explanation. After I had been done reprimanding him, he asked what I was taking about. I referred him to the email he had sent to me. After exchanging some word, he stood up and told me to leave his office. Before exciting, I looked straight into his eyes and 2017-03-01T02:43:05.413-05:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/Communication-Barriers-45291.aspx CARTOMANCIA Bases operativas: filosóficas, psicológicas y metafísicas Ismael Berroeta - Santiago de Chile - - abril de 2007 - - mayo 2011 - Agradecimientos El autor dirige sus agradecimientos a Jaime Hales D., abogado, tarotista, escritor y poeta, director de la Academia Syncronia, de Santiago de Chile. Perfil Ismael Berroeta es el seudónimo registrado de Antonio Muñoz Pereira. Titulado de Ingeniero Agrónomo en 1979 en la Univ. De Chile. Diplomado en 1988 en Pedologie Tropicale en la Univ. Catholique de Louvain (Louvain La Neuve). Diplomado en 2004 en Estudios Holísticos en la Academia Syncronia, Santiago de Chile. Practicante de la consulta de tarot, profesor de cartomancia, colaborador de la revista SOMOS (Santiago de Chile). Autor de “SOMOS SUFRIDOS. Por qué consultamos el tarot. Estudio empírico” (2016). CONTENIDO 1. MODERNIDAD Y DESACRALIZACIÓN DEL MUNDO 1.1 Operación y especulación 1.2 Deificación de la ciencia moderna 1.3 Era moderna y gnosis numeral 1.4 Cartomancia contemporánea y gnosis numeral 2. NUMEROLOGÍA PITAGÓRICA 2.1 Importancia del pitagorismo. 2.2 Filosofía del pitagorismo. 2.3 Doctrina pitagórica de los números. 2.4 Significado pitagórico de los números El Uno, la Ley de la Unidad, su símbolo es el 1. El Dos, la díada, el binario, La Ley de la Oposición, su símbolo es el 2. El Tres, la tríada, el ternario, la Ley de la Relación, su símbolo es el 3. El Cuatro, el cuaternario, la Ley de la Reciprocidad, su símbolo es el 4. El Cinco, el quinario, el pentagrama, la Ley de la Forma, su símbolo es el 5. El Seis, el senario, el hexagrama, la Ley de la Armonía, su símbolo es el 6. El Siete, el septenario, La Ley de la Evolución Cósmica, su símbolo es el 7. El Ocho, el octonario, La Ley de la Evolución Superior, su símbolo es el 8. El Nueve, el novenario, la Ley de la Integración Universal, su símbolo es el 9. El Diez, la década, la Ley de la Unidad Trascendental, su símbolo es el 10. 3. NUMEROLOGÍA HERMÉTICA 3.1 La figura de Hermes 3.2 Fuentes herméticas. 3.3 Los conceptos esenciales del hermetismo. 3.4 Los números como símbolos herméticos 3.5 Haciendo operativo el hermetismo. 4. NUMEROLOGÍA ALQUÍMICA 4.1 En busca de la Alquimia. 4.2 Los conceptos esenciales de la Alquimia y su relación con el símbolo número. 4.3 Alquimia mística y numerología 4.4 ¿Será posible hacer operativa la alquimia? 5. EL TAROT Y LOS NÚMEROS 5.1 Cuestiones generales 5.2 Escarbando en las raíces. 5.3 Tarot y Alquimia 5.4 Las figuras simbólicas y los números en el Tarot. 5.5 El “juego” del Tarot 6. EL LENGUAJE OCULTO DE LOS ARCANOS MAYORES. El Uno en el Tarot: El Mago El Dos en el Tarot: La Sacerdotisa El Tres en el Tarot: La Emperatriz El Cuatro 2016-03-24T19:56:26.34-04:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/Cartomancia-Bases-operativas-filosóficas,-psiclógicas-y-metafísicas-35186.aspx 2016-03-18T12:38:16.763-04:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/Estudio-empírico-sobre-las-causas-para-consultar-a-la-cartomancia-35182.aspx Jantay Shawn Arnston English 101 02/20/2016 Depression Disorder Depression is a state of mind and mood that affects significantly causing a feeling that goes far beyond sadness or feeling upset. Some of its results are reflected in the change of behavior, physical health, thoughts, mood, and feelings. Loss of the ability to feel pleasure in activities that were formerly enjoyable and the engaging in social relationships drops. People with depression face the loss of energy and the ability to be productive at school and work. While depression can lead to severe problems in the life of an individual, there is still hope for the affected person. A combination of self-care approaches, medications, and therapeutic interventions can be used to treat depression even the worst of cases. Depression comes in three major disorders namely; major depressive disorder, dysthymic disorder, and bipolar disorder. Major depression occurs when there is a combination of symptoms that interfere with the individual's ability to sleep, work, study and eat. Major depression may only occur once although commonly several episodes may be experienced during the individual's lifetime. In cases of chronic major depression, treatment might be taken for the whole lifetime of the individual. Dysthymia is a less severe depression that involves long-lasting symptoms that are not very much disabling despite preventing the working usually of the affected. The other type of depression is the bipolar disorder which is characterized by cycling mood changes. It has also been stated that when in the high cycle, the affected person may be overactive, overtalkative and with lots of energy. This kind of depression has been said to have severe effects on the thinking capacity of an individual, judgment of an individual, and the social behavior in a way, which causes a lot of problems and embarrassments too. On this, it has for instance been found out that an individual found to be suffering from manic phase usually has a feeling of elation and grand schemes, which are often characterized by bad decision-making. Signs and symptoms of depression vary by age, individual temperament and the length of the symptoms. Some symptoms cannot be easily attached to depression. Depression can have some symptoms classified as either being: physical, mood, behavioral or psychological symptoms. Physical symptoms occur when an individual is observed to; lack energy, increase or decrease his sleep hours, have somatic complaints, feel emotionally numb, increase or decrease their appetite, and feel irritable. Mood symptoms occur when 2016-02-29T13:21:51.033-05:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/Depression-Disorder-35180.aspx Love is a variety of different feelings, states, and attitudes that ranges from interpersonal affection to pleasure . It can refer to an emotion of a strong attraction and personal attachment. It can also be a virtue representing human kindness, compassion, and affection—"the unselfish loyal and benevolent concern for the good of another". It may also describe compassionate and affectionate actions towards other humans, one's self or animals. Non-Western traditions have also distinguished variants or symbioses of these states. This diversity of uses and meanings combined with the complexity of the feelings involved makes love unusually difficult to consistently define, compared to other emotional states. Love in its various forms acts as a major facilitator of interpersonal relationships and, owing to its central psychological importance, is one of the most common themes in the creative arts. Love may be understood as a function to keep human beings together against menaces and to facilitate the continuation of the species. Definitions The word "love" can have a variety of related but distinct meanings in different contexts. Many other languages use multiple words to express some of the different concepts that in English are denoted as "love"; one example is the plurality of Greek words for "love" which includes agape and eros. Cultural differences in conceptualizing love thus doubly impede the establishment of a universal definition. Although the nature or essence of love is a subject of frequent debate, different aspects of the word can be clarified by determining what isn't love . Love as a general expression of positive sentiment is commonly contrasted with hate ; as a less sexual and more emotionally intimate form of romantic attachment, love is commonly contrasted with lust; and as an interpersonal relationship with romantic overtones, love is sometimes contrasted with friendship, although the word love is often applied to close friendships. Abstractly discussed love usually refers to an experience one person feels for another. Love often involves caring for or identifying with a person or thing, including oneself . In addition to cross-cultural differences in understanding love, ideas about love have also changed greatly over time. Some historians date modern conceptions of romantic love to courtly Europe during or after the Middle Ages, although the prior existence of romantic attachments is attested by ancient love poetry. The complex and abstract nature of love often reduces discourse of love to a thought-terminating cliché. Several common proverbs regard love, from Virgil's 2016-02-08T12:29:47.463-05:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/Love-35174.aspx Richunda Davis 1-17-2016 Psychology( Module 11) 1.Statistics are often used to describe and interpret the results of intelligence testing. They often contain the three measures of central tendency.(mean, median, mode) The mean, which is used to describe an entire set of observations with a single value representing the center of the data, is used as a standard reference point. For example, five people are waitning in line for the roller coaster. The waiting time(in minutes) of the five waiting are 3, 2, 4, 1, and 2. The mean waiting time is 3+2+4+1+2/5 = 12/5 = 2.4 minutes/ The mean is 2.4 minutes. The median is a little different. The median is used to desribe an entire set of observations with a single value representing the center of the data. The median is the middle number. It is determined by ranking the data and finding observation number [N+1] / 2. If there is an even number of observations, the median is the value midway between that of the observation numbers N / 2 AND [N / 2] +1. For example, the median in this set of observations is 13. For this ordered data the median is 13. That is, 50% of the values are less than or equal to 13, and 50% of the values are greater than or equal to 13. (Ordered data- 7 9 10 12 13 14 17 18 19.) The mode is the value that occurs most frequently in a set of observations. Mode may be used with mean and median to give an overall characterization of your data distribution. While the mean and the median require a calculation, the mode is found simply by counting the numder of times each value occurs in a data set. Usually it's easier to understand the distribution after the mode is identified. There are also cases when there is more than one mode. This simply indicates that you've actually sampled from a mixed population. The three central tendencys can be used to describe skewed distributions, which are always shown on graphs. A distribution is said to be skewed when the data points cluster more toward one side of the scale than the other, creating a curve that isn't symmetrical. In other words, the right and the left side of the distribution are shaped differently from each other. There are normallly two types of skewed distribution, positive and negative distribution. A distribution is postively 2016-01-17T21:10:18.763-05:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/Psychology-101-35162.aspx 2014-11-29T07:33:37.393-05:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/A-psychology-perspective-towards-a-case-study-35066.aspx ALTHEA MC KENZIE ROBINSON 225 Vandalia Ave. # 2014-11-25T19:49:16.553-05:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/Cognitivism-in-Psychology-35065.aspx THE PUBLIC'S PERCEPTION OF MENTALLY ILL OFFENDERS Name Institution Subject Date Attestation I appreciate the nature of plagiarism, and I am mindful of the University’s course of action on this. I, therefore, attest that this dissertation reports unique work by me throughout my University project. Signature (you must delete this, then sign and date this page) Date Acknowledgements I would like to pass my sincerest gratitude to my parents who shaped me to the person I am today. Moreover, I would like to acknowledge my supervisor and other academic staff that provided unconditional guidance and support. I would, furthermore, like to recognize my fellow students and colleagues who helped me in the facilitation of this project in various ways. In addition, I would also like to acknowledge the general public for allowing me to conduct my interviews. Last but not least, I would like to acknowledge my friends for providing their time, cooperation and tolerance before and after the study. Abstract The mentally ill offenders have arguably been viewed on an exclusionary spectrum continuum. The public has adopted punitive attitudes that have significantly hampered with restorative measures. The aim of this study is to examine the perception of the public regarding the mentally ill offenders. The sample investigated comprised of 3 most dominant ethnic groups. Out of 200 respondents there was an average of 30 participants for each main category of ethnicities. The ages were grouped according to the participant’s age range and then evaluated according to the participant’s perception on offenders who are mentally ill. The study focuses on the articles on the mentally ill, especially those that explore the public's perception of mentally ill offenders. This dissertation employed both primary and secondary approaches to retrieve relevant information. As a result, the literature review presents suitable information regarding the subject and structural frameworks. The overview provided outline a collection of salient published documents that examine the issues regarding the mentally ill offenders in the context of justice and the judicial systems. It stood noted as one of the principle findings that a significant percentage of the offenders who enter the criminal justice systems, more often than not, have mental disorders. It is worth noting that a similar situation is 2014-06-27T02:36:26.623-04:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/perception-of-mentally-ill-offenders-35041.aspx Multiple Intelligences Theory: The Best Approach to Understanding Intelligence Intelligence is a key aspect in education as emphasized by how academic aptitude is usually determined by students’ Intelligence Quotient (IQ), which are measured using psychometric tests. According to Gardner and Hatch (1989), these measures stress only on linguistic and logical-mathematical abilities, while ignoring others. It is therefore, important to understand how intelligence is defined, as unitary or multiple intelligences, so that schools can develop effective teaching approaches for each ability displayed by students. Although many research (Duncan et al., 2000; Penke et al., 2012) has supported Spearman’s two-factor theory of intelligence, it has some flaws. General intelligence is usually measured by psychometric tests to generate an IQ score. However, these tests access academic abilities (Gardner & Hatch, 1989) which cannot be equated with practical intelligence used to solve daily problems or emotional intelligence. General intelligence is also unable to explain intelligence in different cultural settings as what is considered intelligent in Western cultures may not be viewed the same way in other cultures (Nisbett & Masuda, 2003). The existence of savants (Snyder et al, 2003) with low intelligence but an extreme giftedness is unexplainable by a unitary intelligence. On the contrary, Gardner’s theory of multiple intelligences is able to explain this phenomenon. The presence of an exceptional talent suggests a specific form of intelligence. Lastly, advances in technology such as the emergence of positron emission tomography (PET) and functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) has enabled neuroscientists to discover specific parts of the brain that control functions related to different intelligences (Rodd, Davis, & Johnsrude, 2005; Samson & Zatorre, 1994). Therefore, this essay will argue that intelligence is multifaceted, using Gardner’s theory of multiple intelligences. The two-factor theory of intelligence was proposed by Spearman (1904), which consists the g-factor and s-factors. The g-factor is frequently measured through psychometric tests, generating an IQ score that represents an individual’s overall cognitive ability. However, this theory has several flaws. Psychometric tests only measure academic abilities like arithmetic and linguistic skills (Gardner & Hatch, 1989) which are not applicable to practical and emotional intelligence. Abilities such as solving daily problems and controlling one’s own emotions are not measured. Therefore, the g-factor, which is distinguished through comparison of various intelligence tests, is not a true representation of intelligence. It is also based on factor analysis, which depends on the interpretations of the analysts. Due to analysts’ 2014-05-01T20:17:28.393-04:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/Multiple-Intelligences-Theory-The-Best-Approach-to-Understanding-Intelligence-35026.aspx Multiple Intelligences Theory: The Best Approach to Understanding Intelligence Intelligence is a key aspect in education as emphasized by how academic aptitude is usually determined by students’ Intelligence Quotient (IQ), which are measured using psychometric tests. According to Gardner and Hatch (1989), these measures stress only on linguistic and logical-mathematical abilities, while ignoring others. It is therefore, important to understand how intelligence is defined, as unitary or multiple intelligences, so that schools can develop effective teaching approaches for each ability displayed by students. Although many research (Duncan et al., 2000; Penke et al., 2012) has supported Spearman’s two-factor theory of intelligence, it has some flaws. General intelligence is usually measured by psychometric tests to generate an IQ score. However, these tests access academic abilities (Gardner & Hatch, 1989) which cannot be equated with practical intelligence used to solve daily problems or emotional intelligence. General intelligence is also unable to explain intelligence in different cultural settings as what is considered intelligent in Western cultures may not be viewed the same way in other cultures (Nisbett & Masuda, 2003). The existence of savants (Snyder et al, 2003) with low intelligence but an extreme giftedness is unexplainable by a unitary intelligence. On the contrary, Gardner’s theory of multiple intelligences is able to explain this phenomenon. The presence of an exceptional talent suggests a specific form of intelligence. Lastly, advances in technology such as the emergence of positron emission tomography (PET) and functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) has enabled neuroscientists to discover specific parts of the brain that control functions related to different intelligences (Rodd, Davis, & Johnsrude, 2005; Samson & Zatorre, 1994). Therefore, this essay will argue that intelligence is multifaceted, using Gardner’s theory of multiple intelligences. The two-factor theory of intelligence was proposed by Spearman (1904), which consists the g-factor and s-factors. The g-factor is frequently measured through psychometric tests, generating an IQ score that represents an individual’s overall cognitive ability. However, this theory has several flaws. Psychometric tests only measure academic abilities like arithmetic and linguistic skills (Gardner & Hatch, 1989) which are not applicable to practical and emotional intelligence. Abilities such as solving daily problems and controlling one’s own emotions are not measured. Therefore, the g-factor, which is distinguished through comparison of various intelligence tests, is not a true representation of intelligence. It is also based on factor analysis, which depends on the interpretations of the analysts. Due to analysts’ 2014-05-01T20:10:27.793-04:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/Multiple-Intelligences-Theory-The-Best-Approach-to-Understanding-Intelligence-35025.aspx Peer pressure affects many people worldwide. When faced with it, it’s easy to give in. However, there is one question: How much pressure can one take, and what scenarios hold the most pressure? It’s an uncommon subject, but it greatly affects the way we live. Of all the pressure in the world, some situations hold the most, and are more common. “Peer Pressure: n. social pressure by members of one’s peer group to take a certain action, adopts certain values, or otherwise conforms in order to be accepted.” (Houghton Miffin, 153) As the definition states, peer pressure can change someone into somebody else, just so that person feels accepted. This occurs in four different forms: Rejection, Unspoken, Initiation, and insulting. (Safeteens relationships, 2) Rejection pressure occurs when a group of people, or even a single person, deny someone because of who they are or what they do. Normally, this submits the subject to pressure, causing them to want to change, just to be a part of a group. Rejection pressure can turn someone from a kind, likeable person, to a mean, troublemaking jerk. This is the easiest form of pressure to give in to because of the initial reward of being in a group or having new friends. (Safeteens, 2) Unspoken pressure is the most common form that occurs, yet most of the time you don’t even know that it’s happening. As an example, say a brand new pair of shoes comes out, and everyone is buying those shoes. Everyone except you. Nobody has said anything, but you still feel pressured to buy the shoes just to fit in with your peers. Even if you didn’t want the shoes in the first place, the pressure of it all forces you to buy them. This is unspoken pressure. It is hard to avoid, and you may not realize it, but it happens every day. (Safeteens relationships, 2) Initiation pressure is easily the most dangerous form of peer pressure to encounter. Similar to rejection, initiation occurs when someone wants to join a club or gang, but the people in it put the subject through a series of tasks and favors, usually resulting in harm and trouble. Groups like fraternities and street gangs require these tasks, just to prove that the subject is worthy of 2013-09-17T08:42:16.983-04:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/Peer-Pressure-and-How-it-Affects-Us-34966.aspx The Mental Disorder Munchausen by Proxy Candace Wegrzynowski Owens Community College Abstract Presented is an overview of the condition factitious disorder by proxy, also known as Munchausen syndrome by proxy (MBP). The paper begins by highlighting the definitions of the disorder and the etiology. It then analyzes relevant symptoms of the perpetrator and the reasons they abuse the child. Some methods of abuse are highlighted and the social psychiatric illness common in the perpetrator. A discussion of the complex issues facing the medical professionals when faced with confronting the perpetrator and the decision to take the child away from the parent is also included. The prognosis for the perpetrator does not look very good and further research into treatment for family’s needs to be done. The popular solution employed now is to remove the child. Family reunification is not common because the recidivism is very high as in most child abuse cases. Munchausen by proxy is a term used to describe a behavior pattern where a caregiver, usually a parent, deliberately fabricates and perpetrates an illness upon a child. Experts explain that Munchausen was first used in the 1950s to describe a psychological disorder where patients fake or bring about illness in order to play the role of a sick patient. In 1977 MBP was first used to describe a severe form of child abuse where children are treated unnecessarily for medical conditions that are faked by their caregivers.(Shaw 2008) It may be hard to imagine a parent injuring their child or deliberately doing things to cause an illness but these perpetrators are very real. Experts do not know all the reasons these parents develop MBP. They do not have a formal mental illness but they usually do have a personality disorder and may have spent some time during their life in an institution. Experts also feel they may act superior to professionals and even have a medical background. They enjoy being the center of attention and like making illness the center of their life. They are difficult to evaluate psychologically as they often do not stay in therapy. (Hallstrom) These parents with MBP do not seek treatment on their own and it is very difficult to get them to be honest about their problems. Experts tell us that patients with MBP display pathological lying 2013-06-24T21:48:44.297-04:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/Munchhausen-By-Proxy-34901.aspx 2013-03-25T19:04:29.517-04:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/L_A_-Riots-34838.aspx The phenomenon of bipolar affective disorder has been a mystery since the 16th century. History has shown that this affliction can appear in almost anyone. Even the great painter Vincent Van Gogh is believed to have had bipolar disorder. It is clear that in our society many people live with bipolar disorder; however, despite the abundance of people suffering from the it, we are still waiting for definite explanations for the causes and cure. The one fact of which we are painfully aware is that bipolar disorder severely undermines its’ victims ability to obtain and maintain social and occupational success. Because bipolar disorder has such debilitating symptoms, it is imperative that we remain vigilant in the quest for explanations of its causes and treatment. Affective disorders are characterized by a smorgasbord of symptoms that can be broken into manic and depressive episodes. The depressive episodes are characterized by intense feelings of sadness and despair that can become feelings of hopelessness and helplessness. Some of the symptoms of a depressive episode include anhedonia, disturbances in sleep and appetite, psycomoter retardation, loss of energy, feelings of worthlessness, guilt, difficulty thinking, indecision, and recurrent thoughts of death and suicide (Hollandsworth, Jr. 1990 ). The manic episodes are characterized by elevated or irritable mood, increased energy, decreased need for sleep, poor judgment and insight, and often reckless or irresponsible behavior (Hollandsworth, Jr. 1990 ). Bipolar affective disorder affects approximately one percent of the population (approximately three million people) in the United States. It is presented by both males and females. Bipolar disorder involves episodes of mania and depression. These episodes may alternate with profound depressions characterized by a pervasive sadness, almost inability to move, hopelessness, and disturbances in appetite, sleep, in concentrations and driving. Bipolar disorder is diagnosed if an episode of mania occurs whether depression has been diagnosed or not (Goodwin, Guze, 1989, p 11). Most commonly, individuals with manic episodes experience a period of depression. Symptoms include elated, expansive, or irritable mood, hyperactivity, pressure of speech, flight of ideas, inflated self esteem, decreased need for sleep, distractibility, and excessive involvement in reckless activities (Hollandsworth, Jr. 1990 ). Rarest symptoms were periods of loss of all interest and retardation or agitation (Weisman, 1991). As the National Depressive and Manic Depressive Association (MDMDA) has demonstrated, bipolar disorder can create substantial developmental delays, marital and family disruptions, occupational setbacks, and financial disasters. This devastating disease causes disruptions of families, loss of jobs and millions 2013-02-11T07:26:40.033-05:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/Bipolar-Disorder-34791.aspx 2012-11-11T16:58:27.75-05:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/Perception-and-construction-of-truth-Assimilation-of-Social-Information-during-crisis-in-comparison-to-paranoid-schizophrenia-34740.aspx 2012-11-11T16:39:09.293-05:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/Mental-processes-in-perceiving-and-constructing-truth-filtering-social-events-and-logic-during-crisis-34739.aspx Topic: Nowadays, the proportion of the crimes committed by youngsters is on the rise. Discuss causes to this problem and suggest solution. In recent years, statistics regrettably show that many youngsters are committing crimes. This phenomenon is so-called juvenile delinquency, and has increasingly become a subject of intense debate as to what triggers and how to solve it. As far as I can tell, it is the parents who are inattentive to their offspring and the fact that children are increasingly exposing themselves to much more violence than ever before due to the prevalence of the Internet and video game containing violent scenes. In combating juvenile delinquency, one should underscore two remedies: parents are to pay close heed to their children’s behavior and limit or even prevent them from being exposed to violence. The first point to note is that one of the most common factors which feature in forming the children’s character traits is the direct influence from parents. However, nowadays, many parents show an inclination to turn a blind eye to their children due to working all the time. Worse still, when their pressure of work multiplies, they are inevitably abuse their children to release stress. It incontestably has a negative impact on youngsters’ life, in particular their daily behavior. Step by step, they are highly susceptible to employ violence when getting angry, which is rooted in the indifference and reflection of their parents. Frequent exposure to violence also has a bearing on moulding youngsters’ personality. Unarguably, in the era of technical advances, people, especially youngsters easily get many opportunities to attach the Internet, particularly video games. Playing video games is inherently deemed as a good way to relax but becoming an addict to it is truly undesired. Many video games attract youngsters’ attention by inhesitantly adding violent or even sex scenes. These bad effects gradually obsess the youngsters to such an extent that they would end up subconsciously using them sooner or later. Besides the negligence from parents, frequent exposure to violence are the main reasons for juvenile delinquency such as theft, rape, murder, and so forth, which urgently calls for drastic measure taken by parents. First of all, the criminal behavior of the children should be recognized as a wake-up call to the parents so that they are to decide to spend more time together with their children to control, reeducate and correct the mistakes made by 2012-07-22T11:44:56.913-04:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/Cause-and-Effect-Essay-on-Youth-Committing-Crimes-on-the-Rise-34602.aspx 2012-03-13T09:32:57.9-04:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/A-RESEARCH-OF-THE-MIND-34506.aspx The Research Methods of Psychology Psychology is a study that is used in many fields of study and practice. Today it has evolved to a research based multidisciplinary machine. Its foundation is mainly based on five methods of research: Naturalistic observation, Survey, Case Study, Correlation Design, and Experimental. In this paper, I am going to explain each of these methods. Maybe this will help explain the foundation that Psychology is built on. The first method of research is Naturalistic Observation. In this method the researcher will observe their subject in the natural habitat. However, they have to be careful not to interfere. This method is best to research the natural reactions of a subject to stimuli in its environment. The only drawbacks are that this method can take a long time, and the sought after stimuli and response may never occur. The second method is the survey method. In this method the researcher questions a pool pf people about their beliefs and attitudes toward a subject or question. It is imperative in this method to have a representative sample. Which is a group of people who represent all the major qualities of the group of people the researcher is questioning. The researchers questioning must also be unbiased and easy to understand, therefore choosing wording carefully is extremely important. The third method is a case study. In this method the researcher obtains extensive information about a subject to learn about its behavior. This method is very useful when researching the rare and bizarre. A great example would be rare disorders in society. This method necessitates a impeccable attention to detail, and can be a tedious process. It does however, find out more about the research subject than all the other methods. The fourth method is Correlation Design. In this method the researcher takes two instances and looks at their relationship. Correlations can be positive or negative. Positive means that the value in one goes up the same happens to the other, and negative means that when one instance occurs the other occurs less frequently. These relationships can be misleading, and the result can not be certain that there are only two variables. Therefore this method is most commonly used with other methods. The fifth method is the Experimental Method. In this method the researcher manipulates 2011-11-01T19:05:34.9-04:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/Five-Types-of-Psychological-Research-34281.aspx This essay examines the first three chapters of Freud’s discourse. I Introduction Although in recent years Freud has come under heavy criticism, particularly for his theories in regard to women’s sexual feelings, there is still no doubt that he deserves his place in history: he is the founder of the field of psychoanalysis. Even if later psychologists feel that he is no longer the “Bible” on all personality theory, he still has a tremendous impact on the field. This paper examines the first three chapters of his short work Civilization and Its Discontents, and explains what he means by what he describes as an “oceanic” feeling and the “memory trace,” and then tackles a larger question: what really bothers Freud about society, and why it has such a harmful effect on humanity. II Chapter I This chapter deals with the “oceanic” feeling, which Freud attributes to a sense that we are all connected; all part of a much larger whole—that we are connected to the Universe, in fact. However, he says that he has been unable to feel this way himself, but that this sensation has been described to him by a friend. He goes on to suggest that what the feeling provides for his friend is a sense of continuity with the past. He uses the example of Rome, and what it might be like if we could see the city as it was, as well as the way it is today; that is, what we might make of it if all the ancient buildings could somehow also co-exist in the same space and time with their modern equivalents. This would enable us to see history and change over time, which would give us that feeling of connectedness—the “oceanic” feeling his friend described. Such a thing is obviously physically impossible, so Freud posits that perhaps the feeling is really the basis for religious feelings, a need to account for our lives and our purpose for existence, though he attaches little importance to this interpretation. An alternative possibility is that the “oceanic” feeling is the experience we have before our ego separates itself from the rest of the universe: “Or, to put it more correctly, originally the ego includes everything, later is separates off an external world from itself.” (Freud, p. 15). It seems likely that both theories are reasonable, and accepting one doesn’t 2011-10-31T00:49:25.9-04:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/Sigmund-Freud-Civilization-and-Its-Discontents-34243.aspx This paper considers the question of whether or not it’s possible to be mistaken in knowing what we think. I Introduction We are considering Moore’s Paradox, the idea that there are some statements that can be consistent and inconsistent at the same time. Within that framework, we want to ask another question: Can we be mistaken in what we think? This is not a question of being mistaken because of receiving incorrect information; the question under consideration is, is it possible to actually make a mistake about the (for lack of a better term) contents of our own minds? II Discussion When we make a first-person assertion, we are in the realms of conscious thought; that is, we are explaining our thoughts and thought processes to someone else, saying, “This is what I think.” However, there is an important difference in processing the difference between p and “I think that p.” In the first case, p is itself; in the second, we imbue p with qualities taken from our own belief system and higher-level consciousness. In this case, if we are mistaken in our interpretation of p, I think it is possible to say that we can make a mistake in what we think. This is akin to making a mistake because of a lack of good information. But on a deeper level, the question truly is, can we make a mistake about our actual conscious thought processes? Can we say that we are mistaken in our thoughts—not in the content (for what of a better word) of what we’re considering, but in the very process of thinking itself? I believe that such a thing is not only possible, but happens frequently; we call it “self-deception.” Self-deception is no such much an act of deliberation – a conscious effort to fool oneself – as it is incomplete self-knowledge. If we truly know ourselves and our beliefs, feelings, and consciousness, then we have a great deal of self-knowledge, sufficient to understand our thought processes. But if that knowledge is incomplete than we can “fool ourselves.” When we do so, then we can be mistaken in our thinking. But I think it is important to recognize that our self-delusion is not deliberate, but comes from a lack of knowledge. III Conclusion The concept of consciousness is still poorly understood and remains the object of debate. In 2011-10-26T23:23:50.107-04:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/Mistakes-in-Thinking-34156.aspx This paper discusses Gregory Kavka’s psychological problem, the “Toxin Puzzle,” from various viewpoints. (8.5 pages; 3 sources; MLA citation style) I Introduction Paradoxes and puzzles seem necessary to human beings; it’s as if we need the challenge presented by something we can’t solve—or by something that has many solutions—to keep our minds active. Sometimes these puzzles are pure theory; sometimes, they can be seen to have a more practical application. This paper discusses Gregory Kavka’s paradox, which is known as the “Toxin Puzzle.” It discusses what sort of puzzle is presented by this story; why the resolution of the puzzle is interesting from the viewpoint of practical rationality; Bratman’s solution; why it does or does not work; and whether or not the puzzle has a moral or point. II The Toxin Puzzle The Toxin Puzzle is a “thought experiment.” Suppose that there were a device that could measure intent. Of course no such machine exists, but suppose there were a very gifted person who understood others so well that she could predict, with uncanny accuracy, what they would do in any given situation. She is right so often that we might call her perfect in her ability to predict. She can thus tell us when someone intends to do something. Now suppose that she offers someone $1 million to drink a disgusting toxin the following afternoon. The toxin will make the person dreadfully sick for 24 hours, but the effects are neither permanently harmful nor life-threatening. In other words, the person will be sick as a dog for one day, but there will be no further ill effects; and the person will be $1 million richer. But that isn’t all of the puzzle. If it were, it would be simple: do you want the money enough to be that sick? That comes down to a simple choice: it’s worth it, or it’s not. But Kavka added another dimension. Suppose, he said, that it’s not actually necessary for the person to drink the toxin to receive the money; all he or she need do is to clearly intend, at midnight the day before, to drink the toxin the following afternoon. This intent is what our gifted person can sense. What was a clear choice has now become a difficult problem, because we have introduced the element of intent into the mix. It’s 2011-10-26T14:44:52.85-04:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/The-Toxin-Puzzle-34140.aspx This paper examines two methods of behavior modification, PBS and self modeling, and concludes that self modeling is more useful, because the change in behavior becomes apparent more quickly. More research is needed in the field, however. (5.5 pages; 3 sources; APA citation style) I Introduction The term “behavior modification” refers to the process of changing someone’s behavior from undesirable to desirable. It’s usually thought of in connection with disruptive students, but it can be used for many things; for example, enhancing weight loss by eliminating behaviors that lead to overeating. This paper looks at two journal articles that describe two different types of behavior modification: positive behavior support and self-modeling. It also references a third article that introduces the concept in a general way and gives us some background. Although behavior modification is appropriate in many settings, I’ll concentrate on the classroom, or else the topic becomes far too large. II Behavior Modification – Overview Duhaney suggests that the first thing to do when dealing with a disruptive student is to determine why the student is engaging in the inappropriate behavior. One tool to help discover the reason is a “Functional Behavioral Assessment” or FBA: “…a functional behavioral assessment … is a person-centered, problem-solving process that involves collecting data to measure student behavior; determining why a student engages in a particular behavior; and identifying the instructional, social, affective, environmental, and contextual variables that appear to lead to and maintain the behavior.” (Duhaney, 2003, PG). Once the cause of the behavior is known, the most effective approach to modifying the behavior can be decided. Although Duhaney’s article speaks mainly about intervention in the cases of students with ADD, it is logical to assume that the first step to modifying inappropriate behavior in any setting is to find out the reasons behind it. III Positive Behavior Support as an Alternative to Traditional Disciplinary Measures Positive Behavior Support (PBS) is, as its name implies, a system of rewarding appropriate behavior and changing inappropriate behavior. It grew from the observation that often, when students are punished for misconduct in traditional ways (curtailment of privileges, being sent to the principal’s office, “Zero Tolerance” programs, etc.), the undesirable behavior actually increased, rather than the opposite. (Safran, 2003, PG). It was obvious that other methods had to be found. PBS can be applied to individuals, groups, or to an entire school; it can apply to 2011-10-26T13:36:38.8-04:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/Behavior-Modification-34121.aspx Abstract: This paper compares the approaches to communication taken by two self help authors, Stephen R. Covey and Brad Blanton. (10 pages; 1 page outline; 5 sources; MLA citation style. Self Help Books Outline I Introduction General introduction Methodology of Book Selection Description of Paper II Authors and Their Credentials Stephen R. Covey University lecturer Covey Leadership Center Brad Blanton Activist Psychologist Counselor III Principles of Communication Stephen R. Covey Personality Ethic Character Ethic Empathic Listening Autobiographical Responses Empathic Listening Methods (Mimic, Rephrase, Repeat Feeling, Rephrase and Reflect) Brad Blanton Anger Confrontational Methods (Confront person with issue, unrestrained expression of anger, pay attention to physicality, appreciate other’s good points, stay with the feeling, let go) IV Value of the Books V Critical Reception VI Conclusion VII References Self-Help Books I Introduction Self-help books are a major industry in the United States. Sometimes considered genuinely helpful, sometimes considered an obvious joke, they are an important part of the book trade. This paper will consider two self-help books in general and what they say about effective communications between individuals in particular. The methodology I used to find the books was simple: I did a search for “effective communication between individuals” in the public library’s on-line database. There were only three hits, but one was instantly recognizable: The 7 Habits of Highly Effective People by Stephen R. Covey. This book has been selling consistently for years, so it seemed a good choice. When I went to get it, I simply scanned the books near it, and found another self-help book that deals with communication: Radical Honesty by Brad Blanton, Ph.D. Additionally, there is a request to “relate communications principles and theories covered in the course to those … [in the books].” As I have no idea what the coursework has covered, I cannot address this point. We’ll take a look at the authors’ credentials; the principles they advocate (this is the largest section); the value of the books; and their reception. II Authors and Their Credentials Stephen R. Covey is a Mormon, born and raised in Utah. He has an MBA from Harvard and a doctorate from Brigham Young University; at Brigham Young he was “a professor of organization behavior and business management and … administrative assistant to the president and director of university relations.” (“Stephen R. Covey,” PG). The lectures on character building that he gave during his tenure at BYU were so popular that he began to lecture publicly, and in 1985 he founded the Covey Leadership Center to present his theories to managers, entrepreneurs and others. He has received numerous 2011-10-26T11:52:22.947-04:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/Self-Help-Books-Covey-and-Blanton-34062.aspx This dissertation explores the link between absent fatherhood and the effects that this may have on the criminality of children. This topic has been selected due to the scale of interest and concern being afforded to it compared to the disproportionate amount of conclusive research actually conducted into the area. The paper will take the form of a library based investigation; this is due to the complexity involved in gathering participants with a criminal background whose criminality can be attributed to the absence of their fathers; it is often very difficult and time consuming to negotiate access to such individuals and is thus unrealistic within such a limited time frame and without any funding to conduct a research based project. These limitations and further methodological reasons concerning this dissertation will be discussed in-depth in the methodology section. Although the paper is not based on primary research this is not an indication that new conclusions and the solutions to previously unanswered questions cannot be attained, outstanding issues shall be addressed within the paper and recommendations shall be made as to how to proceed in order to further investigate this topic. Absent fatherhood is an issue which is often brought to the attention of the public particularly by politicians and religious leaders; this is largely due to the moral panic surrounding youth crime that exists within the UK. Youths have become stigmatised and criminalised, particularly within the media, and have now come to be viewed as what Jock Young would refer to as “folk devils”. Recent panics concerning gun and knife crime have also tended to focus on groups of criminal youths and have increased the public’s fear of this supposed subculture of adolescents. However, throughout this debate little time is afforded to discussing the reasons why these youths may turn to crime and how their family lives and household dynamic may play a part in their demise. In light of this it is therefore vital to gain a broader perspective as to why and how some children become criminal. Barrack Obama recently tackled the issue of absent black fathers when addressing a congregation in Chicago and voiced his concerns that “too many fathers are M.I.A; too many fathers are AWOL, missing from too many lives and too many homes” (The New York Times, 2008). The Archbishop of Canterbury, 2009-03-26T21:18:02-04:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/Dissertation-on-the-Effect-of-Children-Without-a-Father-34043.aspx THE EDGE by Adeel Salman This was definitely not the way he had planned... he stood there at the edge of the roof. He looked down. People walking in the street looked like ants. There was none he could recognize. But at this point even if he could; it would not have made any difference. His mind kept switching between the past and present... as if trying to find some point of reference that he could quote to himself and convince himself to change his decision… occasionally his neurons brought up her face… it helped for just a micro second but then it got worse than before… he could recall the journey back… he had felt so hopeful that she would help him take control of himself… in just one month he had experienced fate lashing back in his face with full fury. She had changed to a point where his existence only mattered to her; merely based on his utility… at this point his mind bombarded him with a trillion questions… where did he lack?... was it just the fact that he wasn’t good looking enough?... was it his age?.... was it ever love they had?... and this continued to a point where he became numb! He could hear her voice every time someone questioned her about him… their relationship was sending shock waves to the world around them… to him it didn’t matter- she was his world… but to her, it did… he was just a part of her world… He looked down. The height didn’t scare him… a gust of wind crossed his frame… he felt tired… he could hear his heart beat… he could feel it beating against his chest… shaking his whole existence… he wanted that to stop… he wanted to put an end to that… he had no more left inside him… he knew he couldn’t run anymore… he knew now that this was the end he always had… and he had only delayed this end by running away… He could recall all the time she had loved him… held him close… held him together… her sweet voice echoed deep in his soul… I love you… don’t ever leave me… you complete me… what would I do without you… miss you… Jahan Ara… Deelo…! He could feel her fingers run through her hair… he could feel her soft warm breath touch him… he could see her bright deep 2009-03-20T09:02:54-04:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/THE-EDGE-by-Adeel-Salman-34033.aspx Down the Memory Lane by Adeel Salman The abyss… it stares back… is it hard to stare back… may be? I sometimes stand at the edge and look down... it actually pulls. The abyss stares back and it actually pulls. Chaos is like gravity. All you need is a push. I walked down the memory lane in search of me. But all I found was a stranger with tear stained face. He looked at me. I looked at him. We both passed each other. I think it was me. But then again it could have been anyone. Looks can be very deceptive nowadays. So I walked on and I saw a couple of people who hailed me as ‘friend’. Now who could they be? Hmmm they resemble those faces I have in mind that haunt me in the dead of the night. They are pale and scary; resemble the blood suckers called vampires. Here though they look fresh and very… fresh. But why would they call me ‘friend’. I moved on and saw more of those. They all called me ‘friend’. Now what could be the meaning of ‘friend’? Most of them had smiles when they shouted out this word. Well then it must be something associated with joy. Some also had open arms. Hmmm so that means it must be closely related to embracing. But what is that cold gleam in their eyes… all had it. That suggested something very very sinister. Hmmm so friend is not a good thing after all. Yeah I guess friend isn’t a good thing after all. As I move on I see that there are some more faces standing at the next bend. They actually are just faces. No bodies. No arms. No legs. No abdomens. Just faces. Most of them resembled the guy with the tear stained face. Some have scars. Some have painted smiles. But almost all have the same look. Sad… sad… very sad! Maybe they are just faking the face of the tear stained guy resembling me. Looks can be very deceptive these days. The night was falling and shadows of broken dreams and shattered hopes were beginning to grow darker. Loud weary wails were emerging from those shadows… I had not even reached half the way, and it was all beginning to scare me like hell. The shadows started to grow… they began chasing me. As I tried to trace my way back, I 2009-03-20T08:57:50-04:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/Down-the-Memory-Lane-by-Adeel-Salman-34032.aspx Leashed Freedom by Adeel Salman I and me... the question of free will versus determinism has long preyed upon the human minds. Sophocles Oedipus Rex stands out as one of them the most stern comaprions of fate versus free will. The debate between free will and determinism stems from the apparent conflict between the universal rule of causality found in nature and the apparent ability of men to choose between multiple courses of action in order to lead to the most desirable outcome. Inorganic matter such as chairs, stones, and planets, blindly follows whatever forces affects it, and non-human organisms act for their survival alone, but human beings seem to be an exception to natures rule by their unique ability to ponder about how to go about their life and which values to live by. Determinists reject the idea that any of these choices are freely chosen however, and claim that a man is no exception to natures law because he and his choices are nothing more than the product of his environment. Decisions, they usually claim, are simply a product of conflicting environmental influences duking it out. A proper understanding of the nature of volition however, can reconcile the apparent conflict between free will and causality, and soundly reject the position that man is merely a product of his environment. Determinists claim that the nature of the universe is such that it is governed by certain universal scientific laws, so that each action is caused by a specific prior cause, and human action is no exception. They claim that the human mind is also governed by these rules so that no alternative course of action is possible to humans other than the specific and unique set of prior factors that caused that human action to be made. Thus, human choices are not free because they are determined ahead of time by whatever environmental, social, genetic, biological and any other unknown factors caused such choices to be made. Accordingly, men cannot be held morally responsible for their actions, since they have no more control over the causal chain of events in reality than anyone else. The determinist would say that whether the human mind operates by random firing of neurons or strict logic is irrelevant: both are governed by specific prior causes, and even if science could show that human choices were caused by random firing of neurons, the choice would 2009-02-19T10:25:47-05:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/Leashed-Freedom--33981.aspx Short Summary When the male human reacts to hard porn scenes with arousal – the significance of the specific scenes activates arousal due to certain personal experiences/impulses which are projected onto the dominated female on the screen/page. The main emotions powering the intense arousal (when there is such) of the authentic sexual acts and the pornographic representations are anxiety and pain. These are ‘let out’, without being felt as such, through rituals which concern domination, submission, control over life generally, and control/loss of control of specific bodily functions - using for arousal (or disguising by arousal) the energy of the oral stage and toilet training traumas; the anxiety and pain of various other inner conflicts/specific events in the past; and their more sophisticated derivates like disgust, shame, humiliation, etc. Through use of porn the male is enabled to savor the suffering of a weak loser – ‘woman’ – which is placed in such position by the very structure of patriarchal civilization, and the male uses its privilege to achieve arousal and ejaculation, evades experiencing its own masochistic impulses, its own desire to be ‘punished’ or ‘fucked’ - it evades its feelings, thoughts and memories, which do not correspond to its idealized version of itself. The specific real time sex or porn scenario influences corresponding types of psyches, in which the traumas being utilized for arousal are the most prominent in the structuring of the character. In the beginning of this chapter we asked some questions concerning the impulses which we can now call BDSM and BF: Are they inherent? Are they inherited? Are they contagious? Are they ‘good’? Are they ‘evil’? Do they allow to maintain some sort of sanity? Or are they forms of insanity themselves? Now we can answer these questions – apart from ‘are they inherited’ the answer to every other one is a firm ‘yes’. Conclusion Within the context of this dissertation, contemporary ‘hard porn’ is a commercial representation of various uses of women by men for arousal and ejaculation. These scenes are used as masturbatory supplements by many males and a reportedly increasing but still lower amount of females. This use of women by men is made possible by, and reflects, the patriarchal structures of our civilization, in which ‘women’ are objects of use and exchange by ‘men’, and the very concepts of ‘women’ and ‘men’ are defined by the latter. Hard porn is legal in those societies 2009-02-12T13:36:03-05:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/Summary-on-Male-Psyche-and-Pornography-33970.aspx Narrative Therapy is an approach to counseling that centers people as the experts in their own lives. This therapy intends to view problems as separate entities to people, assuming that the individual’s set of skills, experience and mindset will assist him/her reduce the influence of problems throughout life. This therapeutic approach intends to place the individual in both the leading role and author roles: switching the view from a narrow perspective to a systemic and more flexible stance. The aim is to help clients realize what forces are influencing their lives and to focus on the positive aspects of the ‘play’. In many events of our lives, we tend to focus on particular things and ignore others. Analyzing our lives as a play, or a system, helps us understand the different forces and roles that are influencing our behavior. This in turn gives us flexibility to invoke the necessary changes for improvement. It is a highly respectful, effective, non-blaming approach. It theorizes that people organize their lives into stories, and that individual are not the “problem” the problem is the problem. It views people as having many skills, beliefs, and abilities that will help them reduce the influence of problems in their lives. The focus is not on the ‘experts’ solving problems, it is the individual discovering through conversations of their hidden possibilities within themselves. Narrative therapy was originally developed during the 1970’s and 1980’s, but became prevalent in North America during the 1990’s. The founders are Michael White a Psychotherapist and David Epston a S.S.W professor. Michael was a social worker, family therapist, author and co-director of the Dulwich Centre in Adelaide, South Australia. He’s known for his work with children, schizophrenia, anorexia/bulimia, men’s violence, trauma, as well as the Indigenous Aboriginal communities. David Epston is an author, co-author and editor of many articles and books on ‘Narrative Therapy’. He is a professor in the Social Work field, and the co-director of the Family Therapy article page Centre in Auckland New Zealand. He worked closely with Michael White on developing Narrative Therapy approach by integrating different forms of therapy together. The Basic concepts of narrative therapy is to enable people to tell their stories in ways that make them stronger and Enables people who are experiencing hardship to make a contribution to others who are also experiencing hard times. It Encourages individuals, couples, and families to more fully explore other possible 2008-11-18T21:15:18-05:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/Narrative-Therapy-33878.aspx DEFINING INTELLIGENCE Intelligence represents the amount of experience a person accumulates in a given time interval. High intelligence means that a large amount of experience is obtained over a short interval of time, while low intelligence means that little experience is obtained over a long period of time. Simply put, intelligence measures the rate at which a person acquires new experience. The relationship that defines intelligence is the following: Int = ΔExp / Δt where ΔExp is the amount of experience gained in the time interval Δt. Here are a few examples to illustrate this relationship: The person that solves a problem in 20 minutes is more intelligent than the one that solves the same problem in 60 minutes. In this example ΔExp has the same value for both ‒ they both solve the same problem ‒ but the time interval Δt is different. In this case, the first person acquires experience faster. Another example : researcher A makes 3 scientific discoveries in one year, while researcher B makes 1 discovery in the same amount of time. In this second example Δt has the same value for both (one year) but the experience gained ΔExp is different. According to the above relationship we can assess that scientist A is more intelligent than B because he accumulates experience faster. Until today intelligence research has focused solely on measuring experience, while completely ignoring the time factor. Suppose person X is the world champion in mathematics and the time he spends on this discipline is about 18~20 hours a week. Now suppose person Y is just as good at mathematics as X (this means that he has the same amount of experience in mathematics as X) but Y exercises mathematics 9~10 hours a week. By ignoring the time factor it would be impossible for us to determine which of the two possesses a higher intelligence quotient, both having the same amount of experience in that area. But by calculating the experience/time ratio we can assess that Y is more intelligent than X because it has acquired the same amount of experience in half the time. Some may recognize a certain analogy between this definition (experience/time) and other definitions from physics, such as that of speed (distance/time) or power (energy/time). The difference is that the definition of intelligence seems to be a purely theoretical relation, numerical values been almost impossible to obtain, for both experience and time components. While the distance 2008-08-25T10:55:28-04:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/Defining-intelligence-33667.aspx Humanistic psychology emerged in the 1950s in reaction to both behaviorism and psychoanalysis. It is concerned with the subjective experience of human beings, and views using quantitative methods in the study of the human mind and behavior as misguided. This is in direct contrast to cognitive (which aims to apply the scientific method to the study of psychology), an approach of which humanistic psychology has been strongly critical. Instead, the discipline stresses a phenomenological view of human experience, seeking to understand human beings and their behavior by conducting qualitative research (wikipedia). The humanistic approach has its roots in existentialist thought. The founding theorists behind this school of thought are Abraham Maslow, who presented a "hierarchy of needs"; Carl Rogers, who created and developed 'client centered therapy' and Fritz and Laura Perls who helped create and develop Gestalt therapy. Gestalt psychologists claim to consider behavior holistically, the whole is greater than the sum of its parts" (psychclassics). Carl Ransom Rogers, (1902 - 1987) was a psychologist who was instrumental in the development of non-directive psychotherapy (Rogerian psychotherapy). His basic principles were congruence-genuineness, unconditional positive regard, and empathic understanding demonstrated by the counselor are necessary and sufficient to create a relationship beneficial to allowing the client to fully experience their phenomenological field, or self (Coon,2001). It was only after years of counseling experience that Rogers settled on these three conditions as the ones "necessary and sufficient" for relational health. Although they emerged from a therapeutic setting, he was certain that they are equally important in the business world, family life, education, and all interpersonal relationships (afirstlook). Rogers used the term congruence to describe the match or fit between an individual’s inner feelings and outer display. The congruent person is genuine, real, integrated, whole, and transparent. The non-congruent person tries to impress, plays a role, puts up a front, and hides behind a facade. Rogers realized that congruence between feelings and actions can never be total, but his experience convinced him that choosing to be real with others is the single most important decision a person can make (afirstlook). He believed the professional roles of doctor, teacher, supervisor, minister, and therapist were created to maintain a safe distance from those seeking help. Yet when he established a warm and trusting climate for the client and they experienced themselves as fully received regardless of whether they expressed fear, anger, shame, pleasure or affection, they got better. Rogers could let 2008-01-27T01:05:07-05:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/Humanism-Psychology-33509.aspx Behaviorism John B. Watson founded behaviorism in 1913. The theory of behaviorism concentrates on the study of overt behaviors that can be observed and measured (Hothersal, 2004). It views the mind as a "black box" in the sense that response to stimulus can be observed quantitatively.. Some key players in the development of the behaviorist theory were Pavlov, Watson, Thorndike and Skinner. For most people, the name "Pavlov" rings a bell. He is best known for his work in classical conditioning. Pavlov's most famous experiment involved food, a dog and a bell. Edward Thorndike did research in animal behavior before becoming interested in human psychology. He set out to apply "the methods of exact science" to educational problems by emphasizing "accurate quantitative treatment of information". "Anything that exists, exists in a certain quantity and can be measured" (Johcich, as cited in Rizo, 1991). His theory, Connectionism, stated that learning was the formation of a connection between stimulus and response (wikipedia). John B. Watson was the first American psychologist to use Pavlov's ideas. Like Thorndike, he was originally involved in animal research, but later became involved in the study of human behavior. Watson believed that humans are born with a few reflexes and the emotional reactions of love and rage. All other behavior is established through stimulus-response associations through conditioning (wekipedia). Behaviorists believe that learning takes place as the result of a response that follows on a specific stimulus. By repeating the S-R cycle the organism (may it be an animal or human) is conditioned into repeating the response whenever the same stimulus is present. Behavior can be modified and learning is measured by observable change in behavior (Coon, 2001). They also believed that behavior can be described and explained without making reference to mental events or to internal psychological processes. The sources of behavior are external (in the environment), not internal (in the mind). Like Pavlov, Watson and Thorndike, Skinner believed in the stimulus-response pattern of conditioned behavior. His theory dealt with changes in observable behavior, ignoring the possibility of any processes occurring in the mind. Skinner's work differs from that of his predecessors (classical conditioning), in that he studied operant behavior (voluntary behaviors used in operating on the environment) (Coon 2001;Grey1991). In classical conditioning a stimulus becomes associated with a reflex. The bell (in Pavlov’s experiment), a natural stimulus, becomes associated with the reflex of salivation. In operant (instrumental) conditioning, the learner “operates” 2008-01-27T01:00:59-05:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/Behaviorism--33508.aspx What are the gender role stereotypes, how are they created and what implications do they have from individual ? I am a man, or maybe I’m a male, no wait I am a guy, although my parents still call me a boy, unless you ask an old person then I am a young man. Frankly, I don’t know, understand, or care what I am because most importantly I’m me. My generation has numerous problems and some of the most pressing issues involve sex and gender. It appears we have some confusion on who’s what and why, and I can see why this confusion exists we have some males wearing women’s apparel and some females who are only females because of their lack of a penis. When asked the question what was the difference between sex and gender I immediately thought my roommate was about to tell me a dirty joke. Once I realized that I was in class when I heard this statement I decided to research this topic out. To my surprise there is a difference in sex and gender. I now understand sex is from a biological standpoint, whereas gender refers to the role a society places on a particular sex. What I originally believed was the set-up for a dirty joke turned out to be a lesson learned. What surprised me most about the term sex was the connotation it received when spoken aloud. I find it interesting that a word used in the place of the word intercourse actually has more to do with biology. I feel I am a pretty normal male for my society. I have a tremendous amount of pride. I enjoy sports and eating ungodly amounts of gut bombing food while watching television. I also feel I am a member of the superior sex and just better overall than most women. On the other hand, I feel I possess some qualities that on a gender level are considered feminine. I am a good listener. I am compassionate. I am a romantic. I enjoy cooking, and feel obligated to clean when I get the chance. I like to dress nice and smell good. I also am observant of small things. My mother had the biggest influence on my better gender traits, while my father influenced 2008-01-27T00:57:15-05:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/Gender-Role-Stereotypes-33507.aspx Listening is one of the most effective tools of communication; right next to speaking that is. However, if you don’t listen to everything the person is saying or if you don’t clarify what the other person IN the conversation is saying you may not get the full meaning of what they are saying. To become a better listener, you need to understand the four types of listening; passive listening, competitive listening, active listening and reflective listening. Passive listening is one of two types of listening where you’re least likely to get the full message or understand what is being said. Passive listening is one way communication in which the receiver does not provide feedback or ask questions and may or may not understand the sender’s message. Some examples of passive listening are when you’re listening to a radio, television, or a teacher who doesn’t ask for questions (LE II, 18). Passive listening is extremely common in today’s world because of the amount of television children watch- people watch television, or the news and hear something but aren't able to ask about it, so they may misunderstand. This is how many rumors are started. The second type of listening where you’re least likely to get the full message or understand what is being said is competitive listening. Competitive listening takes place when the listening is not listening closely and is more concerned about how they’re going to respond than what the other person is saying. You listen only long enough to hear what you think is the important information, and then you’re thinking about what you’re going to say next. The most common example of competitive listening is when you’re in an argument. You’re so set out on ‘winning’ that while the other person is talking (or in some cases, yelling which is worst) most of your attention is turned towards figuring out what you’re going to say next and you can’t wait for a break in the conversation so you can jump in and add what you have to say. Active listening is the next type of listening and is the most common type of listening. Active listening is genuine, two way conversation where both sides are contributing. The receiver is paying complete attention to what the other person is saying and is thinking about the information they are being given- they also ask questions. In active listening, 2007-12-09T17:41:07-05:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/Effective-Listening-33462.aspx It is undeniable that man, in its general sense, is one of the most complicated creatures in the world. People vary based on their unique characters and emotional features; some of them are usually sad and some others are usually happy. In my point of view, we are born to enjoy our lives and happiness is a key to achieve this goal. Due to the fact that human being is very complicated in emotional and feeling aspects, it is very difficult to describe the emotions certainly and scientifically. However, some fundamental factors such as our physical status, expectation to 2007-06-25T07:47:04-04:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/The-Role-of-Happiness-in-Our-Life-33269.aspx A STUDY INVESTIGATING THE EXTENT OF INTERNET USE, LEVELS OF INTERNET ADDICTION, AND RELATIONSHIPS As we enter into a new millennium, the Internet has provided us a new medium of communication that enables us to access vast amounts of information across a breadth of topics. Even though the Internet started of with the US department of defense and its attempt to establish a secure mode of communication between various research and military establishments, it has now evolved into a complex, fast-growing network linking various Internet servers throughout the world. Many consider the fantastic growth of Internet to be one of its most valuable assets. However, the seemingly endless growth of the Internet has not been completely without any controversy. Anecdotal evidence suggests that problems of harassment, stalking, and pornography have been related to excessive Internet use. Terms such as “Internet addiction” and “Pathological Computer use” (Goldberg, 1996 cited in King, 1996) have caught the attention of researchers. Considering the widespread growth of the Internet, various aspects of Internet use across demographic groups is an area of relevant research. One group, the college student population, may be particularly susceptible to problems related to Internet use, and more specifically – excessive Internet use. It has been shown that 28% of all Internet users are full time college students (Kandell, 1998). The students may become dependent on the Internet for a variety of reasons. Many students have been using the Internet for developing new relationships, or as a way of entertainment. Many of these online relationships also progress further and create problems later in life. Statement of the Problem The study investigated the degree of Internet addiction among the students of Assumption University (ABAC) and attempts to clarify the following research questions: 1. What percentage of the student population in Assumption University (ABAC) uses the Internet? 2. What is the level of Internet addiction (mild, moderate or severe) among Assumption University (ABAC) students? 3. What amount of time does a student of Assumption University spent on the Internet? 4. What types of interpersonal relationships are formed as a result of Internet use among students of Assumption University (ABAC)? What are the levels of these relationships (friendly, emotional, intimate)? 5. What relationships exist between demographic information (age group, gender, student status), Internet use variables (preferred activity on the Internet, time spent on the Internet), and relationships on the Internet? 6. What are the 2007-06-05T14:04:08-04:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/The-Study-of-Internet-Addiction-33256.aspx Love does not exist. It's official. This “love” I am referring to is, by definition between the two people of the opposite sex. Disregarding any parent-child bond which is entirely a different matter and is indeed actually just a case of admiration, neutral respect, response from a object and physical need which was demonstrated by Harlow and Harlow and Conrad Lorenz. Imagine this. An attractive girl (or boy) depending on your gender has just walked past. Of course apparently beauty is in the eye of the beholder, but everyone finds something beautiful and this person catches your eye, and just imagine, they catch yours back. You get talking and start to date. Now I imagine that according to “true love” this is the person you keep thinking about. The one person who you are upset about when you are apart. The $100m question is why. Is it because they're nice to talk to, funny, smart, entertaining or any other factor other then their looks AND gender? Of course it isn't or we'd all be upset when all our friends left the room. As with the maternal deprivation hypothesis (Bowlby 1969) innate programming also exists for physical attractiveness. From the moment your born the ideal partner is in your head but no one, not even yourself knows who it is. It could be the shape of them, the eye colour or hair colour but it is programmed into you. Try it. Think of all the people you've ever found attractive and think what do the majority of them have in common. As Darwin dared to suggest with evolution and survival of the fittest, the evidence for this is all in front of us. Record number of marriages split up, cheats and divorces. And why? Because the other partner was not physically attractive enough. There is no “love” just a shared lust for each person based on the natural desires that do not change with age. I stop short of a critical period for this “love” to happen in but suggest it is still there as people age they change in looks so the “relationship” ends. A look-a-like “replacement” is found. People can't help cheating on someone else, its the natural instinct. Of course morals in this world would make the ego regret it but they cant help someone who finds another more attractive. Age is also a preprogrammed factor but 2007-05-13T17:31:21-04:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/Gareth-Burnett-on-Human-Interaction-and-Development-Theory-33207.aspx In America, we have two types of people: one who are conscious about their health, and the other who are conscious about their beauty. We live in a society where one is judged on their appearance, and how they present themselves. Whereas, some are more concerned with their health, and beauty holds little or no value to them. I believe our society is more beauty conscious than heath conscious. Our society is after the perfect body image, where they would do anything to achieve that. There are numerous amounts of diet plans, and pills out there, which one can consume to get an enhanced body. People spend more than their whole years worth of income and savings to improve their image. Sometimes it seems as if, their life purpose is to look and feel better. So many television shows are created for those people who don’t dress to the norms of society. They are brought in front of millions of people, humiliated and then dressed till desirable, and told to go home and maintain that look. Beauty and fashion industry is a multi billion-dollar business contributed towards the ideal beauty and fashions. Models are a certain weight and they walk on the ramp to show the whole world that this is perfection, and this is how everyone should look like. Latest and most expensive cloths, jewelry, and makeup are put on their body convey their message. If one cant achieves their perfect body goals, one would go to the extreme of cosmetic or plastic surgery. Due to looking a certain way, there is a huge population of people who want to fit in so badly, that they take drastic measures into making themselves look beautiful. This is where serious health disorders like Anorexia, Bulimia, and Compulsive Overeating Disorder enters. It destroys people’s lives and to some, it leads them to their deaths. The drive to perfection leads to deeper wounds of insecurity and lack of self-confidence, which takes an extensive time to heal. Younger and younger girls are feeling the lack of confidence and don’t think they are good enough. Mother are telling their daughters they should look and dress a certain way or else they would not achieve what they want to. You cannot go a mile on the road without looking at a gorgeous face, make up advertisements, or diet plan commercial. Everywhere you glance, there is the message 2007-05-11T03:23:47-04:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/Health-Conscious-or-Beauty-Conscious-33197.aspx During college years it is very common, if not habitual for students to consume alcohol on the weekends and sometimes during the week. Because alcohol is so readily available and usually present at every college party, drinking becomes “the thing to do”. Social drinking on the weekends is one thing, but many take it much farther than that. Some students look to get wasted or belligerently intoxicated. When students get into the habit of abusing alcohol to get drunk on a consistent basis this becomes a problem, and the disease known as alcoholism can develop. As a college student it becomes clear to me that some of my peers and acquaintances are developing signs of abusive drinking and in some cases signs of alcoholism have already begun to set in. Because of these reasons, I am curious to find out what alcoholism is, the signs and symptoms of alcoholism, possible causes, risk factors leading to alcoholism, screening and diagnosis, possible treatments, and how to avoid becoming an alcoholic. Gaining knowledge about this topic is important to me because of my connection with people who are family members of alcoholics, as well as individuals who may be potential alcoholics. Alcoholism can be defined as an addiction to the consumption to alcoholic liquor or the mental illness and compulsive behavior resulting from physical dependence of alcohol (dictionary.com). Because it is a physical dependence, and affects the brain, alcoholism is a very difficult illness to be cured of. What ultimately triggers the onset of alcoholism in the brain is debated; the fact of the matter is it is onset in terms of the drinkers relationship with alcohol. According to collegedrinkingprevention.gov use, misuse, heavy use, abuse, addiction and dependence are the common labels used to describe drinking habits. Use refers to simple use alcohol; an individual who drinks any alcoholic beverage is using alcohol. Misuse, heavy use, and problem use suggest consumption of alcohol beyond the point where it causes physical, social, or moral harm to the individual. Abuse and dependence are defined as a preoccupation with the consumption of alcohol, and a physical desire to consume alcohol. In addition to these levels of alcohol use and misuse, there are four symptoms described by collegedrinkingprevention.gov, these are craving; a strong need, or urge to drink, loss of control; not being able to stop drinking once drinking has begun, physical dependence; withdrawal symptoms, such 2007-05-01T22:49:08-04:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/Alcoholism-a-Serious-Disease-33174.aspx The Effects of Music Therapy on Mentally Handicapped Music therapy is a controversial but effective form of rehabilitation on mentally handicapped people. A great amount of research has been completed on this subject. It has been proven that our brains respond to music as if it were medicine. Music therapy is not a commonly used health care, but recent studies have suggested it can have a wide range of benefits. Music therapy is the prescribed use of music and related strategies, by a qualified therapist, to assist or motivate a person towards specific, non-musical goals. This process is used in order to restore, maintain, and improve emotional, physical, physiological, and spiritual health and well being. At the heart of music therapy is vibration. This is backed up by modern physics, which has taught us that all matter is in a constant state of vibration. Everything has a unique frequency. Illness occurs when some sort of dysfunctional vibration intrudes on the normal one. Sound can be used to change these intruders back to normal, healthy vibrations, which restores health. Although music therapy is a fairly new method of health care, it dates back thousands of years. “The use of sound and music is the most ancient healing modality.” It was practiced in the ancient mystery schools of Egypt, India, and Rome for many thousands of years. In the Iliad, Apollo, the mythical god of music and medicine, stopped a plague because he was so pleased with the sacred hymns sung by Greek youths. Pythagoras, who discovered that all music could be expressed in numbers and mathematical formulas, founded a school that trained students to release worry, fear, anger, and sorrow through singing and playing musical instruments. Today, the power of music remains the same, but music is used much differently than it was in ancient times. Music therapy in the United States began in the late 18th century. The profession of it began to develop during World War II when music was used in Veterans Administration Hospitals, as an intervention to address traumatic war injuries. Veterans participated in music activities that focused on relieving pain perception. Many doctors and nurses could see the effect music had on their psychological and emotional state. 2007-04-25T20:50:25-04:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/The-Effects-of-Music-Therapy-on-Mentally-Handicapped-33153.aspx Social Interaction in Public Places I learned a lot when I observed the diverse groups of people in the atmosphere of the restaurant, T. J. I. Fridays. I learned that the place is very sociological and very easy to observe and listen in on people’s conversations. I took a couple hours out of my night to eat at the Fridays located next to Rosedale mall. It is a fairly active place especially when I went on a Saturday from 6:00 to 8:00 p.m. I sat in smoking which was located fairly close to the bar giving me a very social crowd to observe. While I observed I was covert-active because I was a part of the whole scene, but I didn’t tell them I was observing. When I arrived and was seated, I couldn’t help to see my first group of victims. They looked to be an older group of a men’s softball team. Their status symbols were represented by the softball uniforms they all wore, topped with matching hats. The group showed a strong sense of social cohesion with the way they were bonded by their uniforms, hats, and interest in softball and beer. This went to show me that a group having many similarities will be very close and friendly like I had observed. While the team got up and left, I couldn’t help to notice the two women sitting to my left. They were well into their forties and both were smoking cigarettes and drinking some sort of a tropical drink. They both were very dramatic in their words and expressions as they expressed their feelings to each other about someone they both knew. This reflects on their roles in society as being dramatic and very social. I assumed these women had very similar background assumptions with the way they both were dressed in the same manner and showed signs of drinking and smoking. Also, mechanical solidarity is shown here because of all their likenesses. As I glanced towards the bar, I spotted two elderly men sitting together on bar stools, mumbling to each other things that went to show of how much of a man each of them were. From their dirty work clothes, flushed faces along with somewhat red eyes, I assumed these men had consumed 2007-04-23T04:21:51-04:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/Social-Interaction-in-Public-Places-33106.aspx The Never Ending Disease of Schizophrenia Schizophrenia is a debilitating mental disorder characterized by a dysfunctional thinking process and withdrawal from the outside world. The word schizophrenia comes from two Greek words schizo which means split and phrenia, which means mind. This doesn’t mean that a person with the disorder has multiple personalities, but rather parts of the mind seem to be operating independent of each other. The disease affects approximately 1 in 100 people and there are thought to be over 2 million schizophrenics in the United States today. Schizophrenia has been found to be a biologically based brain disease due to the imbalance of two of the brains chemicals dopamine and serotonin. In the brain of a schizophrenic there are elevated dopamine and serotonin activity. The cause of the disease is still unknown, but some of the most accepted theories are genetics, a biochemical imbalance, an early viral infection, or birth trauma. Generally, schizophrenia has a major impact on thinking and functioning, impairing a person’s ability to care for themselves and to respond to surroundings in a civilized manner. In the diagnosing of schizophrenia, there are 5 different types to be diagnosed as. One of the major types is Disorganized Schizophrenia. This is characterized by disorganized thinking, speech, and poor concentration. There is also a lack of emotional expression and inappropriate emotional response to certain situations. There are also no really well established delusions that may characterize it. One other major type of schizophrenia is Paranoid Schizophrenia. The main character of this is delusions. The delusions are usually paranoid, but tend to occasionally be grandiose. There are also hallucinations and there frequently episodes of voices inside the head. One other symptom is high anxiety and a high level of argumentativeness. Catatonic Schizophrenia has more of a physical notability. A rigid body, a very odd posture, and repetitive motioning are the main characteristics, which are together called catatonia. A Catatonic Schizophrenic is also very unresponsive to surroundings. There are 2 other types of schizophrenia, and they are Undifferentiated and Residual. Undifferentiated is characterized by symptoms that tend to match either none or more that 1 of the above types of schizophrenia. Residual Schizophrenia is characterized by rare episodes of attack and there are less severe symptoms after the initial attack. The diagnosis of schizophrenia is not an easy process and diagnosis is looked into very seriously and extensively. Characteristic 2007-04-19T21:07:32-04:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/The-Never-Ending-Disease-of-Schizophrenia-33044.aspx Effects of Negative Life Experiences on Individuals This is a review of literature that covers five studies on attachment. In each study it was concluded that negative life experiences could affect an individual and possibly change the attachment style they have with their parents from infancy. The four different attachment styles are Secure, Insecure-Avoidant, Insecure-Resistant, and Insecure-Disorganized. From the studies presented it was shown that each attachment style a child had with their parents could change due to negative life experiences. While studies of the development of attachment among children have been helpful in understanding the young minds of children, ages varying from one to seven. There are also studies of how certain kinds of attachment can affect you later in life especially if a negative life experience occurs. This paper will primarily discuss the effects of negative life experiences and how that affects an individual. Published data will be presented in this paper to show how a negative life experience can change an attachment style over a period of time (Infancy to adulthood). First, each attachment will be defined, attachment style will be discussed, and information about attachment will also be included. Attachment can be defined as an emotional bond between a child and their caregiver that developed over time, it is the most important form of social development that occurs during infancy. The attachment is expressed in behaviors such as approaching, following, clinging, and signaling (smiling, crying, and calling). It is believed that attachment evolves in the first year of life. Studies of attachment development, using the Strange Situation, were administered to infants and their mothers primarily after birth. The Strange Situation is a procedure between the mother and the child where the mother leaves her child in a room by him/herself. Depending on the child’s reaction to this they are characterized under one of the attachment styles. There are four kinds of attachments; the child is either characterized as Secure, Insecure-avoidant, Insecure-resistant, or Insecure-disorganized depending on how they react during the strange situation. When the mother left in the Ainsworth Strange Situation it was found that children with secure attachments were able to explore the area around their environment while the mother was gone from the room. The infant showed no sign of distress when she left or upon return. Secure children also 2007-04-18T20:13:46-04:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/Effects-of-Negative-Life-Experiences-on-Individuals-33020.aspx Cross Cultural Psychology The fathers in the video played different roles during the birth of their children. Manoel Oliveira wasn’t present during the birth of his son Sydney, while David Kaufman was with his wife Barbara from the start of labor until the end of delivery. There are varying reasons for the different roles that the two fathers played in the births. The two fathers were from very different cultures. Manoel and his family live in Brazil, and the Kaufmans are from New York City. These two cultures expend different expectations on the role that a mother and father should play in a child’s life from birth. The Oliveira family is large and Maria takes care of the children while Manoel works to support them. Sydney will be their 6th child, and Manoel is at work when Maria goes into labor. It is not financially feasible for Manoel to leave work to be with his wife while she gives birth to their son. In contrast, David Kaufman waits for the day their baby will be born and is just as excited as his wife. As a result it’s ok for him to take off of work to be with his wife, it would be strange if he chose to be at work instead. American society looks down on fathers who don’t see their children and families as a number one priority. So, David stays in the delivery room with Barbara from start to finish, and they gaze at their daughter together for the first time. It’s a bonding experience for the whole family. The differences in the roles of these two fathers at the birth of their children have everything to do with the culture they were raised in. David was probably taught from an early age that a father should be a large part of his children’s lives, or it’s been ingrained by the mass media, and peers. The workings of a culture involve shared customs, values, and behavior. This includes marriage practices, and parental roles. These things are taught to and learned by individuals in that culture, as a result from a young age children begin to know the role they should have in the world when they grow up. Another difference in the culture of Brazil and that of the U.S. is that Brazil is more of a Collectivistic society, while America is 2007-04-18T18:34:55-04:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/Cross-Cultural-Psychology-33009.aspx Child Development and the Effects of Television Violence Violence on Television "There was murderers going around killing lots of people and stealing jewelry." This quote comes from the mouth of an eight year old girl after watching the evening news on television. The eight year old girl claims that she is afraid "when there is a murder near because you never know if he could be in town" (Cullingford, 61). A recent report from the National Institute of Mental Health (NIMH) pools evidence from over 2,500 studies within the last decade on over 100,000 subjects from several nations to show that the compiled evidence of television's influence on behavior is so "overwhelming" that there is a consensus in the research community that "violence on television does lead to aggressive behavior" (Methvin, 49). Given that the majority of scientific community agrees that "the research findings of the NIMH publication support conclusion of a causal relationship between television violence and aggressive behavior" (Wurtzel, 21), why is it that "the Saturday morning "kid vid ghetto" is the most violent time on T.V." (Methvin, 49), and that "despite slight variations over the past decade, the amount of violence on television has remained at consistently high levels" (Wurtzel, 23)? Why is it that, like the tobacco companies twenty years ago, the present day television broadcasting companies refuse to consent that violent films and programming can and do have harmful effects on their viewers (Rowland, 280) What can be done to combat the stubborn minded broadcasting companies and to reduce the amount of violent scenes that infest the current air waves? The television giants of today, such as ABC, CBS, and NBC continue to air violent shows, because they make money off of these programs. In general, society finds scenes of violence "simply exciting" (Feshbach, 12). Broadcasting companies argue that "based on the high ratings, they are giving the public what it wants, and therefore are serving the public interest" (Time, 77). Michael Howe states: "We have to remember that children and adults do enjoy and do choose to watch those programs that contain violence" (48). At the same time, however, we must also remember the undeniable truth that "there is clear evidence between television violence and later aggressive behavior" (Palmer, 120). Because violent television has been proven time and time again to play an active role toward inciting hostile behavior in children, the level of combative 2007-04-18T18:33:18-04:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/Child-Development-and-the-Effects-of-Television-Violence-33008.aspx Child Development and the Effects of Spanking Studies of the incidence and intensity of spanking often provide evidence that most parents have spanked their children. About 90% of parents in the United States report having spanked their children (Day 80). In a research project done using the National Longitudinal Survey of Youth, researchers examined the antecedents of parents’ spanking behavior. This study represents an important step forward in understanding the profile of parents who spank their children. Even though the study had little theoretical orientation from which spanking could be predicted, it showed that younger mothers spank much more frequently than older mothers; that younger children are spanked more than older children, and that higher levels of socioeconomic status are associated with the decreases in spanking. It also showed that mothers with lower education, mothers living in the south and mothers who are African American reported increased levels of corporal punishment; and that mothers reporting higher levels of religiosity also spanked more (Day 80). Consistent use of corporal punishment has been an indicator of less effective parenting and is commonly linked to socialization out comes such as delinquency, low self-esteem, and social incompetence (Day 81). The child’s temperament and personality directly affect the parents ability to employ non physical discipline strategies. Consequently, children who are perceived as difficult are more likely to be spanked than those who are not perceived as difficult (Day 81). Older parents who have more education will have more experience raising children, will know more about alternative and nonpunitive strategies of discipline, and will have a greater sense of personal maturity and self-control, all of which may reduce inclinations to spank (Day 81). There is a widely held tradition in western civilization that "sparing the rod spoils the child" (Day 81). Spanking is deeply rooted in the history and culture of our nation as well as in our own personal experiences. Some people point to the Bible as supporting, even requiring, physical punishment. Those who subscribe to this argument misunderstand and misuse scripture (Epoch 3). When parents are working and are not on public assistance, they have a greater ability to provide necessities and extras for their children. Economic independence may lead to a greater sense of personal worth. This higher self-worth should convert into more competent parenting, an important link to non-punitive discipline (Day 82). Single mothers have been 2007-04-18T18:28:48-04:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/Child-Development-and-the-Effects-of-Spanking-33006.aspx Social Psychology and Theories on Racism Aversive racism is a term use by Gaertner and Dovido to describe white Americans who have been socialized by the racial history of American culture, along with the cognitive tendency to categorize information which results in subtle, yet commonplace racial beliefs and feelings, while keeping strong egalitarian values. This keeps the aversive racist stuck between their learned negative view of other races and their egalitarian values and beliefs. The sources of the negativity that underlies the aversive racist’s racial attitudes and provide the motivation to be prejudice are either internal or external according to Devine. One’s own internalized (self-prescribed) standards or guides for regulating behavior is considered to be the internalized source of racism, while the socially prescribed standards or guides for regulatory behavior is the external source of racism. Devine thoroughly researched the conflicts between the two. By looking at the sources we can understand how motivation enforces the responses and how the norms have an impact on the responses. External sources are overemphasized in racism. The conditions under which aversive racism is likely to exist seem to situations where it is unclear whether there are social prohibitions against expressions of negative racial beliefs, but when the situation clearly shows anti-prejudice views the aversive racist may not show any racist response, but they may seem very egalitarian. The racism is usually expressed as in-group favoritism, rather than out-group derogation. Comparisons between hiring of racial groups versus whites in 1988 to 1989 and 1998 to 1999 showed black applicants that had a clearly better application were hired over whites are results that agree with the aversive racist theory, reduction of racism over time, but the study also showed when the black applicant and the white had similar qualifications, the participants preferred to hire the whites. Which shows that there is an underlying hostility toward blacks that is dormant in environments that do not allow for it, but when it is unclear, aversive racial attitudes surface. Aversive racism seems to be self-perpetuating through the lack of awareness that the racist tends to have over his/her own aversively racist actions. Dovidio argues the aversive racism suggests that because white’s negative affect toward blacks manifests itself subtly in terms of opposition to social programs and voting behavior that are aimed at bring more blacks into society, which Dovido believes shows the lack of 2007-04-18T03:22:11-04:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/Social-Psychology-and-Theories-on-Racism-32985.aspx The Disorder of Anorexia Nervosa Anorexia nervosa, more commonly known simply as anorexia, is a psychological disorder that can have devastating physical affects. Anorexia nervosa is an irrational fear of gaining weight. It causes victims to compulsively starve themselves, and exercise an excessive and unhealthy amount. This disorder is particularly dangerous because it is very difficult to diagnose, and there is no guaranteed cure or treatment because the cause itself is somewhat ambiguous. The vast majority of people who suffer from anorexia nervosa are young teens, and female. Most researchers agree that at least one percent of U.S. women between the ages of twelve and twenty-five are anorexic. This would include about 300,000 young women. Some say that anorexia inflicts many more, as many as three percent, or half a million young women. The actual number of people who suffer from this disorder cannot be determined, since the number of victims who do not report their condition is unknown, but estimated to be very high. The number of older women, women in their 30s, 40s, and 50s, who exhibit signs of anorexia is growing. Many believe that the increase in the number of women in the workforce is directly related to this increase in the older age groups. Another group that seems to have a particularly high rate of anorexia, are athletes, especially female athletes. They exhibit, more than other groups, the dangerously excessive exercise. Since its discovery in 1689, anorexia has been thought to be a strictly mental disorder. Recently however, theories have developed that the causes may also be physical, which would mean that a hereditary predisposition for the condition could exist. It is believed that the irregular release of certain hormones may trigger the disease. The brain’s release of the hormone vasopressin is thought to be the main cause. Vasopressin controls the body’s water balance, particularly as a result of salt intake. When salt is taken in, the secretion of vasopressin increases, which causes the kidneys to retain water. In anorexics, the body’s response to salt is not regulated. The secretion of vasopressin changes rapidly, and fluctuates high and low in response, but is not secreted in the correct amounts. All the affects of vasopressin on the body are not known. It 2007-04-18T03:19:07-04:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/The-Disorder-of-Anorexia-Nervosa-32984.aspx Psychological Study of Pre-Operational Fifth-grade Children The article I will be summarizing is entitled, Making conservationists and classifiers of preoperational fifth-grade children, and was written by Linda Bakken, Johnnie Thompson, and Frances L. Clark. Piaget's theory of cognitive development assumes that mental development is a process that is directed by maturation and experiences like the environment. Piaget also suggests that, as children get older, genetic factors play a decreasing role, however the environments impact on cognitive development rises. Also, Wadsworth proposed that children who are raised in surroundings with limited opportunities to explore will develop more slowly than will children raised within a more provoking environment; their ultimate development also will remain lower. The goal of the study at hand was to analyze children who were identified as cognitively preoperational and, through the use of hands-on experiences, determine if their mental development could be raised to concrete operational level performance. Piaget called the second stage preoperational thinking because a mental operation involves logical thought, and children at this stage do not yet have this ability to think logically. Instead, children develop the ability to deal with the world symbolically or representational. That is, they develop the ability to imagine doing something, rather than actually doing it. For example, a child in the sensori-motor stage of development learns how to pull a toy along the floor. A child reaching the preoperational stage of development develops a mental representation of the toy and a mental picture of pulling the toy. If the child can use words to describe the action, it is accomplished mentally and symbolically through the use of words. One of the major accomplishments during this period is the development of language, the ability to think and communicate by using words that represent objects and events. The elementary school years are crucial for developing successful cognitive functioning. In 1994 Webster and Ammon found that both classification and serration are relevant in reading and writing performance. Pasnak, Holt, Campbell, and McCutcheon said that concrete operational tasks of number conservation, classification, and serration generalized to "increased academic achievement in mathematics concepts and verbal comprehension,.” and Arlin concluded that the operations of conservation, classification, and serration are positively related to reading and mathematics achievement. The hypothesis for this study I read about was that elementary fifth-grade students who were diagnosed as cognitively functioning at the preoperational level would expand 2007-04-18T01:16:48-04:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/Psychological-Study-of-Preoperational-Fifth-Grade-Children-32947.aspx Abstract The effects of conventional and unconventional name spelling on perceived employment suitability is to be studied. Based on theories of learning and stereotype formation and activation, it is expected that unconventionally spelled names will be rated more negatively then conventionally spelled names. 120 participants (60 male and female) will be given a job application, with either a conventionally spelled or unconventionally spelled name, and asked to rate its suitability based on specific criteria. Participants will respond using a five item, 6-point Likert scale measuring five dimensions: education, qualifications, previous experience, references and personal details. Validity and reliability measures are also discussed. It is expected that group means will show conventionally spelled names score higher then unconventionally spelled names. Suggesting that unconventionally spelled names can facilitate negative personality appraisal, as congruent with previous research. Conclusions about methodological assumptions and implications are discussed. The Effect of Name Spelling on Perceived Employment Suitability Wading through the vast wealth of possible first names is a time consuming and arduous journey that every parent must face, and in many cases, some parents prefer to select unusual or unconventional names in the hope of making their child uniquely different. In doing so however, they may inadvertently burden the child with a range of negative connotations often associated with unconventional names. For example, individuals with uncommon names are often rated as less intelligent and less desirable by their peers (Levine & Willis, 1994). To counter this, many parents select names with unusual spelling, in the hope of retaining unique qualities within the name without exposing their child to the negative effects of unconventional naming. Studies have shown however, that unconventional spelling may exert the same negative effects as unconventional naming (Mehrabian & Piercy, 1993). An unconventional name is one that employs a culturally unusual or uncommon word, title or phrase (Cook, Lounsbury & Fontenelle, 1980). Similarly, unconventionally spelled names are those that employ cultural unusual spelling of commonly accepted names (Mehrabian & Piercy, 1993). Emily, for example, is the commonly accepted spelling in current English language, whereas Emilie is a cultural variant. That unconventional spelling should exert a negative influence over perception is a logical expectation. Associative learning theory, for example, holds that as the individual interacts with their environment, they will be reinforced to engage in behaviours and situations the result in positive outcomes and to avoid those that result in negative outcomes (Klein & Mowrer, 2007-04-14T14:43:18-04:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/Name-Spelling-and-Perceived-Conotations-32919.aspx Abstract The purpose of the present study was to analyze the motion picture Kindergarten Cop, such that predominant themes in learning and motivation could be identified and discussed. Analysis suggests a range of learning techniques and motivational strategies were employed by the educators, though operant conditioning forms the basis of learning and motivation, with aspects of social cognitive learning and information processing theories also developed. There is a definite focus on closed, specific strategies rather then discovery learning, most likely due to the nature of the educator, and greater emphasis appears to be placed on behaviour control then actual learning. Future studies should endeavor to tailor learning strategies to specific tasks, as this appears to be the most effective method. Analysis of Learning and Motivation in Motion Picture Film Kindergarten Cop. Discerning the relationship between the educator, the learner and the environment has been a fundamental aim in educational psychology for some time. It is little wonder then, that numerous studies have been conducted to identify effective teaching and motivational strategies that ensure a strong association between these three forces. The aim of the current study is to identify, analyze and evaluate the relationship between the educator, the learner and the educational setting portrayed in the movie Kindergarten Cop, so that primary themes in learning and motivation can be identified and explained. The movie itself follows the exploits of two tough minded, under cover detectives John Kimble and Phoebe O’Hara, as they attempt to pin down long time drug dealer and suspected murderer Cullen Crisp. Kimble initially arrests Crisp for murder, but since their key witness is an unreliable substance abuser, the detectives go in search of Crisp’s former wife (Rachel) and son (Cullen, Jr.) , who are hiding somewhere in Astoria Oregon, to strengthen their case. Unfortunately, the police only know the approximate age of Cullen Jr., and possess almost no information about the mother. In order to identify the child, O’Hara is to pose as a substitute kindergarten teacher. However, on the trip to the school she becomes violently ill, forcing the ungainly Kimble to take her place. From there, the movie depicts the relationship that builds between the kindergarten students and their new teacher, and the eventual learning outcomes for both. As such, Kindergarten Cop presents an ideal medium of study, since it follows the learning and motivation of both the educator and the student, and depicts the strategies and 2007-04-14T14:37:01-04:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/Analysis-of-Kindergarten-Cop-Learning-and-Motivation-32918.aspx On average, 18% of the population will develop an anxiety disorder at some time in their lives (NIMH, 2007), and for around 1.5% to 4% of those individuals, that will be panic disorder (Katerndahl & Realini, 1993; Kessler et al., 1994). Panic disorder is characterized by sudden attacks of terror, usually accompanied by a pounding heart, sweatiness, weakness, faintness or dizziness (Galassi, Quercioli, Charismas, Niccolai, & Bariciulli, 2007). During an attack, an individual may feel flushed or chilled, experience tingling or numbness and may experience nausea, chest pain or smothering sensations. Attacks usually produce a sense of unreality, a fear of impending doom, or a fear of losing control (Barlow, Brown, & Craske, 1995). Unsurprisingly, panic disorder is correlated with significant suffering and disability in social and occupational domains (Leon, Portera, & Weissman, 1995), as well as a highly impaired lifestyle (Leon, Shear, Portera, & Klerman, 1993). Research also suggests a strong positive correlation between onset of panic disorder and severity of the condition (Keller & Hanks, 1993; Noyes et al., 1993), due to the persistent nature of the disorder. Furthermore, onset of panic disorder before 25 years is correlated with severe clinical psychopathology, such as increased likelihood of depression or social phobia (Goodwin & Hamilton, 2002). Nonetheless, panic disorder is highly treatable with specific medication and cognitive therapy. However, due to the physiological nature of the symptoms individuals with panic disorder can be easily misdiagnosed or may not be diagnosed at all, meaning that accurate identification and assessment of individuals with panic disorder is essential. There are three broad approaches to assessment in panic disorder: diagnostic interviews, clinician rated scales and self report measures. Each approach has a different application and brings with it a different set of assumptions, limitations and applications. The purpose of this review is to present valid and reliable examples of each approach so as to demonstrate that no individual measure is indefinitely more useful than any other, rather, that the usefulness and application of any one scale or interview is curtailed or facilitated by the situation to which it is applied. There are numerous structured and semi-structured interview formats that can assess panic disorder, such as the Structured Clinical Interview for DSM-IV (First, Spizter, Gibbon, & Williams, 1996). However, when dealing with anxiety disorders the Anxiety Disorders Inventory Schedule for DSM-IV (ADIS-IV; Di Nardo, Brown, & Barlow, 1994) is preferred because of its specificity, although it 2007-04-14T14:27:24-04:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/Assessment-of-Panic-Disorder-32917.aspx Social Psychology and Breaking Social Norms In our society we have a number of society norms that we abide by. For example, there is an unwritten rule of how one should behave in an elevator. For example, it is proper to face front, stand away from strangers, and not to look at others. When a social norm is broken people may respond with alarm, humor, fear, irritation, or an array of other emotions. When you think of a norm, you are probably thinking about being normal. But in psychology terms, norm means, a standard or representative value for a group. The norm, that is more common to people is social norm. Meaning expectations about what behavior thoughts or feelings are appropriate within a given group within a given context. In society today we the people decide what is normal and abnormal. I surveyed five people and asked them two questions of what they thought was normal and abnormal. The first question was “Do you think dressing weird out in the public eye is normal”? There response were “No, because everybody does that anyway.” My next question was, “Does being rude to an elderly normal?” There response was “ No, you have to give respect to older people.” Well, I did this survey to get an idea on what people thought of what was normal and what wasn’t. This survey also helped me chose a norm to break. When I broke the norms I actually broke two and didn’t even know it until I was done with my acting. The two social norms that I broke were , wearing pajamas to the movie theatre with my boyfriend and being rude to authority such as older siblings. When my boyfriend picked me up, he just looked at me strangely. I know he wanted to ask why did I have on pajamas but he just kept quiet. By the way I did bring a extra pair of clothes with me, so I wouldn’t look like an idiot that whole night. Well anyway, on our way to the movies, my boyfriend just kept staring at me, but mind you he never said a word. When we went to get the tickets I received many looks from people and heard many whispers around me. There was a couple standing behind us and they were saying, “How could he let his girlfriend come out 2007-03-19T14:12:37-04:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/Social-Psychology-and-Breaking-Social-Norms-32833.aspx Neuroligical Biology of the Brain The definition of Brain as given in the Taber's Cyclopaedia Medical Dictionary is "Brain- a large soft mass of nerve tissue contained within the cranium; the carnal portion of the central nervous system. The anatomy of the brain is composed of neurons (nerve cells) and neuroglia or supporting cells. The brain consists of gray and white matter. Gray matter is composed mainly of neuron cell bodies and is concentrated in the cerebral cortex and the nuclei and basal ganglia. White matter is composed of neuron processes, which form tracts connecting parts of the brain with each other and with the spinal cord. The brain consists of three major parts: the cerebrum, cerebellum, and brainstem ( medulla, pons, and midbrain)."(257) The brain is the heaviest organ in our bodies and the most important organ besides your heart. In this discussion you will be able to understand the brain a little better and will be more educated about the brain when you finish. Nerve, as defined in Tabers, is "a bundle of nerve fibers outside the central nervous system(CNS) that connect the brain and spinal cord with various parts of the body." (1280) Nerves are bundles of nerve fibers. Neuralgia were once thought only to fill spaces and surround or support neurons. Nerves are essential in our everyday functions, they can effect everything we do. The neuralgia cells provide assistance, support, nutrition and protection to neurons in the central nervous system. There are four types of neuralgia cells which are oligodendroglia, astrocytes, microglia and ependymal. Neurons as defined in Taber's is " a nerve cell, the structural and functional unit of the nerves system. A neuron consists of a cell body (perikaryon) and it's processes, an axon and one or more dendrites."(1292) Neurons function in initiation and conduction of impulses. " They transmit impulses to other neurons or cells by releasing neurotransmitters at synapses. Alternatively, " a neuron may release neurohormones into the bloodstream." (Monahan 712) In a resting stage, the neuron has a negative membrane potential. Because of this large negative difference, the membrane is said to be polarized. "Membrane depolarization, which can be initiated by chemical, mechanical, electrical, or thermal means, extends from one neuron to another, resulting in impulse transmission."(Monahan 713) The central nervous system consist of the brain and the spinal cord. " The organs of the nervous system can be 2007-03-19T13:42:39-04:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/Neuroligical-Biology-of-the-Brain-32817.aspx Implications For Read-Alouds With Preschool Children The single most important activity for building the knowledge and skills eventually required for reading appears to be reading aloud to children (Adams, 1990; Goodman, 1984). However, a familiar complaint of primary teachers is that children often arrive in kindergarten or first grade showing little experience with books. In an age of video games, television, and computers, connecting children with the pleasure of books and reading is a major concern. Many children do not seem to look forward to reading and they do not seem to know how books “work”, nor the pleasure they can bring. Why is there an alarming increase in these types of behaviors? Some say it is the increase of families living in poverty. The National Institute for Literacy (1999) reported that 43% of people with the lowest literacy skills live in poverty, 17% receive food stamps, 70% have no job or a part time job. Many of these people never graduated from high school and may not value the educational process, perhaps because they feel it failed them. In the workplace these people earn a mean monthly income of $432 as compared to $1829 for those with a Bachelor’s degree (National Institute for Literacy, 1999). Needless to say, living conditions may or may not meet what we would consider “minimum standards”. Unsafe neighborhoods result in families leaving their homes only for necessities – going to work, getting food. They certainly donot have the time or desire for venturing out for recreational trips to the library (Gottschal, 1995). Unlike many middle-class families, these families have had few opportunities to enjoy and experience high-quality books. Children who learn to read “naturally” before entering school usually have extensive story-reading experiences. Similarily, research has found that experience with books during the preschool years is related to successful literacy development during the elementary school years (Adams, 1990). One might ask how soon could you begin reading to children? Some believe it is never to early to read to children (Kupetz & Green, 1997). Research clearly illustrates the benefits derived from reading to very young children. The benefits of early book experiences includes helping infant’s eyes to focus and recognize objects, building sensory awareness; reinforcing basic concepts; stimulating imagination; extending experiences; providing a reading model; as well 2007-03-08T00:33:45-05:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/Implications-For-Read-Alouds-With-Preschool-Children-32779.aspx Bottle Feed vs. Breast Feed Bottle Feed vs. Breast Feed For every child that is born, the mother has the choice to bottle feed or breast feed her baby. Doctors and specialists, for years, have researched which is better: bottle feed or breast feed. To this day, there is no answer that is definite for all mothers. Each mother is different, each child is different, each environment is different; therefore, determining which method of feeding is better, is nearly impossible. From the nominal research I’ve done, I would have to state that both bottle feeding and breast feeding are good, depending on the mother, child and environment. U.S. Food and Drug Administration According to the U.S. Food and Drug administration, the best first food for babies is breast milk. Many decades of research have been done, to determine that breast milk is perfectly suited to nourish babies and protect them from illness. “Human milk is made for human infants, and it meets all of their specific nutrient needs,” says Ruth Lawrence, M.D. She also states that “breast-fed babies are healthier and have fewer infections than formula-fed babies.” Formula is the second best option to breast milk. Cow’s milk is not a good option for babies because it contains a different type of protein than breast milk. Also, breast-fed babies have fewer illnesses because human milk transfers to the infant a mother’s antibodies to disease. Breast milk is always sterile, never contaminated by polluted water or dirty bottles. In addition to the nutrition that breast feeding provides a baby, breast feeding also aides in development. Breast feeding allows the child to create an emotional attachment to the mother, as well as providing a sense of security from the warmth and presence of the mother. The U.S. Food and Drug Administration states that “nursing becomes more than a way to feed a baby; it’s a source of warmth and comfort”. American Academy of Pediatrics According to the American Academy of Pediatrics (AAP), human milk is the preferred feeding for all infants, including premature and sick newborns, with rare exceptions. The AAP has continuously promoted breastfeeding as the foundation of good feeding practices. The AAP states that research has shown that human milk and breastfeeding of infants provides advantages with regard to general health, growth, and development, while significantly decreasing risk for 2007-03-07T01:27:14-05:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/Bottle-Feed-vs_-Breast-Feed-32765.aspx Deindividuation Application Paper Playing for a traveling soccer team was always a fun time for me growing up in Washington, D.C. We had practice one night a week on a big lighted field. We would all be car-pooled there and dropped off. On one occasion the lights went out in the middle of our practice, and complete pandemonium broke out amongst our team. The behavior was violent but not out of spite for anyone. What ensued was the biggest game of rugby/ football/ soccer any of us had ever played. It was a riot during our practice. Furthermore, it took place in complete darkness. There was a little light coming from the basketball courts about a field’s length away, but otherwise, it was pitch black. Everyone on our team began running around and tackling each other. Our scrimmage went on with a complete loss of all the rules. You could pick up the ball, punt it, tackle someone, or pretty much whatever else you wanted to do. The coach had not shown up yet so there was no one to stop us. It was all in fun and games so no one was hurt, but it was a loss of behavioral constraint and a perfect example of a group process leading to deindividuation. What happened this night of practice was a complete loss of control of behavior. It was in part due to the behavior of the group, but in addition was the fact that situational cues had changed. The lights going out allowed us to act in an inappropriate way. The size of the team was about 15 to 20 kids. We were all middle school students and the chance to misbehave and goof off was irresistible. The group norm behavior was violent for what a typical soccer practice was like, so the behavior was a negative one in that respect. Deindividuation occurred and led to increased arousal in two ways. First, the lights shutting off allowed us all some bit of anonymity. With no lights it was hard to recognize who was who. Second, we were in a large group where we could lose our sense of individual behavior regardless of the environment. These two factors contributed to our violent behavior when there was no reason for it. Furthermore, this is why everyone partook in the behavior. The loss of accountability cues took away most self-consciousness because we could 2007-02-19T22:12:59-05:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/Deindividuation-Application-Paper-32667.aspx Social Psychology Paper: Conformity Theory I attended middle-school in Washington, D.C. My family and I had lived there for seven years and became much atoned to an urban way of life. At the end of sixth grade my parents decided for me to switch schools for high-school. We moved two hours south to Charlottesville, Virginia. The move was a complete culture shock and a role reversal to me. Everything was different about being in the rich, southern, country town. I had to make new friends and develop new interests in order to fit in and have a fun time. Living in an historic mill on the James River gave me the opportunity to pick up fishing. This was a foreign activity for me, although it proved to be a lot of fun. Fishing for me became a great outlet and a great way to make new friends at school. I now had a similar interest with my new group of peers and a great piece of property to take people fishing on. I really began to like fishing and the whole idea of living in the country. This story is a great example of the conformity theory. It picks up on key aspects of normative and informational social influences. There are also different types of power at work as well as some unintentional conformity. My conformity was mainly due to normative social influence and the fact that I wanted to be liked by my new friends. I was following implicit and reciprocity norms as well. I would invite people fishing not merely to fish with them because it was something people around Charlottesville did, but also because in the future I hoped they would invite me fishing. I exhibited a bit of public compliance, whereby I would fish to show others that I indeed liked to go fishing, whether or not I actually did. But over time I gained private acceptance to fishing. I really believed that it was something I loved. The social impact was strong in my case because the group was very important to me to fit in with and it was a fairly large group I wanted to be accepted by. There was also some informational social influence in my decision to become an angler. I experienced a conversion because the more I fished and thought about fishing, the more I developed new ideas and philosophies 2007-02-19T22:12:00-05:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/Social-Psychology-Paper-on-Conformity-Theory-32666.aspx Conformity Theory Application Paper Moving to a new place often involves the highest levels of conformity. When you move, you are losing all that you had in the past, and having to fit into a brand new environment that often contains very different people and very different interests. Since we are always trying to feel good about ourselves as people, fitting into the new environment is very important. We use conformity to get this accomplished. My moving story takes place in the middle of my sixth grade year. I went to a very small elementary school in St. Louis. I had been in the same class with the same group of kids for three years. Socially, I was universally well liked by all in the school. Things were great for me within this environment. Then I moved to Charlotte, NC. This was a very different environment for me. The kids had different interests and there were a lot more of them to fit in with. I immediately felt uncomfortable. So, I began to listen to the kids talk, and there was a universally “cool” thing to do in my new school. Mountain biking was the “in” thing. So, I ran home to my parents and begged for the coolest mountain bike they could get me. I began talking to people about my new wheels, and started to ride more and more. I didn’t necessarily like biking, but it was allowing me to fit in, which was most important. This story is great when looking at issues of conformity. It deals mostly with normative conformity. Normative conformity is the term used to describe actions that involve trying to be liked by another person or group of people. This matches up well with my story. I decided to start mountain biking because I wanted to fit in and be liked. Specifically, there was some reciprocity involved. I would invite people over to a trail behind my house quite often. The goal behind that was to get them to invite me over at a later date. This is a good example of reciprocity. I wasn’t inviting these kids over because I was in love with the trail, but because I wanted to go over to their houses sometime. My story 2007-02-19T22:10:31-05:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/Conformity-Theory-Application-Paper-32665.aspx Self-Esteem Maintenance Theory Paper It was recently announced that Chris Webber was going to be traded to the Philadelphia 76’ers this week. He has since started his career there with Alan Iverson on his side as well as the entire city. My roommate, our next door neighbor and I were watching Sports Center when they broke the news that the trade was official and had taken place. My roommate a native of Philadelphia was, needless to say, pleased with the trade. I was relatively unaffected as a Wizards fan, although Webber was, at one point, traded from DC, and the other party, a Charlotte, Bobcats fan was indifferent. My roommate, Phil (not his real name), was happy to say that, “they,” (the 76’ers franchise), acquired Chris Webber. Phil is a fairly big sports fan, and as a sports fan, having a good team and good players is very important, as well as pointing out when other teams, in this case the Wizards and Bobcats, are lacking or no good. I am less of a sports fan and to me the Wizards are not of high importance to me. My knowledge and interest is very trivial, although being from Washington, DC, I would have liked to see Chris Webber stay with the Wizards his whole career. James (also not his real name), the Bobcats fan and also a big sports follower, merely pointed out that the trade was good for the 76’ers. He didn’t mention that the Bobcats really got nobody in the trades, and we all knew that Philadelphia was having the best year in sports of the three cities. This scenario points out very well the key points of the Self-Esteem/Evaluation Maintenance Theory in all three of the characters. It is important to note first that we are comparing each other on the basis of being a sports fan and supporting your home team. We compare each other through which team is better, and which one of us knows more about sports. Since I do not claim to be a big sports fan, I, figuratively, can sit out this play. Phil, however, must prove to James that his team got the better deal and is a better team. This helps him keep his self-esteem as being a Philadelphia sports fan up. James may feel dissonance, however, because he is a big sports fan but he likes a bad team, the 2007-02-19T22:09:30-05:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/Self-Esteem-Maintenance-Theory-Paper-32664.aspx Social Psychology: Self Presentation Theory Paper Claiming face and self presenting are very common place in fraternity life at colleges around the country and are no better exemplified than in the process of rush. Being a sophomore here at Bucknell and experiencing rush for myself, I can officially say that I, along with many others, have claimed face. Going into rush, one does not fully know what to expect from the different houses, but they do know what they want out of it, and more importantly, they know the type of person they want to come across as. Before attending a rush event one must get dressed in clothes that are in coordination with the personality that one wishes to express. Some dress preppy, showing off one set of values that may give a fraternity some first impressions. Others decide they do not care so much about what they wear and automatically appeal to a different set of people. Our clothes say a lot about who we are and what we care about. Rush is a perfect opportunity to take advantage of this. Getting dressed in this setting is very much like putting on our costume before we take the “stage” at some fraternity house. For many of us this is what is first noticed about us. Before we even speak, we are being examined. As I start to talk to different brothers at different houses, I notice how much my personality can be transformed to fit the setting of which I want to be a part of. At one house I may casually converse about favorite music or sports teams, while at another, I may want to be funny or intelligent. Smiling and laughing are often closely involved with all of these conversations. Brothers want to think that you are having a good time and that you like them, but at the same time, no one wants to see a complete suck up that will laugh at everything. The work of the rushee is cut out, and is a very fine line. Sometimes the things you have to say may not be exactly what you are thinking or feeling but you have to go along with it anyways in order to keep your “story” consistent. Another thing that I came across in my rush experience was noticing when a brother fell out of “character.” Each house has a reputation and 2007-02-19T22:06:31-05:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/Social-Psychology-Self-Presentation-Theory-Paper-32663.aspx Parallel Language Development in Deaf and Hearing Children Much of the past research on language development has focused on auditory language learned by hearing children. Recently, researchers such as Jamieson (1995) and Masataka (1992) have begun to study whether language acquisition proceeds in the same manner for deaf children as for hearing children. Results from studies of hearing children learning different languages have shown that the first stage in the acquisition of language is babbling, which usually appears between 7 and 10 months (Lane, Hoffmeister, & Bahan, 1996). Next, between the ages of 12 and 18 months, children make one-word utterances, and by 22 months, most children are at the two-word utterance stage. Children begin to modify words and learn rules for sentence construction by 36 months (Lame at al., 1996). Parents play an important role in the language development of their children. One unique manner in which parents, and many other adults, talk to children is called "motherese." Motherese is characterized by short sentences, changes in voice fluctuation, slow tempo, and repetition of words. The properties of motherese are thought to enhance early language acquisition by eliciting the infant's attention and demonstrating important aspects of the language (Masataka, 1992). Also, the richness of the language environment the child is exposed to, usually measured by the frequency and type of word the child hears, is positively correlated with the development of language (Levine, 1981). Children also take active control of language learning. Through babbling, by which an infant repeats consonant and vowel combinations, the child gains experience in language. Once the child reaches the level of speaking word sequences in the native language, ha or she begins to acquire grammatical rules for sentences (Bark, 1997). Although children in this stage frequently make grammatical mistakes, these mistakes are evidence that children are learning and thinking about grammatical rules (Croweon, 1994). private speech, or speech that is spoken aloud but not meant for the benefit of others, is another milestone in the language development of children. Private speech is a factor in cognitive development that helps link thought and language (Jamieson, 1995). Language Development in Deaf Children So far, language acquisition has only been discussed in terms of children who learn language by hearing those around them speak. However, there is a substantial subset of children who cannot do this because they are deaf. Most of the research in the past dealing with language development has 2007-02-02T17:34:54-05:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/Parallel-Language-Development-in-Deaf-and-Hearing-Children-32530.aspx Sleep Disorders Child Sleep Disorders Current research has confirmed that children are not getting the sleep they need these days. Children these days appear to be doing worse in school and have reduced attention spans. Most parents are not aware of a common problem effecting thousands of children in this country: sleep disorders. Parents often fail to follow there children's sleeping patterns which can result in some serious side effects if that child has a sleep disorder. A study done at Tulane University in New Orleans studied about 300 first graders that preformed poorly in school. They found that 18 per cent showed signs of a sleeping problem. The percentage of children with bad grades found to have sleeping problems was six to nine times higher than found in a previous study done over all of the childhood population. (The Toronto Star). Most people believe that sleep disorders only affect adults but in reality 30% of all children have some sort of sleep disorder. (Burcum). Sleep disorders are defined as a group of syndromes characterized by disturbance in the patient's amount of sleep, quality or timing of sleep, or in behaviours or physiological conditions associated with sleep. To qualify for a diagnosis of sleep disorder, the condition must be a persistent problem, cause the patient significant emotional distress, and interfere with his or her social or occupational functioning. (Frey p265). Some sleep disorders can affect children of all ages. The sleep disorder that children are subject to often depends on their age and development. Sleep disorders change most frequent in the middle-school years. Children often experience more anxiety at this time. (Burcum). The source of the certain sleep disorder cannot normally be pin pointed in every case. Many factors come in to play when dealing with the cause of a sleep disruption. Parental characteristics, personality, psychosocial influences, education, parenting skills, stress, trauma, school, culture and personal health can all bring about sleeping disorders in young to middle-aged children. Some parents find that there children sleep too much, while others don't sleep enough. Some fall asleep at the wrong times while others can’t ever even get to sleep. There are about 100 different sleep disorders being researched currently. Although sleep is a basic behaviour in animals as well as humans, researchers still do not completely understand all of its functions and maintenance. In order to cure the child's sleep problem, you have 2007-01-12T14:26:43-05:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/Child-Sleep-Disorders-32411.aspx The Disorder of Anorexia Nervosa Popularly known as the Slimmer’s disease, this is an extreme example of older children or young adults using food as a weapon to cope with what they see as insoluble problems in their lives. It can be interpreted as a weapon against family, teachers and themselves. Anorexia may start at different ages, but usually it is at a time when the issues of independence and self-esteem come to a head. Many anorexics feel they are in a struggle for independence they can’t win. That would explain why anorexia arises frequently with the on set of puberty. Many Anorexics get depressed because they may not weigh as much as another person but our body’s are built for a certain amount of weight and too little could be fatal. The term Anorexia Nervosa literally means loss of appetite due to nervous causes. An insecure girl may feel that in a culture that regards the thinner figure as desirable, it is tempting to go on a strict diet in order to maintain a slim shape. Anorexia must be thought as a state of mind and not a physical illness that can be cured like a cold. The symptoms of this disease are – • Extreme thinness • Cessation of menstruation • Growth of soft downy hair • Inability to eat to the point of starvation • Secretive eating habits to mask the true food intake Having Anorexia is also related to lack of Nutrients so to nurse someone with Anorexia back to health they need a diet with the following nutrients – • Protein • Calcium • Vitamin B1 (Thiamine) • Vitamin B3 (Niacin) • Vitamin B12 (Cyanocobalamin) • Vitamin C (Ascorbic Acid) • Vitamin D • Vitamin E • Phosphorus • Iodine What needs to be taken into consideration when preparing meals for an anorexic is to bring out small servings regularly with good presentation so they don’t they don’t get turned of their food. Counselling is the basis of treatment. It is very important for anorexics to get the kind of help they need and initially they must be encouraged to recognize that something is wrong. Self help groups have excellent results. This involves working together with other anorexics where common problems can be shared, discussed and worked on. In severe cases, medical treatment may be necessary and the anorexic may need hospitalisation for controlled feeding and psychotherapy. Force-feeding may save a life in extreme examples, but will not exact a cure time and patience is important, especially with very young sufferers. Systems 2007-01-11T04:50:57-05:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/The-Disorder-of-Anorexia-Nervosa-32350.aspx Study of Psychotic Disorder, Schizophrenia Schizophrenia is the most common of all psychotic disorders, yet it still occurs in only in 1% of the world’s population. It usually occurs in people of age 14-45, but it can strike anybody at anytime. Schizophrenia has many symptoms, causes, and treatments. Some people recover, some do not. Schizophrenia is an unpredictable and often debilitating disorder, and a common source of study in psychology. The website www.schizophrenia.com is an excellent source for anyone diagnosed with the illness or anyone with a friend or family member suffering from the illness. When someone cannot tell the difference between what is real and what is imaginary, they may be described as having a psychotic illness. The most common type of psychotic illness is schizophrenia. Schizophrenia is a serious mental illness and it is different for each person, but it usually involves a dramatic disorder in thoughts and feelings and results in behavior that may seem strange to other people. Some people hear voices, others see things that are not there, or feel they are being persecuted by mysterious, unseen stalkers. Some people only experience one episode of psychosis and some recover from schizophrenia. For others, schizophrenia is a long-term illness, but a combination of medication and talking therapies can help to control it and help a victim get on with their life. Some characteristics of schizophrenia are strange beliefs or thoughts with little no basis in reality. These are called delusions, and can be very disturbing. Examples of common delusions among schizophrenics include thinking that you have special powers or that someone on the street is trying to control your thoughts or feelings. The latter is also often redefined and called paranoid delusions. Another common symptom is hallucinations. This is the hearing, seeing, feeling or even smelling of things that are not there. A common example of this is hearing voices in one’s head. There are also changes in the thought process where victim’s thoughts are disconnected and random, inappropriate behavior, inability to feel emotion or feeling the wrong emotions at the wrong time, depression, and lack of concentration. Scientists do not know what causes schizophrenia but there are some known risk factors and identifying traits. Two such traits are differences in brain structure and brain function. Recently, studies have indicated that schizophrenia may also 2007-01-11T04:46:02-05:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/Study-of-Psychotic-Disorder,-Schizophrenia-32349.aspx Freud's Theories of the Subconscious While administering hypnosis to patients suffering from hysteria, Freud realized that this practice was not a cure, but just a temporary fix. It was this event that created the framework for Freud’s idea of the subconscious, repression vs. aggression, dreams, and civilation. The basis of his theory is that the mind is separated into two main factions: the conscious and the subconscious. The conscious being what we know to be happening and the unconscious is what is in our mind that we do not necessarily know about. Freud’s theory of the subconscious consists of three parts, the Id, the Ego, and the Super Ego and how they interact with one another. The Id is considered to be chaotic, the center for animalistic impulses, and is governed by the pleasure principle, otherwise known as instant gratification. It is also the location of the libido, which is our “life force” or our sexual drive. The Id’s driving instinct is for self-preservation. The Ego is quite different from the Id. It is the mediator between the Id and the Super Ego. The Ego is also the personality that we show others. It is based upon the reality principle. The Super Ego represents our conscience or moral standards. These ideas of right and wrong are permanently instilled in our minds by our parents or other authority figures. To sum this all up: the Id demands gratification, the Ego responds to reality, otherwise known as civilization, and the Superego which is our morals and also the demands of society. The subconscious is most evident in our dreams. While we are asleep our subconscious is constantly active. We create scenarios in which our true feelings are disguised but still able to be known. It is the job of the person who is administering the process of psychoanalysis to interpret our dreams and reveal its true meanings, our deep hidden thoughts of our Id. In the subconscious many actions take place such as, rationalization, denial, projection, and sublimation. During rationalization, we validate our actions with reason. With denial, we denunciate our feelings and pretend they aren’t true. In projection, much like denial, we deny what we feel and assume that someone else is experiencing the same feelings instead. Finally, sublimation is learning to 2007-01-08T20:48:20-05:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/Freud-s-Theories-of-the-Subconscious-32279.aspx Childhood Thought Development on Marriage Would the child tend to have a negative view of the idea of marriage if his/her parents had been divorced? If the parents stayed married, would the child still be hopeful for their own marriage? I am interested in knowing how America’s young people regard the concept of marriage. I want to know if people still believe that marriage should last a lifetime. It seems more likely that people who had witnessed their parent’s difficult marriage/divorce have a more negative view of marriage, or be more cautious when approaching marriage. Although most of my subjects are relatively young and are not likely to have been married yet, I can analyze their attitude on the marriage that they may or may not be hopeful for in the future. The 35 participants of this survey were students from SCC. My questionnaire was comprised of two main sections. The first four questions were of age, gender, and if they had been married and divorced. The second part asked a series of questions that asked about attitudes on marriage, and their parents’ divorce, parents’ marriage, and personal feelings. I formulated a total of 11 questions: 1) Gender: Male Female 2) Age: _____ years old 3) Married: Yes No 4) Divorced: Yes No 5) Marriage is an event that I look to: Agree Disagree 6) I have no desire to get married: Agree Disagree 7) I would turn to my parents for advice on marriage: Agree Disagree 8) I believe marriage should last for life: Agree Disagree 9) Have your parents: a) never married each other b) divorced and neither parent has remarried c) divorced each other once and one or both parent has remarried d) divorced more than once e) never been divorced 10) Thinking about marriage makes me feel: a) fearful/gloomy b) happy/excited 11) Your original parents’ marriage is; a) affectionate b) dysfunctional ** A result will use alpha equal to 0.05 in my experiments. Out of the 35 participants, 12(34.4%) were male, and 23(65.7%) were female. The mean age was 18.66, with a standard deviation of 1.03. None of the participants had been divorced, and only one was married. The 2007-01-06T20:51:27-05:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/Childhood-Thought-Development-on-Marriage-32251.aspx Differences Between the Left and Right Brain Left, right, left, right--the marching song of the two-mind movement. To hear them talk, you'd think that everyone had a second mind, suppressed by the first. That the vocal left brain dominated the poor artistic right brain. Preventing it from getting a creative thought in edgewise. Soon there will be a consciousness raising movement: Stop referring to the left cerebral hemisphere as the "dominant" one. Invent a more egalitarian term like co-chairperson. Co-chairhemisphere? Alas. Were cerebral physiology so simple! If there were strong dominating influences, it would make our research far easier. It is unfortunate that "dominance" is a word with two entirely different meanings, even within psychology. When talking about pecking order, dominant refers to an animal that usually wins in a one-on-one encounter, the animal that can approach, threaten, and successfully displace another animal from food, mates, or the best nesting place. In talking about the cerebral hemispheres, however, dominant is merely a shortening of the technical term "language-dominant hemisphere." It is the outcome of a test to find out where language lives in a person's brain, such as injecting anesthetics into the left and right carotid arteries and seeing when the patient stops talking (or the simpler, but not as accurate, test that merely involves having the subject look at a dot in the middle of a screen and then briefly flashing words to the left or right of the fixation point; people with left-brain language will have an easier time with right-sided words since the information goes first to left brain). Although a few percent of people have right brains that are language-dominant, about 93 percent of us use the left side. A few percent have "mixed dominance," where both sides are used for language (that is, injecting anesthetics on either side will interfere with speech). But the term hardly refers to language dominating art or music: it's just which side is more essential for language than the other. Shades of gray become black and white when the dichotomizers go into action. But the real problem is that most of the creativity arguments have about as much to do with the brain as does the English language. The structure of the brain probably has a lot to do with the capability for, even the "deep structure" of, language--but brains hardly come in Chinese, Swahili, and English flavors. Like English per se, the creativity 2007-01-04T23:31:48-05:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/Differences-Between-the-Left-and-Right-Brain-32233.aspx Measuring Chemical Imbalances from Childhood Abuse Background Bulimia nervosa (BN) is reported to co-occur with childhood abuse and alterations in central serotonin (5-hydroxytryptamine [5-HT]) and cortisol mechanisms. However, findings also link childhood abuse to anomalous 5-HT and cortisol function, and this motivated us to explore relationships between childhood abuse and neurobiological variations in BN. Methods Thirty-five bulimic and 25 nonbulimic women were assessed for childhood physical and sexual abuse, eating symptoms, and comorbid psychopathological tendencies. These women provided blood samples for measurement of platelet hydrogen-3–paroxetine binding and serial prolactin and cortisol responses following oral administration of the partial 5-HT agonist meta-chlorophenylpiperazine (m-CPP). Results Bulimic women showed markedly lower mean ±SD density (Bmax) of paroxetine-binding sites (631.12 ±341.58) than did normal eaters (1213.00 ±628.74) (t54 = -4.47; P = .001). Paroxetine binding did not vary with childhood abuse. In contrast, measures of peak change on prolactin levels after m-CPP administration (peak prolactin) indicated blunted response in abused bulimic women (7.26 ±7.06), nonabused bulimic women (5.62 ±3.95), and abused women who were normal eaters (5.73 ±5.19) compared with nonabused women who were normal eaters (13.57 ±9.94) (F3,51 = 3.04, P = .04). Furthermore, individuals reporting childhood abuse showed decreased plasma cortisol levels relative to nonabused women who were normal eaters. Conclusion Findings imply that BN and childhood abuse are both generally associated with reduced 5-HT tone but that childhood abuse may be somewhat more specifically linked to reduced cortisol levels (ie, hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis) activity. Findings link traumatic experiences to alterations in central serotonin (5-hydroxytryptamine [5-HT]) and cortisol systems. For example, data have linked posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) to reduced platelet binding of the selective 5-HT reuptake inhibitor hydrogen-3–paroxetine ([3H]-paroxetine)1 and childhood abuse (in women with personality disorders) to "blunting" of prolactin and cortisol following the partial 5-HT agonist meta-chlorophenylpiperazine (m-CPP).2 Various traumas have similarly been associated with decreased resting cortisol and altered cortisol stress responses, suggesting posttraumatic alterations of the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis.3, 4 Findings in bulimia nervosa (BN) indicate comparable anomalies. Consistent with reduced 5-HT activity, studies document decreased 5-HT metabolites in cerebrospinal fluid,5 reduced platelet binding of [3H]-paroxetine,6 and blunted prolactin responses to m-CPP.7 Suggesting altered cortisol function, one study8 links atypical depression (ie, with hyperphagia and hypersomnolence) in BN to reduced plasma cortisol; another9 links BN, in general, to decreased nocturnal and postglucose cortisol responses. Since many bulimic women report childhood sexual and physical abuse,10, 11 one obvious conjecture is that neurobiological and psychopathological variations in 2007-01-03T21:41:14-05:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/Measuring-Chemical-Imbalances-from-Childhood-Abuse-32207.aspx Important Characteristics to Leadership The transition of power is about to take place. The old leader, looking worn and weary speaks of all the year has meant; thanks the many who have helped. There is measured applause and the old leader shakes the hand of the new leader. As practiced words are spoken outlining the vision for the following year, neither leader's attention is on the words. The departing leader feels renewed, relieved and saddened at the same time. The new leader has moments of self congratulation, self doubt and terror. Both have sought the mantle of leadership and on this day in some way, both have reached the defining moment. Leadership is a learned behavior. Rarely is one born with the ability to lead. Even charisma is learned. Though many may dream of a leadership role, it is often dismissed as "impossible." We often think of leaders as a single personality type, "born to lead." But in reality all that leaders have in common is the initiative and the desire. There is no one leadership personality. Leaders are forged from all types. Leadership is the ability to get people to follow. Leadership is more than getting people to do what is asked. A good leader motivates people to want to do what is asked. A leader must provide a clear vision, a direction. They must know where they are going and why. They must communicate that vision clearly and with a passion. The passion and logic of the vision must motivate the followers to make the vision their own. Developing Leadership Skills Self analysis: There are many tools (such as the Personal Profile System from Carlson Learning Company) that will help to define strengths and weaknesses. You may be asked to take them as part of a business or leadership course. There is no right type for leadership, but a person must recognize their type and then work to strengthen their own weaknesses, as well as use their basic strengths in the area of self growth. Get involved: In order to be a leader, it is important to join and participate in a variety of organizations, particularly the professional organizations. One should first look at the mission of each group and the internal workings of each group. Looking at the current leaders reflects the society's values. Are these individuals heavily involved in research, clinical practice, teaching, do they all represent a specific type of 2006-12-29T18:24:24-05:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/Important-Characteristics-to-Leadership-32171.aspx The Importance Of Education For Development GATE's chairman and CEO, Mr. Glenn Jones, has said that "Education is the great hope for the survival of humankind and for the forward progress of civilization." The French revolutionary Danton said more than two centuries ago, "After bread, education." Education is the most basic necessity after those that are vital to life itself--food, clothing, and shelter. It is education that lifts people out of the state of chronic poverty in which they are constantly struggling to fulfill basic needs such as these. The truth is that all people have a right to have these basic needs fulfilled, and they also have a right to education. In this regard, the world is not doing very well. More than 836 million adults in the developing world are illiterate, according to surveys by UNESCO. Around the world, one of every eight children is not enrolled in primary school, and more than one third of adolescents are not in high school. It is no coincidence that the vast majority of these unschooled youngsters and illiterate adults can be found in the poorest countries on earth. The direct link between poverty and lack of educational opportunities has been demonstrated many times over. As Lyndon Johnson said during the War on Poverty in the 1960s, "Poverty has many roots, but the tap root is ignorance." While everyone has a contribution to make in furthering our educational progress, basic education is a fundamental right, and it is the responsibility of governments to provide it. The huge gaps in opportunity that we witness in our world are just one form of injustice, and states are bound by duty and by law to strive for justice. Quite simply, we are not investing enough in education. I am more familiar with the situation in Latin America than in other areas of the world, and I can tell you that in many of our countries, we are condemning our children to be poor laborers, just as their grandparents were. Instead of preparing them for the twenty-first century, we are sending them back to the nineteenth century. We can do much better than this. I have recently proposed that the next government of Costa Rica set and reach the goal of having universal education through the age of seventeen by the year 2006. In order to do this, we will have to increase the share of our budget that 2006-12-29T18:04:23-05:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/The-Importance-Of-Education-For-Development-32168.aspx Nature Versus Nurture Debate in Psychology When I was a young child, people always used to squabble over whether I was more like my mother or my father. Some people swore that not only was the physical resemblance to my mother similar, but our personalities were eerily identical. Others argued that my father and I were carbon copies of each other, right down to our Scorpio wit. Then later in life I found myself assimilated more and more to my best friend, who I hadn’t grown up with, but had begun to spend every waking minute with during my early teenage years. People swore we were sisters, and agreed that we were twins separated at birth. So is the development of my personality mapped out before my birth, thanks to my parent’s genes, or is my personality a result of my day to day experiences? This is the essence of the controversial nature-nurture issue. The nature-nurture issue is the longstanding controversy over the relative contributions of genes and experience to the development of psychological traits and behaviors. In my mind, heredity is without question a major factor in the development of people’s personalities, and nowhere is this more apparent than in my life. Some of my similarities to my parents are so unintentional that I find myself a bit irritated when I realize that I am emulating them so closely. An excellent example of this issue is my similarities to my father presently. Even before I was born, my father was always a good talker. He was the salesman type, the type that could sell anything to anybody. He is a fast talker, and also used his gift to get things for free wherever he went. God only knows where his gift came from (perhaps his father) but somehow I wound up with it. I was always the one that had that priceless ability to talk myself out of trouble under any circumstances, and we would often joke that I “got it from my dad’s side”. As I have come to learn more about heredity and, specifically, the nature-nurture issue, I can’t help but wonder if qualities such as the “salesman” quality are indeed passed down to me through my father’s genes, or if it’s just something that I picked up from him during my childhood. The nurture part of the equation suggests that I obtained this 2006-12-19T16:47:05-05:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/Nature-Versus-Nurture-Debate-in-Psychology-32085.aspx Schizophrenia Research Essay “What is schizophrenia?” … “A schizophrenic is a person who has split personalities…” NOT!!! The common belief of the American society is that schizophrenia refers to a person with split or multiple personalities. When in fact it is not that at all, but instead it something deeper that severely affects the human mind. Being schizophrenic affects a person in so many ways, physically, mentally, and especially emotionally. Many schizophrenics are characterized by symptoms such as delusions, hallucinations, disorganized thinking and speech, bizarre behavior, and social withdrawal. Many schizophrenics find themselves withdrawing from the ones around them. I feel that this happens because the society around them is so insensitive to their needs and more importantly, their feelings. Schizophrenics, in my opinion, need love and care to feel like they are not alone in this his world. Unfortunately, many do face the world alone and helpless because of the events that could have led to the cause of schizophrenia. It is caused by a variety of factors, some may be biological and others could be the events in their lives left them feeling lonely, depressed, or unloved. I became aware of this illness in the beginning of my junior year. I have not yet been personally exposed to it, but by researching it, I found a great interest in the illness and the people who are diagnosed with it. The thing that interests me the most are the actions that schizophrenics take, and the fact that many feel so alone. As I began my research for this project I began to see that a majority of the community surrounding me knew very little of it and how it affects society. I personally do not know of anyone diagnosed with schizophrenia. I do however have relationships with other people who have personal relationships with schizophrenics. This increased my interest in this subject and began my journey to finding several answers to several questions. Schizophrenia is an important topic not only for myself, but also for the rest of society. As I was doing my research, I noticed that we, the American society, were not to sensitive about the subject. For example, in the newspaper, The Record, a headline stated “The SCHIZO Knicks beat the Sixers.” This obviously showed the lack of knowledge that many people had towards schizophrenia. Saying “Schizo” is like saying “Nigger”. It’s offensive to say 2006-12-19T02:19:22-05:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/Schizophrenia-Research-Essay-32042.aspx The Effects of Stress A person who is stressed typically has anxious thoughts and difficulty concentrating or remembering. Stress can also change outward behaviors. Teeth clenching, hand wringing, pacing, nail biting, and heavy breathing are common signs of stress. People also feel physically different when they are stressed. Butterflies in the stomach, cold hands and feet, dry mouth, and increased heart rate are all physiological effects of stress that we associate with the emotion of anxiety. Stress is caused when a person is very angry or depressed and cannot control the anger or depression so he or she holds it in making him or herself stressed out. This can cause that person to act differently emotionally and physically. There are many changes that will happen to the body. Some things that will happen to the body are your muscles and vessels will get tightened and smaller if you are tense. This will cause sallow skin over a period of time. The release of neuropeptides can also trigger hives and make worse of existing cases of eczema, psoriasis, and rosacea. Moreover, under stress, your bodily secretions increase, resulting in breakouts and body odor, and your antibody levels decrease, making you more prone to cold sores. Valacyclovir, a prescription medication, is commonly used to reduce healing time of cold sores. There are things people can do to make them go away, such as hives which usually go away on their own, but to make the healing go faster, treat them with an OTC 1 percent hydrocortisone cream. Mild cases of eczema and psoriasis can also be treated with this, but for more severe cases, dermatologists can prescribe a higher percentage hydrocortisone for eczema, a vitamin A cream that speeds up cell renewal for psoriasis. Benzoyl peroxide cream betters rosacea bumps, but a dermatologist can also prescribe Metro Gel, Noritate, or Novocet Lotion to ease redness. Acne and body odor are easier to treat. Use a salicylic acid cream for acne. Antiperspirants containing some form of aluminum salt are the best way to halt excess sweating and to increase efficacy. Dr. Bank suggested a twice-a-day application to ensure that the active ingredient penetrates your sweat glands. Also, use an antibacterial soap in the shower to banish odor-producing bacteria. You will probably know someone is being stressed out when a person appraises an event as stressful; the body undergoes a number of changes that 2006-12-05T16:07:15-05:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/The-Effects-of-Stress-31898.aspx Abnormal Psychology Essay Psychological disorders are a part of abnormal behavior which scientists have yet been able to completely comprehend nor understand. However, they have discovered that anxiety plays an key role in the onset, and continued existence, of these disorders. With continued study and research, scientists have been able to classify different disorders in separate, distinct categories which makes it easier to treat and hopefully understand what the underlying causes of these disorders truly are; eventually leading to a cure. The first major classification of these disorders are the Anxiety Disorders which are “characterized by high levels of anxiety accompanied by patterns of ineffective, maladaptive behavior” (Smith 570). These disorders were once commonly referred to as neuroses, but that term is not used as frequently. These common disorders are classified into four different types, the first being Generalized Anxiety Disorder. Here the person “feels anxious and apprehensive, has a sense of impending disaster, and believes he is falling apart or losing control”(570). This disorder is sometimes difficult to diagnosis due to the fact that its symptoms closely resemble depression and other disorders. The second Anxiety Disorder is Panic Disorder which is “marked by the occurrence of panic attacks - sudden, severe states of anxiety so extreme that the individual is unable to function effectively for a time period that can range from minutes to hours”(571). People are diagnosed with this disorder when they have at least three of these attacks in a period of three weeks along with some of the physiological symptoms during the attack. Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder, the third disorder, is “characterized by persistent, uncontrollable thoughts and repetitive, unavoidable, ritualistic acts that accomplish no practical end”(571). The most common obsessions are ones which deal with dirt, germs, disasters, and death. The final disorder are Phobic disorders which are “irrational fears of some object or situation that is accompanied by avoidance behavior”(572). They are classified into two separate groups - simple phobias, the fear of one specific thing; or complex phobia, the fear of numerous things usually accompanied by another disorder. A separate classification of psychological disorders are the Somatoform Disorders which involve complaints and symptoms involving the patients physical condition, but have no cause. For the most part the symptoms that these patients experience are not under their conscious control. The first disorder, Somatization Disorder (also known as hysteria), 2006-11-17T02:06:23-05:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/Abnormal-Psychology-Essay-31788.aspx The Importance of Surroundings in Growing Up Love and hate is as clearly defined as black and white. Love, is an emotion like no other, the emotion that combines, affection, warmth, fondness and any feelings that makes us glow inside. Hate is also an intense feeling of dislike, pain and any feelings that make us bitter. The difference between the two is all but a thin line. The line can be crossed at an instant from the love between two siblings to hatred. These two feelings are an important part of my relationship with my sister. The only purpose that I served when I was of a younger age was to annoy and irritate my sister. Lorna, my dear sister, found without a doubt that I did this job remarkably well. My bothersome behavior came in my different forms. My constant laughing at any time of day or night for no particular reasons. I deliberately disturb my sister by jumping up and down in front of her face. Making noises just to annoy her such as “lala…haha…burp...” are also accompanied by funny faces such as sticking my tongue out and rolling it, crossing my eyes and walking in a non-sensible manner, all this to distract Lorna from her duty. Also, I would make up pointless and nonsensical remarks: “ What are you doing?…Do you like that pen?” while she was doing homework. Yet, all my annoyance and irritation is my sign that I love her and her importance to me. If my surrounding were without the present of Lorna then my life would be full of emptiness and boredom. Her screams of “Get Lost” would be missed dearly. My restlessness would grow greater as I would not have my sister to bother If she was not there for me to annoy as a daily reminder of the significant personal belongings in my life would be like a soccer team without a goalie. There would just be something missing. My endless attempts to scare her would never happen and our love for one and another will never grow. Even if she were here, and gone for a period of time, longing for her return would be like waiting for an eternity. Bonding through this method might be unique but this is our way. The many fights that I have encountered with my sister vary a great deal. They include pillow 2006-11-17T01:36:49-05:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/The-Importance-of-Surroundings-in-Growing-Up-31774.aspx Lessons to Help Deal with Difficult People Almost everyone has an obnoxious person in there family or at their work. In this essay the writer will teach you how to deal with difficult people like this. “Since you can’t avoid difficult people” “You have to know how to cope with them, and the first step is understanding. The best approach is not to try to get them to change, but to find a way to work around them,” (Dr Allen Frances 287) These are the ways to try and deal with difficult people: Keep some emotional distance. Don’t take everything people say seriously, because most of the time they are very insecure and need something to make them selves feel better. If you work with someone who is self centered and is a co worker they will try and take all the credit for someone else’s work, because they are not happy with their own. Make sure that your expectations are realistic because if you are dating a person who is very silent, and does not express them selves, and always wants to be in control; Don’t expect them to change because they never will. Give them some of what they need, like when a person dresses very different it’s normally because they are seeking attention from others. So give them a quick glance to show you noticed them. If a worker suspects you are planning something he will get uncomfortable; Try to keep all your plains open. Watch out for “all or nothing” thinking. People have their own point of views about things and they tend to only see things their way. If someone is in a relationship with a person like this hang on for a ride, because when you agree with him everything turns out fine, and then you start stating your views you are totally wrong no question about it. Don’t attack them, you tell them how you feel or what you think with out putting them down. Many of these people are sensitive and scared of disapproval, and they will start to overreact. Hang in there with the people who you love and are difficult because they calm down between the ages of 40-50. Don’t take the rap, because when difficult people start flipping out over nothing 2006-11-15T22:39:46-05:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/Lessons-to-Help-Deal-with-Difficult-People-31749.aspx Studies on Augmentative or Alternative Communication After speech is acquired, we use verbal and nonverbal communication to manipulate our environment. We communicate to give and receive information, to express intentions, beliefs and feelings. We communicate to solve problems, to entertain and to interact. How can we communicate when we cannot speak or understand speech? The solution is called Augmentative or Alternative Communication (AAC), a broad field that teaches alternative forms of communication to enhance the lives of the disabled. AAC is the refinement of communication modes that are not widely used in our society to individuals whose disabilities prevent them from speaking or writing as effectively as the norm. Essentially AAC can be described as any system, method, or device that improves the ability for interaction, expanding the boundaries defined by nonverbal communication learned in the classroom. For young children, it has been named YAACK (AAC for Young Kids). (Bailey p.4) Although AAC is often used to refer to formal communication systems and devices such as sign language, communication boards, or voice output communication aids (VOCAs), it can include less sophisticated means of communication such as facial expressions, non-speech vocalizations, or specific gestures. AAC is used when a child does not develop communication in the normal fashion or experiences significant delay in its development. Ideally it will consist of more than one mode of communication, with the child learning to adapt communication modes according to environment, people, and activities at hand. With AAC, communication occurs with at least one other person to serve several functions: to obtain or reject something, to express emotional interactions, to receive and send information and ideas. (American p.6) A child needs AAC when his or her speech is not developing in the normal range, is temporarily unable to speak, or is unlikely to develop normally due to preexisting conditions. Candidates’ conditions for AAC include cerebral palsy, mental retardation, deafness, blindness and autism. Even Lou Gehrig’s disease and Parkinson’s may require some form of AAC. Certain temporary conditions like concussions and intubations will demand the use of some communication. (American pp.12-14) AAC is so important because much of a child’s’ cognitive, social, and academic progress depend on communication. A child with severe disabilities is often unable to learn the early cognitive and social skills on which conventional communication is based. Caregivers of 2006-11-03T01:09:06-04:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/Studies-on-Augmentative-or-Alternative-Communication-31685.aspx College Psychology Programs The mission of the College of Education is to prepare exemplary professional practitioners and scholars; to generate, use, and disseminate knowledge about teaching, learning, and human development; and to collaborate with 2006-10-29T21:42:39-04:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/College-Psychology-Programs-31616.aspx Insomnia, ‘the inability to sleep’ (Akrtdtedt, 2003), is today one of the most widespread sleeping disorder. Disturbing approximately 10-15% of the general populace, studies have publicised insomnia to last for a median of four years (Drake et al., 2003). While there has existed much inconsistency between three foremost classifications system, the mainstream ‘Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders IV’ classification defines primary insomnia as the ‘complaint of difficulty initiating or maintaining sleep, or nonrestrictive sleep, persisting for longer than one month’ (Drake et al.,2003, p164). The complaint ought to go together with clinically important impairment in daytime function in which there is no particular cause such an additional sleep, psychiatric or medical disorder. Commonly the likely causes of insomnia are to be associated with increasing age, female gender, stressful work and physical workload (Akertedt., 2003) which generally has a significant negative impact on an individual’s work, physical, and social performance along with the total quality of life. Moreover the economic burden aliened, especially in terms of loss of productivity, work-related accidents and absenteeism, are vast. Yet, in spite of the numerous treatments available, both pharmacological and behavioral, the severity of the syndrome has been criticized for being ‘under-recognized’ and ‘under-treated’ (Drake et al, 2003). Hamlet himself sums it up well, ‘to sleep, perchance to dream-ay there’s the rub’, put simply, the chance of sleeping or perhaps dreaming is in fact extremely of the essence. The DSM-IV states that ‘many individuals with primary insomnia have a history of light or easily disturbed sleep’ (Drake et al, 2003, p167). Numerous studies over the years have also revealed medical conditions, hormonal fluctuations in women, genetic factors, responses to change or stress and working conditions to be the primary causes of insomnia. In one study, people on night shifts or on scheduled of two and three shifts tended to suffer more from sleep-related problems, including insomnia, than those of day shifts. The growing body of evidence suggests that shift work is associated with menstrual irregularities, reproductive disturbance, and risk of adverse pregnancy and sleep disturbance in women often leading to a prime cause in insomnia (Layback., 2002). Fluctuations in female and stress hormones play a major role in insomnia in women. Insomnia is perpetuated be psychological distress provoked by this lifestyle. According to Rogers, Zarick and Roth (2000), stress-induced situations may be the most universal causes of the disorder (Nordin, 2005). Recent work 2006-10-11T04:36:39-04:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/Insomnia-Cause-and-Effects-and-Treatments-31516.aspx How Social Support in Relationships Affects One's Health A person's social interactions and relationship networks are often considered in evaluating one's health and well being. Many studies have shown increases in mental and physical health to be strongly related to the amount of social support available in a given situation. An often used definition or theory of social support comes from the work of Cobb who thought of "Social support as information that would lead a person to believe that he or she is cared for and loved; that he or she is esteemed and valued; and that he or she belongs to a network of communication and mutual obligation" (1976). Among this definition social support includes structural aspects of relationships, the existence of social ties and their interconnections. Social ties include, marital status, the number of relationships we have, the number of groups and organizations we have memberships in, and the amount of contact we have with family and friends. The above aspects of social support effects our well-being both positively and negatively. For instance, doctors are both the greatest source of distress and the most important source of support; they discover our health problems and yet they support us by listening or supplying us with antibiotics. Furthermore, while social support enhances our well-being to a point where there is an optimal level beyond which benefits diminish and may become negative, creating dependency. Also, social support can be reciprocal on one's health. Lack of social support could cause ill health while at the same time, ill health could cause a decline in social support. Sometimes support is offered with the best of intentions and yet somehow the recipient finds the support unhelpful. This situation occurs commonly in crisis events, such as the loss of a loved one. I have experienced the above, when my grandmother past on, she had Alzheimer's. There were many people who offered their support and said that her death was a blessing because she was no longer suffering. Though the statement was made with a helpful intent and yet I was left feeling misunderstood, as though my feelings were insignificant or unjustified. Perhaps outsiders are disillusioned to the recovery process of one who is recently bereaved and, because of their misconceptions, will often fail to offer helpful support to one in 2006-10-03T20:40:02-04:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/How-Social-Support-in-Relationships-Affects-One-s-Health-31499.aspx Psychological Description of Schizophrenia Schizophrenia is a mental disease that effects over 1 percent of the population. It can occur at any age but most commonly happens between 16-30. It leaves the patient confused in a chaotic state of mind with multiple debilitating mental confusion. The first of them being delusions, the patient is convinced that people around them can read their minds, and that they can read other peoples (British Journal of Psychology, 625). The patient then begins to believe that the people around them are plotting against them and are out to get them. Not only does the disease effect the patient mentally though, but also it starts to effect their physical sensations. The patients can`t interpret incoming sensations and can`t control their physical emotions, this effects the patients common sense of what to do in every day situations. For example when a person with normal mental health receives a gift their natural reaction would be to thank the person who gave it to them. A schizophrenic person would become confused and be unable to react and cope with the situation. The patient begins to get an altered sense of themselves and have an extremely hard time functioning in every day life. They start to believe they can control other people`s thoughts. They usually start to become violent because they get so confused with the thoughts of plots against them they believe they are defending themselves. A person who is diagnosed with a schizoid personality is basically on the way to having schizophrenia. It is considered a stage to the disease. The causes of each of the diseases are the same, and most of them are physical abnormalities of the brain. In over hundreds of studies on schizophrenia and similar mental conditions doctors have found some similar abnormalities in the brains of the patients. The first being enlarged ventricles in the brain (British Journal of Psychology, 697). The second being a reduced volume of gray matter in the brain, mainly in the temporal and frontal lobes (British Journal of Psychology, 110). The third is an enlarged amygdala and an increased number of white matter hypertesites (British Journal of Psychology, 260). Finally a set of neuropsychological abnorms such as cognitive functions, information processing, and verbal memory (Fourth Generation of Progress, 1245). In some other studies doctors have found a reduced prefrontal area. A doctor will not diagnose a person with 2006-08-31T18:05:50-04:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/Psychological-Description-of-Schizophrenia-31409.aspx What Makes People Take Risks? Have you ever felt you are on risk before? If yes, how do you feel at that moment? And would you like to do it again? The answers can be very different for each person. In order to know what the differences are we should know what risk is. Risk is some kind of possibility of suffering harm or loss or a situation involving uncertain danger. From the meaning of risk, people can look at risk in different point of view. Some people don't want to take or to deal with risk at all but some people want to take risks because of many reason; biological factors, getting self-confidence, and getting away from boring life. First of all, people have risk taking instinct, which causes them to deal with any dangerous situation eagerly. This might be due to a dangerous, difficult, and uncertain past that ancestors passed on that made them strong and well trained for taking risks. In the article "Taking the Bungee Plunge", Bensimhon (cited in Men’s Health, 1992) mentions the same thing that human being are intrinsic risk takers who survive and who thrive on risks. By this reason, it is obvious that some people want to take risk because they have risk taking instinct. In addition, Israeli scientists have found one kind of gene know as D4DR that influences people’s characteristics. The scientists believe that people who have the gene tend to look for thrills. This kind of gene, D4DR, is also called thrill-seeking gene. (“For Our Ancestors, Taking Risks Was a Good Bet”, 1999) In other words, the thrill-seeking gene in human is another reason that influenced people to take risk. Secondly, it’s mentioned in the Bensimhon’s article also about how people get confidence after thriving risks. In this case, people have the best moments when their body or mind is stretched to its limits while they are taking risks and after accomplishing it, they feel very confident. In addition, in the article “Risking Nature”, the author also mentions the same idea that people seek out nature even though it’s dangerous because of a desire for self-reliance. (“Risking Nature”, 1999) Naturally, people like to have freedom or to be self-reliance, so when they take risks, it’s like they can control their destiny by themselves. For example, when students have a chance to 2006-08-31T17:05:28-04:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/What-Makes-People-Take-Risks-31385.aspx Studying Differences In Male and Female Communication People have different conversational styles that are influenced by their parents, age, class, and gender. Usually we are unaware that these and other aspects of our backgrounds influence our ways of talking. Since we don’t realize that others’ styles are different, we miscommmunicate with each other causing problems and conflicts in conversation. Conflicts are influenced by our gender and experienced everyday in the workplace, public, and private settings. Men and women both have many different conversational rituals. The common rituals among men often involve “using oppositions such as banter, joking, teasing, and playful put-downs.” (Tannen 23) They sometime come across as hostile and arrogant when they aren’t trying to be. The conversational rituals common among women are often ways of “maintaining an appearance of equality, taking into account the effort of the exchange on the other person, expending effort to downplay the speakers’ authority so they can get the job done without flexing their muscles in an obvious way.” (Tannen 23) Women use conversational strategies to avoid appearing conceited and take another persons feelings into account. They may seem less confident and competent that they really are. Both men and women feel often that they aren’t getting enough credit for what they have done, not being listen to, and aren’t getting ahead as fast as they should. Every individual has his or her own style. “Women are more likely to downplay Their certainty and learned as they were growing up that sounding too sure of themselves will make them unpopular. (Tannen 36) These reactions taught girls how they are expected to talk in order to be liked. “Women usually balance their own interests with those of the person they are talking to, they usually take into account the other persons feelings.” (Tannen 38) This is also similar to how girls show leadership and being a leader usually involves giving directions to others. “Many girls discover they get better results if they phrase their ideas as suggestions rather then orders.”(Tannen 39) While women may be more liked this makes them less capable and self-assured for the workplace. “Men are more likely to play down their doubts” but are expected to play by different rules. (Tannen 36) Boys usually don’t criticize each other for being confident with himself or taking charge because “high-status boys” are expected to give orders to the “low-status boys” who are around. 2006-08-29T15:41:01-04:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/Studying-Differences-In-Male-and-Female-Communication-31376.aspx Behavioral Observations of Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder Lather, Rinse, Repeat. Repeat. Repeat. This may sound like a skipping record, but it is not. Tragically, it is just one of the many intense rituals that may plague the mind of someone who has Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder, or OCD. Perhaps what is worse though is that these people are widely misunderstood, especially as children and teenagers. If the public was more educated about the causes, behaviors, and treatment of Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder, the people who suffer with it would not have to suffer in silence. The misconceptions about OCD are not all new. In the Middle Ages, for example, the Catholic Church thought that the symptoms of OCD were brought on by the devil. Unfortunately, things did not get any better as time progressed. Many years later in Victorian times, OCD sufferers were mocked as insane (Hollander, 1999). OCD even made an appearance in a classic piece of literature. In his play Macbeth, Shakespeare's Lady Macbeth was a textbook example of someone with OCD. Her character, however was a madwoman, whose compulsive handwashing gave her lines like "Out damn spot! Out I say!" (Hollander, 1999). This type of public ridicule only added to the pain of those with OCD. This disorder does not only plague adults, it can start very early in childhood, and it impacts every aspect of what we know as normal life. A few years ago, a young girl appeared on an episode of Oprah to tell her story. "I get stuck in the mirror and have a hard time getting out" Darcie [an eleven-year old girl with OCD] said, fighting back tears. "I know I look okay, but I don't feel right. I don't feel comfortable if I leave. To people who hear this, it might sound strange. When you have OCD you know how it feels (Summers, 1999)." To read what Darcie said about her life with OCD is tragic. In his book, Everything In Its Place, television show host Marc Summers talked about his own childhood with the disorder. He went into detail when he wrote about the cleaning rituals he performed every Sunday from the time he was eight to sixteen, later saying that just like Darcie, everything had to be in its place (Summers, 1999). OCD does not only hurt 2006-08-27T23:13:45-04:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/Behavioral-Observations-of-Obsessive-Compulsive-Disorder-31340.aspx Social Psychology and the Groupthink Theory In 1972, Irving L. Janis presented a set of hypothesis that he extracted from observing small groups performing problem-solving tasks; he collectively referred to these hypotheses as groupthink (Janis, 1972). He defined groupthink as “a quick and easy way to refer to a mode of thinking that people engage in when they are deeply involved in a cohesive in-group, when the members’ strivings for unanimity override their motivation to realistically appraise alternative courses of action” (Janis, 1982, p.9). Groups are usually successful because group members bring varied ideas, collective knowledge, and they tend to be focused while working together. Groups can be advantageous to both individuals and businesses. They are valuable to individuals because they are able to learn new skills, get feedback from others, and recognize their own strengths and weaknesses. The most important function of groups for businesses is to accomplish tasks that individuals cannot do on their own. The Bay of Pigs invasion, Nixon’s Watergate cover-up, and the Challenger space shuttle explosion are examples of situations where group communication failed. Groupthink can lead to bad judgments and decisions being made. This paper will look at the conditions, the indicators or symptoms, and the ways to counteract groupthink. The conditions for groupthink to happen are important to recognize. When a homogenous, highly cohesive group is only concerned with maintaining unanimity, they fail to evaluate all their alternatives and options. It is obvious that a group suffers from groupthink when the group feels apathetic about its task; group members do not expect to be successful; one group member has very high credibility---group members tend to believe what he or she says; one group member is very persuasive; and group members do not usually challenge ideas; it is expected that group members will agree with one another (Beebe, Beebe, and Ivy, 2001, p. 282). The members also see themselves as part of an in-group working as an out-group opposed to their goals. The Challenger space shuttle disaster is what can happen when groupthink occurs. Stress can also be a condition that allows for groupthink to take place. As group members realize that immense external and internal pressures come with their task, the level of stress rises. The desire to reduce the stress motivates the members to come to an outcome quickly. 2006-08-27T23:03:58-04:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/Social-Psychology-and-the-Groupthink-Theory-31337.aspx Psychological Elements of Depression Depression is a psychiatric disorder characterized by feelings of worthlessness, guilt, sadness, helplessness, and hopelessness. It is different then normal sadness or grief from the loss of a loved one because it is persistent and severe. Clinical depression has many related symptoms trouble sleeping, eating disorders, withdrawal and inactivity, self-punishment, and loss of pleasure. People that are depressed do not like to do things they may usually like to. Surveys that have been taken that show approximately 20 in 100 people suffer from depression at any one time. About one if four Americans will suffer from a depression over the course of their lifetime. Depression strikes men and women of all ages, in all races, but most studies indicate that women are more often afflicted. There are two major forms of depression that people get. One form is called depressive disorder. It is diagnosed only by episodes of depression. Episodes can be short or long but are usually brought about by an incident in a persons life. An example of this is if someone close to them dies. The other kind is called bipolar or manic depressive illness, it is recognized by alternating depressed and manic episodes. This is an actual brain dysfunction. In the major depression or the depressed phase of bipolar illness, a depressed mood predominates, even though the patient may not be aware of feeling sad. Typically, he or she loses all interest in activities. Symptoms include sleep disturbances, not able to concentrate or to make decisions, loss of appetite or greatly increased appetite, slowed thinking and decreased energy feelings of worthlessness, guilt, hopelessness, diminished sexual interest, and recurrent thoughts of suicide and death, sometimes leading a person to actually committing suicide. In the manic phase of bipolar disorder the patients behavior is bizarre and sometimes obnoxious. Symptoms of this are the person being hyper and have lots of energy, they talk a lot, racing thoughts, and a decreased need for sleep. In this stage it is very hard to recognize. Both depressive and bipolar disorders run in families. Meaning if your father or mother had it you have a high chance of getting it yourself. Most people who are depressed are women. They may be biologically induced depression. Meaning that there is a lack of or too much of a chemical or protein. Or it may be that women learn social roles that favor feelings 2006-08-27T22:52:55-04:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/Psychological-Elements-of-Depression-31333.aspx Behavioral Development Theories of Freud and Skinner Why do we behave the way we do? How much does our environment play a role in shaping our personalities? Do we really suppress unwanted memories? These are all questions that everyone often wonders about. There are many experts that share and dispute the answers to these questions, but there are two in particular that have contributed greatly in finding explanations. Sigmund Freud’s ideas today are still strongly contested and cause plenty of controversy. Freud believes that people act out certain behaviors that originate from the unconscious mind. He took the unconscious to be an element of human life that was inaccessible and important as a source of thoughts and actions. He was committed to the concept that apparently meaningless behaviors actually expressed unconscious conflict. With that he developed techniques for determining what the behaviors might mean. Freud determined that dreams, “slips of the tongue”, and jokes were signs of concealed, conflicting desires. Most of these desires are aggressive or sexual in nature. His conclusion was that our society does not accept this behavior, so it is discouraged and those unruly desires are repressed. Our repressed desires, according to psychoanalysis, only appear to us disguised as dreams, symptoms, and other seemingly incoherent, uncontrolled actions. Freud thought it to be necessary to speculate the existence of an unconscious that interacts with conscious life. Freud’s concept of repression is “desires are repressed (bringing distress) because satisfying them would bring even greater distress. But the repressed desires remain active within us, seeking some expression or gratification, even as they are denied.” So the unconscious finds some outlet in even the most familiar aspects of our lives. Strong desires will always find some way of expressing themselves. The more Freud studied and supported his ideas, the more controversy arose. Most people did not want to accept that they had uncontrollable thoughts and desires. Many did not want to believe that we have an unconscious mind. How could the unconscious be measured? How could it be studied? How do we know these “repressed” memories are real? With those questions many experts wanted to persist with the things that could be measured, seen, and undoubtedly be correct. One of those psychologists was B.F Skinner. Skinner 2006-08-27T14:51:30-04:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/Behavioral-Development-Theories-of-Freud-and-Skinner-31292.aspx Research Paper on Psychological Egoism Psychological Egoism is a descriptive theory about human motivation that we actually only ever look out for our own interests (Baillie). Therefore, human are selfish in every act they do; and there is no such thing as altruism, concern for others (Rachels 70). For example, an egoist will say that Mother Theresa is helping the poor because she wants to get the worlds attention or such. However is that what she really wants? Many people appreciate this theory due to its simplicity. However, I believe that in some ways Psychological Egoism is true, but not always. I believe that there are different conditions for each person and each condition will yield different conclusions. In this paper, I will argue that there are no good arguments for Psychological Egoism by criticizing some of the arguments in its favor. The first argument in favor of Psychological Egoism is “In all voluntary action you do what you want. When you do what you want your action is therefore selfish” (Baillie). So, if I want to play soccer but I chose to help my friend with his homework then, I am selfish because I did what I desired. In another way, all my acts will be selfish, no such thing as altruism. This argument has two weaknesses. First, not all our acts are results of what we want (Rachels 73). For example, taking an antibiotic to relieve the pain or even do a surgery. So, we achieved a pain-free although we did not want to do a surgery. Another example is being ordered from your parents to do something such as cleaning your room not to be grounded. Therefore, if the premises are false then the argument goes wrong. The other weakness, the conclusion would not follow from the premises. If I want other people to be happy then, that is not selfish even though I wanted that circumstance. On that account, being selfish depends on the nature of my act in knowing what it is that I want (Rachels 75). Therefore, this argument is wrong due to not following the premises. The second argument in favor of Psychological Egoism is “Allegedly unselfish actions make the agent feel good about themselves, or give the satisfaction, so this satisfaction was the real motive behind the action” (Baillie). For instance, a person feels good when doing voluntary work; or a person 2006-08-25T17:37:10-04:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/Research-Paper-on-Psychological-Egoism-31280.aspx Crime Prevention and Psychology Crime is a serious issue that affects everyone in society. It affects the victims, perpetrators and their families. Crime has increased drastically within the last decade. More prisons are being built around the world because there is not enough room to hold inmates. The government has made an attempt to reduce crime by funding programs such as prevention and intervention for youth at risk , as well as rehabilitation for prisoners that will be released. Some argue that criminal behavior is due to environment, others believe that it is genetic, and yet others think that it has to do with personality. If there were certain personality traits that could be identified with potential criminal behavior, steps could be taken to try to reduce or diminish the “criminal personality”. Although personality is not the only factor in criminal behavior, there does seem to be a strong association between the both. Alfred Adler believed that children who failed to solve the vital problem of social interest-who lack cooperation and a desire for contributing to the well-being of others-will always meet significant problems later, during their adult years (Adler, 1998). This could include personality problems or criminal behavior. Personality develops early in life. That is why early childhood aggression and antisocial behavior should be taken seriously. Being able to identify potential criminal behavior is vital for prevention and intervention. Childhood factors shown to relate to the development of antisocial behaviors include a difficult early temperament, low IQ, academic deficiencies and learning problems, lack of empathy, underdeveloped social skills, and negative peer relations. (Sutton,Cowen, Crean, & Wyman, 1999). Environmental factors such as family structure and poverty are also associated with potential criminal behavior. The Federal Bureau of Investigation Report (1993) noted that one violent crime (e.g. aggravated assault, murder) was committed every 22 seconds in 1992, and 15% of those arrested for such crimes were under the age of 18 (Sutton, ete.al. 1999). Juvenile delinquency is becoming more common. The age at which these young kids are committing crimes is getting younger. The crimes they are committing are getting more serious. They are not only involved in vandalism and shop lifting like many people might assume, but they are involved in life threatening crimes such as assault and murder. According to the FBI, the number of arrests for youth 12 and younger, in 1996, was 250,000. For youth age 13 and 2006-08-25T17:28:43-04:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/Crime-Prevention-and-Psychology-31275.aspx Necessity of Compliments and their Influence on Relationships Everyday in American society, relationships end, leaving romantic partners pondering over where things may have gone wrong. Psychologists have been searching for many years as to what may cause of romantic feelings to fade away. Looking at studies time and again, I see that many psychologists try to go down the same roads with their hypothesis, and often prove a certain study to be more accurate, as opposed to learning what many seek to discover. I chose a study, which caught my attention during a class discussion on compliments. The class discussion kept hitting on points that compliments are a key in two people forming physical attraction for someone, and also a mentally stable connection between the two. It has been shown in studies, that the positive effects of a compliment are much stronger from a stranger, as opposed to a compliment from a friend. The reasoning for this is simple. If a complete stranger were to approach you and compliment you on how great you look, you are much more taken by surprise than if a friend were to do it “out of kindness.” You see, friends have already accepted you for who you are, so when they compliment you on something, it is nice to here, but does not really effect you in the way it use to when the two people had a relationship less entwined. The four qualities of interaction are all needed in order to keep a relationships stronghold intact. Whether it is frequency, Diversity, Duration, or Emotional impact, a relationship is very rarely able to work with the absence of any of the four. Well if this is true, than my question is, are compliments a key in keeping a relationship strong. Does the absence of complimenting in a relationship, causes an emotional and attractive decline in the relationship, although the four qualities of interaction are still constant? Frequency is the influence needed for a relationship to hold strong. Thousands of people each year take shots at long distance relationships, trusting the saying, “Absence makes the heart grow founder.” Sadly, almost 99% of the time these relationships will fail, for the reason that the couple does not have frequent time together as they would if they were geographically in the vicinity of each other. The point just mentioned can be summed up in the saying, “Out 2006-08-12T10:57:48-04:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/Necessity-of-Compliments-and-Their-Influence-on-Relationship-31227.aspx Diagnosis of Schizophrenia Schizophrenia, a disease of the brain, is one of the most disabling and emotionally devastating illnesses known to man. But because it has been misunderstood for so long, it has received relatively little attention and its victims have been undeservingly stigmatized. Schizophrenia is not a split personality, a rare and very different disorder. Like cancer and diabetes, schizophrenia has a biological basis; it is not caused by bad parenting or personal weakness. Schizophrenia is, in fact, a relatively common disease, with an estimated one percent to one and a half percent of the U.S. population being diagnosed with it over the course of their lives. While there is no known cure for schizophrenia, it is a very treatable disease. Most of those afflicted by schizophrenia respond to drug therapy, and many are able to lead productive and fulfilling lives. What are its symptoms? Schizophrenia is characterized by a constellation of distinctive and predictable symptoms. The symptoms that are most commonly associated with the disease are called positive symptoms, that denote the presence of grossly abnormal behavior. These include thought disorder, delusions, and hallucinations. Thought disorder is the diminished ability to think clearly and logically. Often it is manifested by disconnected and nonsensical language that renders the person with schizophrenia incapable of participating in conversation, contributing to his alienation from his family, friends, and society. Delusions are common among individuals with schizophrenia. An affected person may believe that he is being conspired against (called "paranoid delusion"). "Broadcasting" describes a type of delusion in which the individual with this illness believes that his thoughts can be heard by others. Hallucinations can be heard, seen, or even felt; most often they take the form of voices heard only by the afflicted person. Such voices may describe the person's actions, warn him of danger or tell him what to do. At times the individual may hear several voices carrying on a conversation. Less obvious than the "positive symptoms" but equally serious are the deficit or negative symptoms that represent the absence of normal behavior. These include flat or blunted affect (i.e. lack of emotional expression), apathy, and social withdrawal). Who gets it? While schizophrenia can affect anyone at any point in life, it is somewhat more common in those persons who are genetically predisposed to the disease. The first psychotic episode generally occurs in late adolescence or early adulthood. Genetic Link -- The probability of 2006-08-10T13:52:00-04:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/Diagnosis-of-Schizophrenia--31213.aspx Theories on Qualities of Leaders and Followers There appears to be a particular trend in research on leadership. Most of it subsumes vision within charisma. Some scholars even suggest that it is the vision that leads to the attribution of charisma to the leaders in the first place. However, we think that charisma and vision are two distinct concepts and as such a leader may be charismatic but not visionary, or visionary but not charismatic, both charismatic and visionary, or neither. To us, charisma is an emotion-based construct or a “heart” thing and charismatic leaders understand their social environment very well and are masters of social skills. Vision, on the other hand, is a competence-based construct, a combination of intellectual ability and experience, largely a “head” thing. In this paper, we distinguish between charisma and vision in detail and suggest that some of the confusion clouding the “new genre” of leadership theories becomes clear once we treat charisma and vision separately. LEADERSHIP AND FOLLOWERSHIP There is a particular trend in research on leadership; much of it subsumes vision within charisma (Weber, 1968; House, 1977; Bass, 1985; Bennis & Nanus, 1985; Conger & Kanungo, 1987; Avolio & Bass, 1988; House, Spangler & Woycke, 1991). One possible explanation for twining of the two concepts is that many well-known charismatic leaders had powerful visions. And, that is why charisma and vision exist together in our implicit theories on leadership. Some scholars (Weber, 1968; Conger, 1989) even suggest that it is vision that leads to the attribution of charisma to the leaders in the first place. Conger (1989:92) described charismatic leaders as “meaning makers” and noted that the amount of charisma attributed to a leader increases as the leader’s vision becomes more idealized in the minds of followers. In a review of charismatic leadership literature, “Connor et al. (1995:530) noted that vision is central to charisma and that “charisma involves the ability to provide a compelling vision”. Similarly, Graham (1991:105) observed that “an ideal leader is visionary, practical and inspirational ... charisma is a term frequently used to describe leaders who possess these ideal qualities.” Sashkin (1988) argued that a charismatic leader articulates a vision for the organization, and this vision, in turn, provides the framework for organisational strategies. Contrary to the views of the above authors, we believe that charisma and vision are two distinct concepts and as such a leader may be charismatic but not visionary, or 2006-08-08T09:37:16-04:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/Theories-on-Qualities-of-Leaders-and-Followers-31161.aspx Freudian Views Relating to God In Freud’s theory described above conscious, preconscious, id, ego and defense mechanism all play a predominated role in the life of Rachel Cameron in, The Jest of God. Freud had concluded that a person is always aware of their conscious state. In regard to the Jest of God, the main character Rachel is always aware of her thoughts and feelings. Even though she does not express the thoughts and feelings outwardly in the verbal or non-verbal manner. Freud believed that memories could come through from the preconscious to the conscious state by reliving and thinking about past memories. The preconscious state is refereed to in the book when she is trying to resurface her thoughts about her father when she leaves and talks to the funeral director Hector. Rachel released her memories from her preconscious at that time. “While Hector is talking, my eyes are searching the room, and yet this is senseless. Nothing is as it use to be, and there is nothing left from than, nothing of him not a clue” (A Jest of God, pg. 129). Freud referred to the “ID” as the pleasure principle. An example of Rachel living out her id is when she is having sex with Nick and not using any protection regardless of the consequences that may occur. This occurs because Rachel can’t find a balance between her ID and her superego. As mentioned above the superego is refered to as “what society wants” and the ID is refered to the “pleasure principle” in the book she repeated had a sexual encounter with Nick even with the high risk of becoming pregnant. In the book Rachel’s main conflict is creating a balance between her ID and her superego. Rachel’s need to have pleasure in her life, as well as, continuing to up hold the highest of moral standards that her mother deems absolutely necessary. There are several defense mechanisms she uses to survive, the first one being rationalization. In rationalization the theory states that a person takes a “bad action” and justifies that action taken. An example of this is when Rachel hits James in the nose with the ruler for not letting her see his math work. Once his nose starts to bleed and she realizes what she has done, she than justifies her action because she feels that to do otherwise would be detrimental to her authority as the 2006-08-07T22:06:56-04:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/Freudian-Views-Relating-to-God-31152.aspx Social Psychology Case Study: Aggressive Tendencies What made him abuse his newly wedded wife? Why did his son become an aggressive child? There is no way I would have expected this from such a considerate and loving person. Everything in their relationship seemed to be thriving. It may be possible that we never know someone until they are pushed to the point in which he or she are forced to act in response to a situation. I witnessed this happening and never could have predicted what transpired. My Aunt Natalie (not her real name) has always been an independent iron-willed woman. Natalie encountered a man named Ricky (not his real name) who was selfless, candid, and courteous. During their courtship Ricky was a perfect gentleman. They went out to drink at bars, attended social gatherings, and celebrated holidays with each other’s families. Within a year Natalie and Ricky fell in love and decided to get married. Shortly after the wedding Natalie became pregnant and gave birth to my cousin Justin (not his real name). Everything seemed blissful until Natalie was able to get back on her feet and involve herself in recreational activities once more. Ricky did not have a formal education. He crossed the threshold of America only one year before he married Natalie, so it became very challenging for him to find a job. Ricky desired that Natalie stay home and tend to the responsibility of raising her son, but Natalie disagreed with Ricky’s views. Natalie nurtured and cared for her child, but on occasion she would attend a local tavern or social gathering. Ricky eventually became fed up with what he felt was blatant neglect for his aspirations of having a similar household to those of his homeland, Peru. In Ricky’s family wives cater to the needs of their immediate family without much personal fulfillment. Unfortunately, one evening Ricky exploded into a mad rage because Natalie had plans to go out to a local tavern for a drink. Natalie said in response to Ricky’s antics, “Ricky, when we met you knew I like to go out and enjoy myself, so I do not care what you think. I will do what I want when I want to do it.” Ricky, a usually calm and composed man, felt he must demonstrate his assertiveness and proceeded to drag Natalie into the house by her hair while yelling in a vulgar fashion. Ricky, in 2006-08-07T17:45:23-04:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/Case-Study-on-Aggressive-Tendencies-Social-Psychology-31145.aspx Analysis of "Emotional Intelligence" by Daniel Goleman Daniel Goleman's book Emotional Intelligence is phenomenal. Rich with insight and valuable information, it provides answers to some questions that have perplexed professionals and lay persons alike for some time: Why do some people achieve far beyond what we might expect of them based on their circumstances and innate abilities, and why do some children thrive in a modem environment that seems intent on preventing them from even surviving? The answer, Goleman says, lies in emotional intelligence. He writes, "My concern is with. . emotional intelligence, abilities such as being able to motivate oneself and persist in the face of frustrations, to control impulses and delay gratification; to regulate one's moods and keep distress from swamping the ability to think; to empathize and to hope"(34). Emotional intelligence is further described as a "meta-ability," determining how well we can use whatever other skills we have, including raw intellect (36). The book goes on to explain that it is our ability to successfully manage our emotional lives, and therefore our relationships with others and our view of ourselves, that determines our success in life. Interestingly enough, the book doesn't t focus to any extent on communication per SE, but brings us just to the door of that issue on many occasions, almost as if it is a foregone conclusion that the ability to communicate about one's emotional state, and read others effectively is critical to achieving emotional intelligence. In all of the book 's many pages about empathy, for example, very little air time is given to the fact that one needs to first establish a personal empathetic state by observing and interpreting another's distress, and then communicate that response to the distressed person. However, a specific nod is given to effective communication in the chapter, "The Roots of Empathy." In both the statement, "Just as the mode of the rational mind is words, the mode of the emotions is nonverbal" (97), and later focus on the concept that empathy is of little value if it cannot be successfully expressed, the importance of effective communication is stressed. In a similar fashion, in the first few pages of the book, the concept of impulse control is defined, in terms of emotional intelligence, as knowing what to say and do and when to say and do it, but again the issue of effective communication is not addressed in so many 2006-08-07T13:13:50-04:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/Analysis-of-Emotional-Intelligence-by-Daniel-Goleman-31128.aspx A Study Of Psychopathic Behavior It is a popular belief that psychopaths are considered to be individuals that are as brilliantly charming as they are morally insane. However, the tendency to refer to the psychopathic behavior as “morally insane” is a misconception. Regardless of scientific discoveries , psychopathy is a disease which results in a physiological deficiency. The brain of psychopaths fails to generate a proper wave activity. Waves emitted are generally slower in individuals suffering from psychopathic behavior. This fundamental ineptitude is responsible for a lower degree of arousal when these persons face a threatening situation. Their lack of anxiety and consequent careless behavior in any situation is commonly referred to as lack of conscience. Indeed, Descartes’ “cogito ergo sum”, meaning “I am a fully conscious human being” is not applicable to their psyche. These individuals lack the plethora of emotions which colors our lives; that is, the ability to feel, to anticipate the breaking of the law, or to feel sorry when they break these laws. However, to say that psychopaths are morally insane is wrong. Above all, they are deprived of a conscience which organizes the moral notions of Good and Bad .This public misconception of psychopaths as morally insane goes back to the 19 century. In 1835, the British scientist Prichard introduced the term of “moral insanity” as referring to psychopathy. A French searcher, Phillipe Pinel, conceived the concept of “manie sans délire”. In French ,“manie” connotes a perverted mind which reproduces the same destructive action without any remorse .In a normal behavior, the deeds are constrained by external laws at work in society. The conscience of average individuals anticipate any destructive action which could obstruct the laws. Unfortunately, psychopaths don’t have such a capacity. They are leading a life which ignores external impediments. This fundamental unawareness is directly related to a slower activity of waves at work in the brain. This abnormality blocks the entire process of learning. The lower waves indeed produce a decreased response of anxiety which causes the psychopaths to not be anxious or afraid of punishment when they perform a reprehensible action. According to Cleckley’ s definition of psychopathic behavior in the Mask of Sanity , (1988) when one of them breaks the law, he or she does not experience a sense of shame or guilt. 2006-08-07T12:23:49-04:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/A-Study-Of-Psychopathic-Behavior-31124.aspx Reasons we Act the Ways we Do: Pyschology “Teenagers not only process emotions more intensely and more indiscriminately than adults, but also appear to use their brains differently to handle what they are told,” says Robert Lee Hotz, in his article Scans Show Teenage Brains Work. But is this an excuse to why males, from ages sixteen to thirty-two are getting into more trouble than any other age group? Many people believe that psychology proves this quotation to be true. I was born into my family just nineteen years ago. Although the number does not exceed great heights, the world is forever changing and throughout those years a lot has happened. There have been several efforts made to end racism, injustice and inequality. The population of those living without food and money have decreased because of the hundreds and thousands of people willing to help. So many I could fathom beginning to name them all. For me, I was never really taught to do whatever it takes to make a difference. Recycling was about the only thing I was taught to do in order to better the world. While my family and every day encounters are filled with laughter and love, the encouragement to think of the world as equal was never really there. My parents, my father mainly, were raised in households where they were taught to take care of themselves before anyone else. This way of life was of course passed down to me. Yet, this does not mean that I have to adapt to this way of life as well. Ever since I was little, I have tried to disown the teachings of my parents, and tell myself that everyone is equal and that there is no one in the world who is any more reckless or violent than anyone else. Therefore, behavior genetics is one of the perspectives that gives me a chance to change my way of thinking to be different from that of my parents. I was surprised by the statistics because I had never thought about young American males acting any different than any other age group, in fact, I had never really thought of any one group of people acting differently than another. Because of my naïve attitude towards life, I have always thought of things as equal between males and 2006-08-06T10:05:33-04:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/Reasons-We-Act-the-Ways-We-Do-Pyschology-31066.aspx Aggression in Human Beings Aggression is something that all animals have. There are many different levels of aggression and people, as well as other animals, act on their feelings of aggression in many different ways. Aggression comes in many forms including physical violence, sexual abuse, yelling and mental abuse. There are many factors that contribute to the amount of aggressiveness that people have and the ways that they act on them. Males generally have more aggression than women and act out with aggressive behaviors more often. Aggression and anger can be controlled and treated in several different ways. Aggression can not be completely destroyed, as it is a basic animal instinct. Everyone human on earth has aggression already in his or her biology. Some people have more than others do and some act on theirs more, but everyone has it. Studies have shown that males generally tend to have more aggression than woman. This has been shown through studies done about the link between testosterone and aggressive behavior. In a study done of 4,462 men showed that higher testosterone levels showed increases in delinquency in adolescence and substance abuse. It also showed that as children they often had trouble with teachers and later in life had more sexual partners and used hard drugs. The study also revealed that among inmates the ones with higher testosterone levels committed violent crimes, more likely to be rejected for release by the parole board, and had more prison rule violations(Dabbs Jr., 1995). There are two other biological factors that may play a role in the prevalence of aggressive behavior. One of these is a brain chemical called seratonin. Seratonin sometimes acts as a behavioral inhibitor. People that have a lower level of seratonin often show increased levels of impulsivity and aggressiveness. They are not as self conscious about their behaviors so they act on pure instinct more than others. Two other chemicals in the brain, dopamine and norepinephrine, are also believed to contribute to aggressive behavior (Retzinger, 1991). Another cause of aggressive behavior is believed to come in early childhood. If a child is abused or sees abuse occur, they are more likely to be abusive in their adulthood. Not only does it cause the child to become abusive later in life, abuse has an adverse affect on them immediately. They are often very fearful, have nightmares, feel powerless, have poor school performance, are more 2006-08-05T11:20:35-04:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/Aggression-in-Human-Beings--31031.aspx Psychoanalytical Approach Case Study: Steven V. Steven V. has been psychologically treated chronically since kindergarten. He had been previously diagnosed with schizoid personality, paranoid schizophrenia and manic depressive psychosis. All of his of his psychological treatment had been suggested by his parents due to his very intense childhood. Steven V. was the only child of a very wealthy couple. His father was a business man who was rarely home and did not seek the time to form a relationship with his son. The one emotion Steven did receive from his father was disappointment because his father felt he lacked the toughness to be successful in the world and was too timid. His mother Mrs. V. also spent little time with her son, but she did manage to show him a little more affection and love then his father did. Steven opened up to his mother more. She portrayed her love for him through hugging and kissing and even letting him sleep in her bed with her while Mr. V. was away on business, but this all ended when Steven was twelve. His mother awoke very alarmed to find her son masturbating next to her. Although this was a very natural act she forbid Steven to sleep with her from now on. Steven was raised mostly by a full time maid. Being alone most of the time, due to lack of parental and peer interaction, Steven kept busy by using his imagination. When he was younger he imagined himself as super heros and acted them out in extremely violent ways. As Steven grew older he became strongly interested in pornography. He would become intensely aroused by watching woman who were sexually violated. This lead to his interest in violent horror movies, such as The Texas Chainsaw Massacre, in which he frequently imagined his parents as the victims. When Steven was twenty one he began dating 2006-08-05T11:04:09-04:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/Psychoanalytical-Approach-Case-Study-with-Steven-V_-31022.aspx Passive Aggressive Personality Disorder (PAPD) Individuals with PAPD view themselves as self-sufficient but feel vulnerable to control 2006-08-05T10:31:59-04:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/Passive-Aggressive-Personality-Disorder-PAPD-31015.aspx Importance of Social Behavior in Modern Society Many social challenges exist in today’s society. As the world changes, one must learn to adapt with it. Innovative techniques and technologies make certain processes easier to perform such as typing. However, people make the world go around; not objects such as money. Relationships must co-exist between various groups in order for each to succeed rather than fall into a deep spiral of nonentity. People within a society must interact with one another. Peter F. Drucker documents the process of the revolution of today’s society in his essay entitled, “The Age of Social Transformation”. Here, Drucker describes the three sectors in society; public, private, and social. The social sector shortens the distance in communication that exists between the government and the general public. Having a line of symmetry between the two parties allows each to regulate one another. Through personal experience, Stephen Hall discusses how the pharmaceutical industry profits from the illness and suffering of others in his controversial essay properly entitled, “Prescription for Profit”. Is financial gain more important than the sake and well being of humankind? To many businesses, money makes the world go around. The private sector is similar to a green-eyed monster. Money is the main objective, and everything else is irrelevant. David Abram reveals how society perceives the natural world in his essay entitled “Ecology of Magic”. In many societies, everything other than human beings is taken for granted. Here, both “The human community and the larger community of beings” (4) are treated with the same respect. Drucker’s terminology allows the reader to see a contradiction in the societies colored by Hall and Abram. Many social challenges linger within today’s society. Such challenges include practices such as abortion. Many believe that an abortion is a form of murder because it destroys an unborn fetus while others believe that the fetus is not a living creature until it is born. Regardless of whether abortion is morally incorrect, doctors will proceed with the procedure anyway. Therefore a question is raised. Who takes care of these social challenges faced by society on a daily basis? The social sector takes on this difficult task with a full head of steam. According to Drucker, “Social-sector organizations aim at 2006-08-01T10:26:37-04:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/Importance-of-Social-Behavior-in-Modern-Society-30934.aspx Helping People with Mental Illness The Fellowship works closely with both state and national media bodies to ensure that schizophrenia and other mental illnesses are discussed openly and honestly so that the direct effects of stigma can be reduced and to promote early intervention and prevention. What is stigma? Stigma means a mark or sign of shame, disgrace or disapproval, of being shunned or rejected by others. The stigma surrounding schizophrenia is strong in our community, so strong in fact, that people with schizophrenia find themselves discriminated against at almost every turn, from finding employment or accommodation to simply making friends. It is important to recognise that stigma affects not only those with schizophrenia, but their families as well. What are the consequences of stigma? Stigma may be one of the most serious and oppressing factors confronting the person with schizophrenia. Its impact can be devastating. Feelings of isolation and depression are a common result of stigmatisation, with suicide becoming an option for some. The negative effects of stigma include: -Discouragement, hurt and anger -Lowered self-esteem -Disrupted relationships -Negative labelling (even in the absence of unusual behaviour individuals are shunned) -Decreased chance of employment; Possible contribution to relapse What can be done to reduce stigma? Education: Educating the community on mental illness both at school and in wider community settings is an effective way of increasing awareness and changing negative attitudes. It is important for people to learn to think about mental illness in the same way they think about other illnesses or conditions. Talking Openly: Talking openly about mental illness is important. It is surprising how many people are affected by mental illness, or have a family member or friend who is, and are too afraid of rejection to discuss it openly. The problem should not be swept under the carpet. Quality Support and Treatment: For people with schizophrenia to participate fully in all areas of community life, it is important to provide high quality support and treatment services. Advocacy groups should be proactive in their fight against the stigma surrounding mental illness, both for people with schizophrenia and their families. Consumer Role: It is important for people with schizophrenia to play an active role in challenging stigma. Promoting consumers as positive role models (both for other consumers as well as the general public) may be an effective method of reducing stigma. It is also 2006-08-01T10:13:47-04:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/Helping-People-with-Mental-Illness-30930.aspx Human Psychology and Self-Image Have you ever seen a popular women’s magazine that doesn’t target self-image? Probably not. Media seems to make real life extremely unrealistic. I mean how many people actually weigh about 100 pounds, that are totally healthy and in shape? Not many. In today’s society, women are always constantly worry about weight and the way they look and it’s all because of television, magazines, movies, and so on. The media tends to form a set image of how a person should look or act. To me, this only makes people weak. What type of girl do you picture when you hear “cheerleader”? Yep. Someone a lot like the cartoon character Brittany from MTV’s hit show Daria. –ditzy, jumping, screaming, and helpless when it come to doing much of anything else. We also have stereotypes of what a beautiful woman is supposed to look like. How familiar is the description: 5’7”, long blond hair, blue eyes, super skinny? Besides the fact that most women aren’t built like that, this ideal version of beauty leaves out anyone whose family tree doesn’t go back to a Northern European Country. Most people are left out of this fairy princess stereotype that is all over TV. Think about it. Why are we so obsessed with fat? It seems like you can’t get through a single day without somebody complaining about being fat or comparing weights or talking about being on a diet. Most of the time it’s the girls who look perfectly fine. Doesn’t this get just a little bit old? Think of all the things we could be talking about –world peace, fighting starvation, or hey, even math homework –but instead we waste all this time making a show of how much we hate our bodies all due to the set image of media. Even though media is constantly trying to convince us that what we really need is to be stick-thin and covered in expensive makeup and clothes, why do we feel so much pressure even within our groups of friends to go on and on about fat this and fat that? It’s because of four main reasons. Number one, it’s a reason to cover for something else. Number two, you may feel pressured while in a group that talks about fat constantly so you find yourself doing the exact same thing. Number three, you’re looking for a compliment. And finally 2006-07-31T15:27:02-04:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/Human-Psychology-and-Self-Image-30890.aspx Psychology of a College Student Some say that mankind is complex beyond comprehension. I cannot, of course, speak for every other individual on this earth, but I do not believe that I am a very difficult person to understand. My life is based upon two very simple, sweeping philosophies: pragmatism in actions and idealism in thought. Thus, with these two attitudes, I characterize myself. Pragmatism in actions. I believe utterly in one of those old cliches: we are given only a limited time upon this earth and every moment wasted is lost forever. Therefore, I do not engage in those things that I view as useless. The next question is obvious. What do I view as useless? In reality, perhaps too many things and definitely too many to address in one essay. However, I can indulge in the discussion of a few. Hate is a wasted emotion. Hate accomplishes nothing. It does not relieve hunger. It does not alleviate pain. It creates only avoidable aggression. I do not believe in any kind of hate, including prejudice and racism. My energies and time can be better spent elsewhere. Anger too. What does anger do? Nothing. It frustrates us and aggravates us, and we can avoid it. Being frustrated is not a pleasing experience for me. When I was young, or rather, when I was younger than I am now, I would explode at the smallest disturbances (I'm sorry mom and dad). Now, I have realized that anger is a waste of time, and I no longer have a temper to lose. I would much rather wallow in happiness. And in my happiness, I do not worry much over my image in the eyes of others. The important word here is much, for there are opinions of certain individuals about which I do care a great deal, but these are few. They include my family, my close friends, and those who possess the power to affect my life significantly (for example, university admissions officers). Otherwise, I pay no attention to whispers behind my back or vague rumors circulating in the air above. As long as I know the truth, however harsh it may be, and those that I care about know the truth, I am not troubled. The masses may think as they wish. They are entitled. As can probably be observed from this essay thus far, my outlook on life 2006-07-30T21:09:37-04:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/Psychology-of-a-College-Student-30841.aspx Social Psychology Essay on Group Experiences During my experiences working in groups I have found that there are various factors to consider when group productivity is the desired outcome of the group. Some of these factors are: social loafing, evaluation apprehension, considering the personalities of each group member and the creation of social norms. Social loafing is the tendency for one or more members of the group to under perform and benefit from the work that other group members put in. Evaluation apprehension is the fear that other members of the group are evaluating your performance. Personalities of all the group members need to be considered as a dominant personality may be competitive and people who are competitive can manipulate other group members. Social norms are rules that describe appropriate behavior for all group members. All of these things need to be considered when productivity of the group is the desired goal. (Bond & McConkey, 2001) Social norms such as waiting until the person speaking has finished before interrupting, taking turns in speaking, not to dominate the group in any way, to respect others ideas and thoughts even if you disagree and agreeing as a group of appropriate language to be used within the group, are always a good idea to have in a group as it can minimize the chance of confrontation and arguments between group members. In my experiences working with groups I have found that people with dominating personalities generally adopt the role of leader and tend to be very competitive within the group. This is a hard problem to overcome as all of the group members have different skills to contribute to the group and are required to fulfill the task appropriately. Perhaps after observing the group if you where to allocate the role of leader to a non-dominating personality within the group, people tend to feel less dominated and work better in the group. A few social norms that are common in a group are, waiting until the person talking has finished before interrupting, taking turns in speaking, to respect all the group members by not dominating conversations and agreeing as a group as to the appropriate language to be used within the group. A technique to try is the brainstorming or nominal group technique to help 2006-07-30T20:49:16-04:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/Social-Psychology-Essay-on-Group-Experiences-30834.aspx Dissociative Identity Disorder- Diagnoses and Treatment It is very important to diagnose a case of dissociative identity disorder; if it is not diagnosed, it may lead to death. However, therapists have had many problems in diagnosing this type of disorder. This is due to two major factors. The first is that DID is seen as a very unusual disorder, and most cases of DID are mistaken for Schizophrenia. The second factor is that there is a lack of guidelines for the diagnosis of DID. Hence, even when DID is diagnosed it usually takes multiple weeks-or even months to recognize. There are three categories of special techniques that are used to diagnose DID. The first category is screenings tools that are used to identify patients at risk for any dissociative disorder, not exclusively DID. The second category is structured interviews, and the third category is informal interviews. There are three screenings tools that are used to identify patients at risk for a dissociative disorder. The first tool is the Dissociative Experiences Scale (DES). The DES is a twenty-eight question self-report that rates a patient’s dissociative symptoms and experiences. The patient indicates his/her agreement with a question by circling a percentage from 0% to 100%. The sum of the twenty-eight scores is taken and averaged to determine whether or not the patient suffers from a dissociative disorder. The DES is reported to have 80% sensitivity, and DID patients usually score above forty points. The two other screenings tools are the Dissociative Questionnaire and the Questionnaire of Experiences of Dissociation, and are both very similar to the DES. There are four types of structured interviews that can be used to diagnose DID. The first interview is the Dissociative Disorder Interview Schedule (DDIS). This interview is very time consuming (it can take anywhere from forty-five minutes to three hours) and is used more in research settings than clinical. There are one-hundred thirty-one items in the interview, most which ask about childhood sexual abuse. The DDIS serves to diagnose dissociative disorders, somatization disorders, major depression, and borderline personality disorder. It is reported to have high sensitivity and a specificity for diagnosing DID. The second interview is the Structured Clinical Interview for DSM-IV Dissociative Disorders Revised (SCID-D-R). This interview is also very time consuming and is used more in research settings than clinical. In addition, it requires special training. The interview is highly sensitive to 2006-07-28T08:16:31-04:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/Dissociative-Identity-Disorder-Diagnoses-and-Treatment-30756.aspx Analysis of Juvenille Delinquincy Delinquent behavior, whether in children, adolescents, or adults, is childish and anti-social behavior and usually not in the long-term best interests of its perpetrators. Most adolescent delinquents are extremely dependent upon their peer groups, primarily because they have no functioning families, effective parenting, nurturing, or positive adult role models to rely on. These young people come from all ethnic backgrounds and live in middle- and upper-class neighborhoods as well as in ghettos. We hear most about black and Hispanic gangs running drugs, stealing, and mugging; but there are also white gangs, such as neo-nazis and skin-heads, that for adults may take on the functions of survivalist or para-military groups, political parties or lobbying organizations, while still maintaining their essential character and intent. Membership in a gang provides a sense of power or belonging. It takes the place of kinship. The gang is the post-modern "family," complete with codes of protection and loyalty for its members. That they are substitutes for families is what gives the groups their psychological power and makes it so difficult for them to break up or dissolve. The shared desire for money, power, and violence joins people together both at the top and at the bottom of our social structure. At the top are the "good old boy" network and the military-industrial complex that General Eisenhower cautioned us against a generation ago, of which the powerful gun lobby and the defense contractors are striking examples At the other end of the social spectrum, there are the gangs in our inner cities, whose territories have come to resemble war zones. Fire, police, and ambulance services often will not venture into such ares on weekends or at the height of violent sprees, from fear for their lives. A kind of barbarism now prevails in many cities that nobody wants to talk about. Police alone cannot solve these problems because crime is not their real cause and because police under increasing stress or frustration may contribute to crime with racism and excessive violence. The real cause of inner city turmoil is the violent, abusive family, or, more accurately, the disintegration of the family as a positive social unit. This root cause is reflected in other 2006-07-27T07:59:24-04:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/Analysis-of-Juvenille-Delinquincy-30691.aspx Understanding Psychology and its Methods In a world driven by experience, the quest to find the best method and approach to scientific and psychological studies continues. McGartland and Polgar (1994) contend that psychology can be clearly seen to have two distinct methods of investigation- 1) The empirico- mathematical and 2) the culture interpretive method. In recognizing this, it is still often the empirico-mathematical approach that is dominantly used and the commitment to this method has, according to McGartland & Polgar (1994) not been successful in advancing the discipline of psychology, instead creating conceptual confusion. Rather then relying solely on one method it is suggested that in place must be a neat combination of both the quantitative and the qualitative that govern inquiry. The aim of this is to give rise to all aspects of the person being studied with the integration of the culture- interpreting method seeking knowledge about people in natural settings, revealing the context out of which personal meanings can arise in the everyday settings and the empirico-mathematical that reduces human nature to ‘specific, operationally defined variables, the level of which can be objectively and consensually observed or measured.’(p21) Kuhn (1970 in McGartland & Polgar, 1994) questions whether scientific discoveries may be the source of the paradigm shifts that define the reinterpretation and restructuring of the discipline that makes it difficult to predict what will next lend form and direction to theoretical formulations and research findings of psychology. Engel (1992) also pays close attention to the notion of paradigm shifts, and in doing so argues that while medicine has made many advances since the 17th century they are still however bound by the ‘school of thought in which scientists as objective observers are to regard nature as independent from themselves and unaffected by their act of observation’ (p335). This is in accordance with the predominantly used empirico-mathematical methodology in psychology. Under the 20th century paradigm characterized by Einstein and Heisenberg in Engel (1992) science is defined, as ‘what is being studied is inseparable from the scientist, who devises mental constructs of his/her experiences with it as a means of characterizing his/her understanding of its properties and behaviour’ (p336). The scientific world’s somewhat unwillingness to adapt this approach is at the heart of Engel’s argument. This I foresee is more widely appropriate model, with the observational component (the measurable and categorical that is evidently in plain view e.g. 2006-07-26T23:17:13-04:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/Understanding-Psychology-and-its-Methods-30687.aspx Social Psychology Individual And Group Behavior In order to answer this question I will have to look at the process of maturation. The course of development in man is shaped by maturation and learning. The issue between inherent growth aspects Maturation, and the influence of experience, as in learning is one that has to be faced in many areas of psychology. Maturation assumes that timing and patterns of change beyond birth are relatively independent of experience and go on beyond despite wide variations in the environment. There are two main theories of child development, no psychologist would argue that any one argument in isolation could contribute wholly to the development process. What is clear is that the interactions between these two main arguments contribute to who we are. The first main argument that I will look at is the empiricists, who believe that the environment that we are brought up in is the main reason that we develop the way that we do, the main arguments are put forward by J.B. Watson who considered “that the child was born as a Tabula Rasa (a blank slate)” (N.Hayes, 1987 Psychology an Introduction pg2) . Watson was a total empiricist who believed that we are a blank slate that experience would write on. The other main view point put forward was the nativists who believed that we are pre-programmed and develop according to our genetic make-up through our genes and chromosomes. This viewpoint was put forward by Gesell who believed “children developed almost entirely as a result of genetic influence with there environment having little effect” (N.Hayes, 1987 Psychology an Introduction pg2) . Most of the studies that have been carried out about learning have been tested on animals rather than humans and there is many different theories of learning. Learning can be described as “ a change in behaviour brought about as a result of experience” (N. Hayes, 2000, Foundations of Psychology, pg577) .. The first form of learning that is going to be looked at is classical conditioning. Two different investigations were done on this associative learning. American J.B. Watson in 1903 developed a theory called the law of exercise, which stated that “a learned link-an association-between a stimulus and a response could be forged simply by repeating the two together often enough” (N. Hayes, 2000, Foundations of Psychology, pg577). 2006-07-26T12:32:57-04:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/Social-Psychology-Individual-And-Group-Behavior-30680.aspx Xu Shan: Memories of Prenatal Period: The discovery of a Spiritual and Cultural Prototype of Human Beings Published Xu Shan: Memories of Prenatal Period: The discovery of a Spiritual and Cultural Prototype of Human Beings (Chinese edition, 2002, New Star Publishing House, Seoul, Kerea) Xu Shan (1)Professor, Dept. of Chinese, Suzhou University, Suzhou 215006, P.R.China. M.A. 1987, Nanjing Teachers' Univ; Ph.D. 2002, Shanghai Teachers' University. (2)Blog: http://blog.sina.com.cn/m/xu_shan (3)Works: 1.Thunder-God Worship: The Origin of Chinese Culture, Shanghai Joint Publishing House, Shanghai, 1992; 2. The Origin of Chinese Language, Sichuan People's Publishing House, Sichuan, 1998; 3. Xu Shan's Selected Papers on Chinese Language, New Star Publishing House, Seoul, 2002; 4.Memories of Prenatal Period: The discovery of a Spiritual and Cultural Prototype of Human Beings, New Star Publishing House, Seoul,2002; 5. Research Papers on Chinese Ancient Characters, Chinese Literature and History Publishing House, 2003; 6. Xu Shan's 1000 Short Poems, Cozy House Publisher, New York,2004; 7. An Analysis of the Structure and Words of The Book of Changes, China Bookstore, 2005. Abstract The affairs the author had experienced in a week's time after Jan. 29, 1996, impelled an important turn in the author's thought. With the study of stories (A huge Dinosaur lays eggs, etc.) and dreams narrated by my daughter (6 years old, born on Jan. 25, 1990) as well as the author's self-hypnosis, it has been made clear that the starting point of human beings' spirit originates from memories of prenatal period, of which the strong marks and influence left in personal history and mankind's culture can be observed. To take memories of prenatal period as a new angle to survey extensively the history of human beings and the creations of our mankind's souls, a lot of hard-to-understand riddles have been deciphered. The discovery of memories of prenatal period turns over a new leaf in the field of life sciences, and makes an important step in the fields of psychology, religion, dream culture, literature study, and traditional culture and ideology. Contents Preface We want to reopen the story of the beginning of life. I want to know what I am and why I am so. Fortunately an opportunity has come at last. 1. A Huge Dinosaur Lays Eggs Everyone seems to be unable to recall his own things in a period of time after birth, not to mention birth itself. The story "A Huge Dinosaur Lays Eggs" on January 29, 1996 2006-07-26T11:48:46-04:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/Xu-Shan-Memories-of-Prenatal-Period-30668.aspx Working with Emotional Intelligence In Daniel Goldman’s book “Working with Emotional Intelligence”, he gives us competencies that shape our work and lives. I can see many situations where I have failed and succeeded in the categories that Goldman provided for us. I found that when I first started working for Jim Bob it was going to be nothing but an uphill battle getting my ideas for innovation across. I wanted to take what current strengths and weaknesses we had in our industry and within the company itself and improve on them. Everyone needed to understand that we needed to develop these areas. There was a resistance to putting everything on computer and basically automating all of our processes that was previously done by managers and employees. Being able to adapt to change through innovation was needed. Understanding that this simplifies their job and removes the chances of human error on their part. Although skeptic to the idea of changing from old trusted ways, they made an effort to see where I could take this. Since then, learning how this new technology made their jobs has become a success. Work orders are now online and information can be found at the push of a button. All those who doubted at first, finally accepted the idea of innovation and are ecstatic with the results. There has also been a few times in my life where I can say that failing to use one of these competencies has had negative effects. Let me emphasize on the FEW. Yeah, I wish. There have been some instances where lack of motivation has taken its toll on goals. One of the great examples would be getting my college degree. I have been a perpetual student for the last 5 years. Taking a class here a class there to fill in the space and work towards that goal. I never understood the time and dedication required to effectively finish the goal of making it that line and breaking the tape. I was lacking the achievement drive to make it to the end. In the short term, school was easy and I had more free time for work and play. What I didn’t see was that while I was slowly biting away from the big pie, is that 2006-07-25T16:07:41-04:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/Working-with-Emotional-Intelligence-30651.aspx The Effects of Depression on Teenagers Teenage years are depressing because they are going through some of the biggest changes in their life. Teens start high school and have to deal with being little in a school again. They go through major hormonal changes. Their bodies develop and grow. They have to decide whether or not they are going to college or not. If they choose college, then what college will meet their needs the best? Will they even be accepted to the college they want to go to? These are major decisions and changes they have never experienced before. Then there is the daily life. They wake up in the morning dreading school, they know they have to go. They just don't want to go. Then they get ready and go to school. They are depressed about school. They go to all their classes. The end of the day is nearing and they may be depressed about having to go home. Their family life might be bad. They go home and what do you do? Sit down, watch television, play a video game, lock themselves in their room, or just going around being mad at everyone and their life. This really is the pits. They need to change their life whether it be changing their after school activity or changing their attitude. Depression is defined as a psychoneurotic or psychotic disorder marked especially by sadness, inactivity, difficulty in thinking and concentration, a significant increase or decrease in appetite and time spent sleeping, feelings of dejection and hopelessness, and sometimes suicidal tendencies. No two people feel or experience depression the same way. The symptoms and causes of depression are very different for everyone. Lawrence Clayton, Ph.D. and Sharon Carter write, "The National Institute of Mental Health (NIMH) [reported that] for 4 to 10 percent of the American public at any given time the ["downer"] mood doesn't lift." They also reported that one quarter of the population would experience a major depressive period during their lifetime (8). One out of four people will have a problem with depression in the United States. NIMH also reported that "approximately 4 out of a 100 teenagers get seriously depressed each year. Clinical Depression is a serious illness that can affect anybody, INCLUDING TEENAGERS" ("Let's Talk" 1). Gerald D. Oster, Ph.D., Sarah S. Montgomery, MSW, write, "Clinical depression refers to a condition 2006-07-25T12:36:20-04:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/The-Effects-of-Depression-on-Teenagers-30629.aspx Psychology Theories on American Girls In America, girls are given the message at a very young age that in order to be happy and successful, they must be thin. Given the value, which our society places on being thin, it is not surprising that eating disorders are on the increase. In America thousands of teenage girls are dealing with emotional situations daily and eating behavior can be affected by the way they are feeling. Eating disorders affect over five million men and women in the United States, and sadly enough thousands of them will die from the physical problems caused by conditions that are linked with eating disorders. Most people think of the extremes of anorexia, bulimia, and binge eating; the truth is that almost every American, at some point in his or her lifetime, will suffer from issues of weight loss, body shape, or self-image, if not all three. Due to these factors, eating disorders are a major concern for psychologists today (Harmon, 1999). This trend, however, is found mainly in America and countries with western ideals. Eating Disorders are primarily behavior disorders. Douglas Eagles (1987) states, “the behavioral disturbance leads to disorders of nutrition” (p. 71). The definition of Eating Disorders as defined by Harmon (1999), “a psychological disorder in which a person is unable or unwilling to maintain normal eating habits, and instead engages in self starvation, binging, purging, or some combination of these behaviors (83). Eating disorders are not just about losing weight and the search for the ideal body, they are mainly about expressing difficult feelings (Abraham & Llewellyn-Jones, 1999). Eating Disorders affect over five million Americans and thousands will die from these conditions (American Anorexia Bulimia Association [AABA], 2001). The prevalence of eating disorders has increased in the last forty years. It is believed that extreme eating disorders occur in approximately 4 percent of American females (Costin, 1999). However, eating disorders can also be found in males. “Both anorexia and bulimia appear to be much more common in women than in men, from 90 to 95 percent of all patients are females” (Long, 1999). Eating disorders typically begins in adolescence between the ages of twelve and twenty-five, however, it may begin as early as seven and can continue until as late as fifty-nine. There are three main classifications of eating disorders, anorexia nervosa, bulimia nervosa, and binge eating. The general definition of anorexia 2006-07-23T17:21:26-04:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/Psychology-Theories-on-American-Girls-30531.aspx The Use of Ritalin in Treating ADD and ADHD Moving beyond ADD/ADHD is a book that discussed what Attention Deficit Disorder/Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder is. It is a condition for which the medication Ritalin is most commonly prescribed. Its diagnosis is based on problems with attention, focus, impulsivity, or over activity at school or home. The book distinguishes the difference between ADD and ADHD according to the American Psychiatric Association’s diagnostic and statistical manual, the DSM IV, which is used by insurance companies, school personnel and mental health clinicians. The text also clarifies (according to the scientific method) the root causes of ADD/ADHD. The root causes determined that ADD/ADHD is not a neurological disfunction. Instead, it is a condition of imbalance within the mind-body level. These imbalances have physical counter parts within the brain wave and biochemical functioning. This causes a “lack of centering and grounding.” Which means that an ADD/ADHD person falls short of being in tune with oneself, and being fully embodied in one’s physical experience (sensing one’s true and authentic thoughts, feelings and needs.) The principle ideas discussed in Moving Beyond ADD/ADHD are designed to shift the consciousness of a person struggling with ADD/ADHD form the ADD/ADHD state of being to self-containment that is freedom from ADD/ADHD. Furthermore, the text explores alternatives to ADD/ADHD such as medication, nutrition and therapeutic intervention. I chose this particular book because I am interested in the Behavioral Perspective of Psychology. Jean Piaget, an influential observer of children, developed the Behavioral Perspective. According to behaviorists, learning can be defined as the relatively permanent change in behavior brought about as a result of experience or practice. In fact, the term “learning theory” is often associated with the behavioral view. Researchers who affiliated with this position generally do not look with favor on the term “behavior potential” (i.e., may be capable of performing but did not for some reason such as illness, situation, etc.) that was included in a definition accepted by those with a cognitive or humanistic viewpoint. The focus of the behavioral approach is on how the environment impacts overt behavior. Furthermore, there are four types of behavioral learning theories. The first is the Contiguity Theory. This theory says that any stimulus and response connected in time and/or space will tend to 2006-07-22T18:36:03-04:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/The-Use-of-Ritalin-in-Treating-ADD-and-ADHD-30487.aspx Case Study on Misguided Youth The following case study taken from Eftimiades et al. evidences the effect of a child left unsupervised by parents during his formative years to become a violent adult. Jeremy Strohmeyer was an average 18-year-old teenager who grew increasingly defiant as time progressed. He was once a successful student and a volleyball player. He lived a middle class life; his mother was a successful marketing executive and his father was a real estate investor. Jeremy’s community was shocked to see or hear of the murder he committed. Jeremy, his friend David and David’s father traveled to Nevada to celebrate the Memorial Day holiday. At a casino in Nevada Jeremy began to play hide and seek with 7-year-old Sherrice Iverson. Sherrice left to go to the restroom and Jeremy followed. He then raped and strangled the child and left to continue celebrating the holiday with David and David’s father. A surveillance tape recorded the entire event and was aired on national television. Jeremy’s classmates recognized him, and he was arrested. Many people blame Jeremy’s parents for the incident even though the tape stunned them too. His parents were also unaware of the fact that he owned a collection of pornographic photos including those of young children. Jeremy’s mother was always at work and did not take time to participate in his life (Eftimiades et al. 65). Violence among children is increasing dramatically. The number of murders committed by adolescents has notably risen from 1,000 to almost 4,000 over the last decade (Eftimiades et al. 63). The increase of violent children is proportional to the increase of single parent families. According to the Chancellor of the New York City school system, 12,000 of the 60,000 kindergartners are being raised by mothers in their teenage years, and forty percent of the children are being raised in single-parent homes (Fagan 61). Although the cause of each violent child is unique to the individual, there are several acknowledged risk factors that contribute to the increase of violence among children. The lack of parental presence, an unstable family unit, government intervention, and the absence of a father are contributing factors that trigger violence among children. Children tend to become violent and behave improperly when they experience a lack of presence, communication and 2006-07-22T17:39:22-04:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/Case-Study-on-Misguided-Youth-30467.aspx Learning how to Handle Stress This essay is about handling the stress of University studies. We will be looking into many ideas and different people¹s views on how to handle stress. I will also be giving my own opinions on how I think stress can be controlled or relieved. The first thing we must do is ask ourselves one very important question, ³what is stress²? According to an Australian born physician, Hans Selye (1979), stress is the nonspecific response of the body to any demand made upon it. The body responds in many ways. One is to the loss of blood and the other is to the lack of sleep. Both of these are nonspecific responses, however all demands made on the body evoke generalized, nonspecific responses. For example, they all unable you to concentrate as would normally be expected, they activate one¹s sympathetic nervous system, and they also increase the amount of the hormone epinephrine that is being released into your body. When people say they¹ve been under going a lot of stress they are usually referring to a couple of unpleasant experiences. Now that we have an idea on what stress is the next question we should ask ourselves is ³what is or can cause stress². There are many different things that cause stress. One may be if you have a big term paper due and you want to do your best to impress your seminar leader. Another may be peer or family related. All in all it is things, events, situations, and people that cause stress. It is how we perceive them that will determine whether or not stress will be a result from the encounter. Not only negative situations are the cause of stress. Joy and happiness can also cause stress even though they are positive. In a sense, it is we then who choose our own stressors. Selye noted that with the absence of stress there is death. Current researchers are also discovering that too little stress may be a major cause of depression or boredom. It is therefore up to us to choose the best stressors and the optimal level of stress. Since we have now begun to understand the definition of stress as well as the causes we now ask ourselves 2006-07-22T13:43:39-04:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/Learning-how-to-Handle-Stress-30466.aspx Psychological Debate over Nature Vs. Nurture One of the big debates that occupies a lot of many people's time is the Nature/Nurture controversy. It is also sometimes known as the genetic/environmental controversy. The Nature vs. Nurture controversy is the argument between whether inherited genes or the environment influences and effects our personality, development, behavior, intelligence and ability. Some people believe that it is only genes that effect our ways of life, others believe that it is the environment plays a major role, and some believe that both of these influence us. Either way researchers have been struggling for years, maybe even centuries, trying to decide whether our personalities are born or made. There are three types of gene/environment relations. The first one is called a passive correlation. It is to be explained as, for example, if a musical ability was genetic, and a child was passed a musical ability trait, than the child would most likely have musically inclined parents. Their parents then would provide them with the genes and environment to promote the development of that ability. The second one is called evocative. This happens when genetically distinct people evoke different reactions from peers and parents and others. And the third association is called an active correlation. This is when people actively select experiences that fit with their genetically influenced preferences. If we take a baby human, and a baby monkey and give them both the best environment that we can imagine, the child will be radically different from the monkey and the differences will be almost totally caused by genetic differences. At the extreme, the proponents of the Nature side of the controversy would have us believe that the differences in human behavior are like the difference between human behavior and monkey behavior, just less extremely. Similarly, if we take identical twins, and give one the best environment possible, and put the other one in closet for eighteen years the differences will be profound, and caused totally by environmental differences between the two children. At the extreme the proponents of the Nurture side of the controversy would have us believe that the differences in human behavior are like the differences in the twin's behavior. Believers in the Nature side of the argument tell you that split-twin studies are wrought with misinformation and bias. Twins who volunteer for that sort of research are perhaps more likely to 2006-07-17T22:53:33-04:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/Psychological-Debate-over-Nature-Vs_-Nurture-30324.aspx Practical Assesment of Hypnosis Based on studies using the Stanford scales, researchers with very different theoretical perspectives now agree on several fundamental principles of hypnosis. The first is that a person's ability to respond to hypnosis is remarkably stable during adulthood. In perhaps the most compelling illustration of this tenet, a study showed that when retested, Hilgard's original subjects had roughly the same scores on the Stanford scales as they did 10, 15 or 25 years earlier. Studies have shown that an individual's Stanford score remains as consistent over time as his or her IQ score--if not more so. In addition, evidence indicates that hypnotic responsiveness may have a hereditary component: identical twins are more likely than same-sex fraternal twins to have similar Stanford scores. A person's responsiveness to hypnosis also remains fairly consistent regardless of the characteristics of the hypnotist: the practitioner's gender, age and experience have little or no effect on a subject's ability to be hypnotized. Similarly, the success of hypnosis does not depend on whether a subject is highly motivated or especially willing. A very responsive subject will become hypnotized under a variety of experimental conditions and therapeutic settings, whereas a less susceptible person will not, despite his or her sincere efforts. (Negative attitudes and expectations can, however, interfere with hypnosis.) Several studies have also shown that hypnotizability is unrelated to personality characteristics such as gullibility, hysteria, psychopathology, trust, aggressiveness, submissiveness, imagination or social compliance. The trait has, however, been linked tantalizingly with an individual's ability to become absorbed in activities such as reading, listening to music or daydreaming. Under hypnosis, subjects do not behave as passive automatons but instead are active problem solvers who incorporate their moral and cultural ideas into their behavior while remaining exquisitely responsive to the expectations expressed by the experimenter. Nevertheless, the subject does not experience hypnotically suggested behavior as something that is actively achieved. To the contrary, it is typically deemed as effortless--as something that just happens. People who have been hypnotized often say things like "My hand became heavy and moved down by itself" or "Suddenly I found myself feeling no pain." Many researchers now believe that these types of disconnections are at the heart of hypnosis. In response to suggestion, subjects make movements without conscious intent, fail to detect exceedingly painful stimulation or temporarily forget a familiar fact. Of course, these kinds of things also 2006-07-17T13:25:33-04:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/Practical-Assesment-of-Hypnosis-30303.aspx Examining Near Death Experiences People have had near death experiences for thousands of years, but they have become more common in the last several years because of the medical technology that can bring more people back to life. (Jaegers 158) A near death experience can be called a NDE for short, but what exactly is an NDE? Jaegers answered that question. She states that NDE’s are visions that people of all ages and races can have. They mostly occur after an accident or traumatic injury patients. The visions consist of a dark tunnel leading to a light with occasional sightings of sparkles. People report seeing different images of people and talking to an individual who has varied from Jesus to Elvis and even Santa Claus. Out-of-body experiences are common too during NDE’s, in some cultures. (Jaegers 159-161) The reader may or may not believe in the afterlife, or maybe the reader just don’t have an opinion on it. Whatever the reader believes, this paper will bring different views and possible explanations to your attention. This paper will also contain a personal conclusion of the question, “Are near death experiences visions of the afterlife?” It will discuss inconsistencies, consistencies, and possible causes along with stories from people who claimed to have been to the afterlife and then returned. As mentioned earlier, people of all different ages, and races, have had NDE’s, as well as people from different cultural backgrounds and languages. They all have similarities, although no two NDE’s have been exactly alike. (Fenwick no page) The culture of the patient came from usually effects what is in their NDE. For example, in Indian cultures it is very rare to hear of out of body experiences or experiences of floating down a tunnel, but instead the patient is being carried by a “messenger,” as several subjects have claimed. Friends and family are not so much involved in an Indian NDE, as in other cultures. (Fenwick no page) NDE’s are not Visions of the Afterlife What culture the subject is from does not affect everything in an NDE, as some things are universal, like the possible causes of NDE’s. Doctors have come up with many possible causes of NDE’s and have found two major possible causes. The first cause is brain stimulation. 2006-07-17T13:17:38-04:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/Examining-Near-Death-Experiences-30299.aspx The Real Meaning of "Being Happy" Weight training offers many advantages. First and foremost, it strengthens your body, and a stronger body gives you more energy in all areas of your life. It also helps to prevent injuries in your outdoor activities, plus helps to keep your body toned and your bones 2006-07-17T13:06:01-04:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/The-Real-Meaning-of-Being-Happy-30293.aspx Males and Females: Levels of Relationships and Forms A survey was conducted to help understand the level of relationships between male and females. The three levels of human relationships included social, personal, and intimate. Of the men and woman surveyed the ages ranged from 18 years of age to 62 years of age. The questions asked the number of the three types of relationships and what seemed to be the most involved, enjoyed, and most important. As a group, we tried to determine if men or woman had more relationships than the other sex in any type of relationship. On a level of social relationships, a social relationship is people that you know or associate with. For example: co-workers, people you do business with all the time, or distance family members, the answers could not be studied due to the extreme high and low numbers between the two groups. It is known that humans deal with too many people on a daily basis to accurately count social relationships. We did not count this into our survey and later discarded the question. Personal relationships seemed to be the most popular among men and woman. A personal relationship is considered someone you have a close friendship with but no intimacy. A best friend or immediate family member may be considered a personal relationship. It was very clear in the surveys that woman had a larger number of personal relationships than the men. Their numbers almost doubled what the men surveyed. Intimate relationships surveyed very equally between the men and woman. An intimate relationship is being very close to an individual, having physical attraction for one another, having physical touch, strong emotions, and physically close to each other. The men seemed to pull ahead with the number of intimate relationships. Most of the surveys were equal between the two, but half of them had some high numbers. Men scored a higher number on the intimate relationships, they believed to be more involved with personal relationships. The same with the woman, except they thought they were more involved with intimate when they scored a higher number on the personal relationships. This shows an inverse relationship between the two groups. When the survey asked the two groups what relationship do they enjoy the best, the answers completely 2006-07-16T20:41:35-04:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/Males-and-Females-Levels-of-Relationships-and-Forms-30256.aspx Psychological Explanations of Dreaming In general, “The dream reveals the reality which conception lags behind.” Dreams have been a mystery to us since Adam first breathed life. With the stuff of legends, myths and fairy tales, dreams have always fascinated mankind. Dreams are private mental experiences, which may be described as an alteration in consciousness in which remembered images and fantasies are temporarily confused with external reality. It is a communication of the mind, body, and spirit in a symbolic communicative environmental “state-of-being.” Investigators do not yet understand why we dream at all, much less why they dream what they dream. However modern methods of study have answered many great questions about dreaming. In the dream state, we have an opportunity to access our private unconscious and the collective conscious. Private unconscious materials are those things that are “exclusively ours.” For example, the experiences and issues that features in our dreams. Jung thought that dreams were generally compensatory in nature. They try to deal with errors, deviations, one-sidedness and other shortcomings in our lives and personality. Dreams that arise out of our private unconscious are generally valuable and relevant to the current time. (If a dream brings up a past experience, it must be because old issues are unresolved.) Basics About Dreaming 4 When we are dreaming and the dream is about something from our daily life, then that dream comes from our private or personal unconscious. The dream may be ego based and is very important. This type of a dream will increase our awareness and enable us to see some issue, problem, or a personal characteristic in a new, more fulfilling and productive way. For instance, in our society, dreams can be an excuse to say something intimate to someone. It may be a tentative way to see if a deeper relationship is possible, as in “I had a very nice dream about you last night.” People do not want to take as much personal responsibility for their dreams as they do with most of their other thoughts. It then produces a platform to say whatever nonsense, lie, or fantasy someone might have on his or her mind, because there’s no way to determine if the claim is true or not. Conscious thoughts are those that we can control and can be quite aware of. The word “consciousness” can be substituted with the word “ awareness.” 2006-07-13T15:29:50-04:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/Psychological-Explanations-of-Dreaming-30221.aspx Case Study of Ethics in Client Counseling This is about an ethical issue in counseling. It is a counselor possibly having a problem with a client that is abuse in relationships, specifically spousal. The counselor had an abusive father, which makes him very sensitive to this type of situation. The client of course is approximately the same age as the counselor, grew up similar in circumstances, but different outcomes. The questions at hand are somewhat a dilemma to the counselor. Should he continue with the client even after some of the things the initial meeting came up with? Should the counselor remove himself from this situation due to the feelings he has about his father? Can the counselors own experiences help the client? Will the counselor truly be able to keep his feelings out of the counseling sessions and use his experiences as his guide? Does he already preconceive that the client is not willing to change his behavior? All of these questions are legitimate and controversial to the situation. So, what does the counselor do and how will he go about doing the decision. American boys are being so "emotionally uneducated by everyone from parents and peers to the entertainment industry, say some psychologists.” (APA Monitor; VOL 30 , NR 7 July/August 1999 This is what we have grown up with for many years in the United States, it has lead to an increase of domestic violence, just as our case states has happened. This mis-education is a decision maker for each individual growing up to decide on how he plans to use it. As for the counselor, he became educated and learns a better way than what he was taught at a young age. The client went from high school straight to work with the type of men that he wanted to be like, muscular. He educated himself with reinforced behavior of his earlier years of education. American workers are working harder and longer than they have in the past two decades just to maintain their standard of living. The predictable result, according to experts who took part in the recent "Work, stress and health '99" conference in Baltimore is a workforce more at risk than ever for psychological, physical and behavioral health problems. "It certainly has made for social and family disruptions," said Linda Rosenstock, MD, the director of the National Institute for Occupational 2006-07-10T13:22:48-04:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/Case-Study-of-Ethics-in-Client-Counseling-30154.aspx Understanding People with Tourettes Syndrome Can you imagine sitting in class everyday of your life worrying about whether or not you were going to “explode” with noises and movements that you cannot control. A person with Tourrette’s Syndrome (TS) experiences this everyday of their life. Trying to control yourself from constant twitching of your mouth, jerking your head or breaking out yelling seems so easy to a person without TS. It’s just common self-control, but to a person with TS it can be the most difficult thing to do in a day. Tourettes syndrome is a neurological condition characterized by involuntary movements and vocalizations known as “tics”. TS is three times more likely to be found in boys than girls. Tourette’s is passed through genes and a parent with TS has a 50% chance of passing it to his or her child. This exceptionality is hereditary and it’s inevitable but luckily 1/3 of those whom inherit this gene will not experience any symptoms of this disorder in their life. It is a rare disorder, which is named after a French physician, Georges Gilles de la Tourette (1857-1904), who first described it in 1885. There are many involuntary movements and vocalizations (also known as “tics”) that might occur to a person with TS. Some tics include throat clearing, grunting, yelling or screaming, sniffing, barking, snorting, coughing, spitting, squeaking, humming or yelling of obscenities. Behavioral problems that might occur are temper tantrums, stealing, talking back, relentless teasing of siblings, short tempered, blaming, argumentative and angry. In a class room a student with Tourettes might be difficult to teach because of outbursts that disrupt the class or because the student needs a lot of supervision to help them stay on task, be organized, and finishing things that him/her started. Also a student with this disorder has a difficult time listening and concentrating on one thing too long. Many children had been misdiagnosed with ADD (attention deficit disorder) rather than Tourettes because the symptoms are so close and for those who have been misdiagnosed the medication for ADD made their tics worse. The social and emotional problems that often accompany TS can be more distressing for the person than the physical symptoms. Many children go undiagnosed for years, and some people might see them as having psychological or emotional problem. Or others might think they are 2006-07-09T14:28:34-04:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/Understanding-People-with-Tourettes-Syndrome-30128.aspx Effectiveness of Schizophrenia Treatment The term Schizophrenia comes from the Greek; Schiz meaning split and Phren meaning mind. It was coined by the Swiss psychiatrist Eugen Bieuler who, in 1911, used it to describe patients who he found to have a mind split from reality. Symptoms of Schizophrenia are generally divided into positive and negative. The former occur in all cases of Schizophrenia and can be thought of as ‘added’ to the individuals behavior: delusions, hallucinations and thought disorders. The latter occur in only some cases and can be thought of as characteristics ‘taken away’ from the individual. These include social withdrawal, flatness of arrest and cognitive decline. According to the DSM 4 criteria, in order to be diagnosed as schizophrenic, two or more or the following symptoms must be displayed for more than six months: Delusions, hallucinations, disorganized speech, grossly disorganized or catatonic behavior, negative symptoms. Schizophrenia is the most common of the major mental illnesses and affects around 1% of the population worldwide. In this essay I shall assess the effectiveness of the most commonly used medical treatments. These are the use of narcoleptic drugs and I shall place a particular emphasis on the more recently developed drugs which have aimed to reduce its side effects. I shall then outline and evaluate the use of talking therapies in the treatment of Schizophrenia, focusing on Individual therapy, family therapy and cognitive behavioral methods. Throughout the essay I shall take a relapse to mean the following: ‘Readmission to in-patient care as a result of a fresh episode of schizophrenia or Worsening of psychotic symptoms’ (Scottish Schizophrenia research group, 1992). The first drug used to treat Schizophrenia (in 1952) was Chlorpromazine, a tranquillizer that reduces psychotic properties. Soon after this several other similar drugs were developed. While they were relatively successful in treating the positive symptoms of schizophrenia and preventing relapse, they had several serious limitations. They require continued use to reduce likelihood of relapse and approximately 20% of patients show no improvement when using them (Kane et al, 1988). They also have major side effects including Tardive Dyskinesia, Askathisia (which can be fatal), tightening of muscles in a manner similar to Parkinsons, weight gain, blurred vision and decreased motivation. In response to these problems, several drugs have been more recently developed. In the !970’s Clozapine 2006-07-09T13:51:25-04:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/Effectiveness-of-Schizophrenia-Treatment-30114.aspx The "Chemistry" of Love that forms Human Bonds There are two different kinds of “LOVE”, passionate and compassionate. Passionate love is where you are attracted to the person and to the way that they make you feel. Compassionate love is where you love the person for who they are. In the essay “Grandma”, Gerald, the main character, gradually begins to love his great-grandmother after starting out on rough terms. In the essay “Love: the right chemistry” Anastasia Toufexis talks about the chemical aspect of love and why people fall in love. In this paper I am going to compare and contrast the two essays and these two different concepts of love. In the essay, “Grandma” by Gerald Haslam, Gerald a young boy at the time, meets his great-grandmother for the first time when she moves in with his family. She was known as “Grandma” to the family. The relationship between the two does not start off very well. Gerald tries to communicate with her, but she only speaks Spanish to him. Grandma is very bitter because she only wants to live in the country were she grew up, not in the city where Gerald’s home was. Soon Gerald finds himself hiding from Grandma because he is afraid of her until one day she speaks rudely to him in English, “Oh so you want some candy. Go to the store an’ buy some.” When Gerald reacts with bursts of tears, Grandma comforts him with kind words and a pat on the head. This event changed Gerald’s feelings towards his Grandma. They soon became very close as they learned to love each other. One day Grandma fell and broke her hip and soon after died. This was very hard on Gerald but when his family wanted to bury her in the city, he stood up to them and said that she needed to be buried in the country where she wanted to be. In the essay “Love the Right Chemistry”, by Anastasia Toufexis, she talks about the chemical side of love. She states that approximately 4 million years ago man developed the notion of romantic love, when male and female partnerships were formed to help raise their offspring. This was the first evidence of “love”. Anastasia talks about the “4-year-itch”, where after four years of marriage couples tend to breakup. If the couple has another child 2006-07-07T13:34:35-04:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/The-Chemistry-of-Love-that-Forms-Human-Bonds-30095.aspx The Effects of Divorce on Children Divorce has many effects on many different people. It is a common misconception that divorce is for the “good” of the children . When in fact divorce takes quite a toll on children of all ages, races, and sex. An average of approximately 36,252 children in Canada are involved in divorces , which is not a very low statistic. As well single – parent families account for 46% of children living n poverty . Divorce affects children educationally psychologically and emotionally. Although divorce can make for a calmer environment in the long run, it can also cause a lot of stress on the adult and child in the beginning . Children have a tendency to blame themselves for the divorce and those who don’t blame either the mother or father for causing their devastation. Males and females have different emotional side effects and it is very hard to determine what type of effects divorce has on them because many studies have conflicting information, some say mates become more aggressive , but others show mates are not affected at all. Studies on females show they become depressed, and distracted . “Problems seen in children of divorce are due to the parents psychological problems” . Out of 60 divorced couples in counseling, one third had adequate mental health, ½ of men and almost ½ of females are moderately disturbed or are incapacitated by a disabling neurosis or addiction i.e.; chronic depression, suicidal tendencies and difficulty controlling rage. 15% of men and 20% of females have severe mental illnesses. Researches have shown that many children from these families have trouble in school and struggle with anger and sorrow . Although some studies show that divorce ahs no effect on children, it will inevitably have some sore of effect, it may not be long term, but it will leave some sort of effect which could be very devastating . Divorce has different effects on children of different ages e.g.: Preschoolers may: >Become clingy >Have an increase in tantrums >Cry more easily >Have regressive behavior.. Thumb sucking, baby talk >Wet the bed more often.. This shows distress, anxiety or anger. >”somatize” or develop a physical complaints about headaches or nausea. School-age Children may: >Have similar signs as preschoolers. >Show anger, worry or sadness. >Act as though 2006-07-07T13:16:18-04:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/The-Effects-of-Divorce-on-Children-30086.aspx Psychological Damage of Divorce to Children Since the 1960's the number of children directly touched by divorce has jumped from 485,000 to one million per year. Today about one half of all marriages undertaken will end in divorce. There are predictable and typical reactions that children experience because of their parents divorce. (Divorce, np) Both the short term and long term effects that children face need to be recognized and acknowledged in order to assist a generation full of broken homes in achieving happiness and a sense of closure. It has been conceded that while most children suffer similar effects, not all will be as severely harmed as others. It is no question that divorce harms children. However, the short term effects vary depending on age. Preschoolers aged 3-5 are likely to experience feelings of anger, sadness, and anxiety. Each sex displays emotions differently. Boys at this age tend to be noisier and more disruptive than usual. Their restlessness can cause conflicts in school and often results in disciplinary problems. In contrast, preschool aged girls are concerned with good behavior and keeping things neat. They tend to take on the role as teacher/parent by scolding and lecturing others. Both boys and girls cry more frequently, become openly demanding, and regress to outgrown behaviors such as bed wetting, thumb sucking, needing a security blanket, and experiencing nightmares. (Divorce, np) School aged children aged 6-8 generally have the most difficult time coping with the divorce of parents. This is found to be especially true with boys at this age. Psychologists feel this is directly linked to the fact that most fathers move out when parents divorce. The boys lose their constant male role model while girls retain their role model.(Divorce, np) Children at this age will cry openly and experience sadness. Because they feel rejected by the departing parent, it is common for both sexes to have a loss of self-esteem and feel as though they are unlovable. Concentration becomes extremely difficult and will usually surface when it comes to school work. School aged children 9-12 show their sadness through anger and hostility towards their parents. Although they are angry, they may try to hide their feelings if one parent openly hates the other. Because this group is becoming emotionally mature, 2006-07-05T23:58:06-04:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/Psychological-Damage-of-Divorce-to-Children-30060.aspx Psychological Disorder of Schizoprenia Schizophrenia is a disease that has plagued societies around the world for centuries. It is characterized by the presence of both positive and negative symptoms. (Positive symptoms-altered behaviors ie excited motor activity, hallucinations, incoherent thoughts and speech, negative symptoms - the lack of behavior ie emotion lack of speech, and lack of emotion. Not all schizophrenic patients will exhibit all of these symptoms. There has been much debate as to the causes of schizophrenia. While some proposed causes that exist today have been proven false ie bad parenting, many still remain. One of the most famous and most debatable is the dopamine hypothesis. • Kendler & Gruenbert (1984) and Rosenthal et al., (1980) found that although 1% of the population develops sch an individual has a 10% chance of sch occurring if they have the illness in their family (ie parent, child, or sibling) even if a healthy family adopted the relative shortly after birth. • Holzman & Matthysse (1990) also show that the concordance rates for sch are higher in identical twins (45%) than fraternal twins (10%). However the fact that these concordance rates for sch in identical twins is very low lends more weight on individual experience among people may provoke the development of sch. • The current view among researchers is that some individuals inherit the potential for sch which may be activated by experience (Gottesman & Bertelsen, 1989). • Norman & Malla (1993) found that stress may be play a major role in this activation of schizophrenic symptoms among people with this susceptibility. They found thro several studies that exposure to stressors is common prior to a schizophrenic attack. In the 1950s the anti-schizophrenic drug, chlorpromazine, was accidentally found. Initially it was developed as an antihistamine however scientific study showed that it had a calming effect when it was administered before surgery. It was then suggested that it might have the same calming effect when administered to psychotic patients. This was not the case, moreover it was found to help schizophrenic symptoms, allowing many institutionalized patients to be discharged. About the same time scientists discovered Reserpine which comes from the snakeroot plant and was used in India for centuries to help those with mental illness. Reserpine was also found to have an anti-schizophrenic effect when administered to patients. Chlorpromazine 2006-07-05T23:20:14-04:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/Psychological-Disorder-of-Schizoprenia-30044.aspx History and Effects of Alzheimer's Disease A terrifying disease indeed, Alzheimer's has to this date caused confusion and much speculation in the medical world. What is Alzheimer's? How does it occur? How can it be detected? Who is most susceptible to contract it? All of these are common questions doctors and medical researchers ponder on; questions that are investigate the fundamental roots of Alzheimer's [as well as other diseases]. With these questions being unanswered, it can be only known that Alzheimer's exists and takes over the lives of approximately 4% of US ‘s elderly population every year with the number on the rise. Alzheimer's is a terrible disease that is growing in numbers every single year. People over the age of 65 are the ones that need to worry most about getting it, yet some people that are younger can still get it. This disease is a terrible disease and can be scary and frustrating. Doctors have a very difficult time diagnosing it because there are so many things that are similar to this disease. This disease not only destroys the lives of the victims, but also can ruin the lives of the people that take care of them. At this time there is not a cure, but many scientists are working very hard to find a cure for this terrible disease. Today there are almost 4 million Americans that suffer from Alzheimer's disease. It is estimated that this disease will claim 14 million victims by the year 2050. Experts believe this because of greater life expectancy (Beck 36). Meanwhile, almost 4 percent of Americans between the ages of 65 to 74 will get this disease. For the people between the ages of 75 through 84 it is expected to strike ten percent, and people over the age of 85 have a 17 percent chance of contracting this horrifying disease (Larson 517). It can also strike the lives of people in their forties or fifties, although this is not that common (Fish 19). Undeniably, Alzheimer's is an extremely terrible disease to get because one loses memory, self-pride, and independence to care for one's self. Because so little information is known about this disease by the public and even medical experts, it is described as a "silent disease" (Frank 13). In 1906 a German psychiatrist and neuropathologist by the name of Dr. Alois Alzheimer discovered and named this disease. He had a 2006-07-04T16:18:19-04:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/History-and-Effects-of-Alzheimer-s-Disease-29997.aspx Importance of Personal Physical Appearance People nowadays put a lot of efforts to make themselves become more beautiful in order to develop their self-confidence. As we can see that joining a gym or fitness center, going to a beauty salon, or even putting themselves under the knife of cosmetic surgeons become more and more prevalent recently. However, why do people always focus on and take extra care of their physical appearance? Firstly, people are often influenced by the media. Many advertisements use attractive celebrities to publicize and promote their products. The advertisements usually use a super model who has a slim body shape, big round eyes and perfect white skin to show what beauty is and how superior they are. They want to build up an image of success through an attractive appearance and try to distribute the concept of beauty to the people. If we want to be successful and popular, we must have a so-called charming look just like the models in the magazines. The media would sometimes use ugly or fat people in their advertisements, but always in a negative and miserable way. As we can see that only the obese and hideous people are teased, bullied and repulsed by others in the movies. They always have a lower status and suffer an unpleasant life in the film. Therefore, under the influence of the media, the concept of beauty and slim means successful, favorable and powerful while obesity and ugliness means failure and poor is already deep-rooted in every people’s mind. Secondly, people are always affected by the peers and the people surrounding. They think that having an attractive appearance is everything. They may misconceive that the more the attractive appearance, the more the benefits and welcomes they can achieve from peers and other people. Therefore, sometimes when they feel unsuccessful and desperate, they would impute it to their appearance or when they are repelled by others, they would blame for their ugly look. On the other hand, attractive physical appearance can build up one’s self-confidence and self-esteem. They will have a very high and positive self-evaluation towards themselves as they think they are more appeal and supreme among the others. It eventually builds up their confidence and beliefs in doing things successfully and favorably in their life. Thus, there is no wonder why so many people strive for a beautiful look and take extra 2006-07-03T14:08:37-04:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/Importance-of-Personal-Physical-Appearance-29939.aspx Classical Conditioning and Observational Learning Most Psychologists agree that the process of learning is usually permanent and is credited to past experience. However, they differ greatly in their belief as to what mechanisms are actually involved in learning to make changes occur and what kinds of past experiences are involved (Gross, (1992) p.165). It is the author’s intention, within the body of this essay to examine and evaluate the theory of learning from a behaviourist viewpoint, focusing on classical conditioning and the social learning theory, concentrating on observational learning. BEHAVIOURISM The behaviourism approach sees every individual born a ‘blank book’. An individual’s personality and the kind of person they become are wholly attributed their environment and their learning experiences; no biological or instinctive causes come in to the equation (Class notes, (2001/2002). Watson, (1930) stated: “Give me a dozen healthy infants, well-formed and my own specified world to bring them up and I’ll guarantee to take any one at random and train him to become any type of specialist I might select - doctor, lawyer, artist, merchant-chief and yes, even beggar man and thief, regardless of his talents, penchants, tendencies, abilities, vocations, and race of his ancestors” (Cardwell et al, (1996) p.544). The approach focuses solely on observational experiments, mainly with animals, so therefore it can be objectively measured and controlled (Class notes, (2001/2002) and whereas for example, some psychologists would study the mental experience of ‘hunger’, behaviourists would observe the ‘eating’ process (Sdorow, (1990) p.13). The ultimate goal of behaviourist therapists is to control behaviour, however the approach denies the existence of a ‘mind’, overlooking any form of freewill on the part of the individual, who is seen as passive and acceptant (Holden et al, (1996) p.113). Behaviourists concentrate mainly on the process of learning, with the key processes being classical and operant conditioning. It is classical conditioning that the author will look at in more depth. CLASSICAL CONDITIONING Classical conditioning is basically learning through simple association and reinforcement (Class notes, (2001/2002), with the leading theorist being Ivan Pavlov, (1927) who studied how animals responded to conditioning. In Pavlov's best-known experiment, he rang a bell as he fed some dogs several meals. Each time the dogs heard the bell they knew that a meal was coming, and they would begin to salivate. Pavlov then rang the bell without bringing food, but the 2006-07-03T13:39:11-04:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/Classical-Conditioning-and-Observational-Learning-29926.aspx Psychological Report on Paranoia Paranoia is an ever-present feeling of suspicion that others cannot be trusted. Such feelings are not based on fact or reality; insecurity and low self-esteem often exaggerate these emotions. Typically, paranoia is not seen in children, but in most cases it begins to develop in late adolescence and early adulthood. Most people experience feelings of paranoia, usually in response to a threatening situation or in connection with feelings of insecurity based on real circumstances. These feelings are related to the mild anxiety people experience at some points during their lives. The fourth edition of Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM-IV) includes diagnostic criteria for the more serious condition, paranoid personality disorder. According to the DSM-IV, individuals afflicted with this disorder assume, with little concrete evidence to support the assumption, that others plan to exploit, harm, or deceive him or her; and continually analyzes the motivations of friends, family, and others to confirm his or her doubts about their trustworthiness; expects friends and family to abandon him or her in times of trouble or stress; avoids revealing personal information because of fear that it will be used against him or her; interprets remarks and actions as having hidden, demeaning, and threatening connotations; and is unwilling to forgive an insult. The behavior of an individual with paranoid personality disorder may compel others to react with anger or hostility. This tends to reinforce the individual's suspiciousness and feelings that friends and associates are "against" him or her. In the 1990s, the term "everyday paranoia" (EP) came into usage among psychologists to describe the intense anxiety that was becoming prevalent in society. Everyday paranoia is sparked by fear of losing one's job, feelings of inadequacy when confronting a new interpersonal or romantic relationship, or insecurity in a marriage or other long-term relationship. Low self-esteem and feelings of insecurity contribute to a person's susceptibility to feelings of everyday paranoia. Stressful situations-economic insecurity, divorce, a move, a job change-can also reinforce a person's paranoia. Almost everyone experiences feelings of suspicion or insecurity-and in fact, paranoia can be a mechanism for coping with misfortune or personal problems. Rather than view the situation as "bad luck" or personal failure or incompetence, paranoia places the responsibility for the problem on some "enemy." The term paranoia is used erroneously at times to define special life circumstances. Members of minority groups and new immigrants may exhibit 2006-07-02T22:28:09-04:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/Psychological-Report-on-Paranoia-29905.aspx Information, Symptoms and Treatment of Schizophrenia Schizophrenia is a chronic and debilitating mental illness. The disease can cause you to withdraw from the people and activities in the world around you and retreat into a world of delusions and fantasies. Schizophrenia is the most common and destructive kind of psychosis, which is an impairment of thinking in which your interpretation of reality can be severely abnormal. Psychosis is a symptom of a disordered brain. Researchers haven't identified the cause or causes of schizophrenia, although they believe genetic factors play a role. Evidence suggests chemical or subtle structural abnormalities in your brain contribute to causing this illness. Schizophrenia may exist alone or in combination with other psychiatric or medical conditions. Misconceptions about schizophrenia and its relation to other mental illnesses include: Schizophrenia isn't the same as a "split" or multiple personality. Multiple personality disorder is a separate, rare condition. Although some people with schizophrenia develop violent tendencies, most don't. Many withdraw into themselves rather than interact with others. Not everyone who acts paranoid or distrustful is schizophrenic. Some people have paranoid personality disorder, a tendency to be suspicious or distrustful of others, without the other features of schizophrenia. Not everyone who hears voices is schizophrenic. Some people with depression may hear voices. Hearing voices may also occur as a result of a serious medical illness or from the effects of medication. Schizophrenia may affect up to 1 percent of the population worldwide, including more than 2.7 million Americans, occurring equally in men and women. The disorder is rare in children. There's no cure for the illness, but your doctor often can successfully manage schizophrenia — especially when an early diagnosis occurs. Fortunately, newer medications are making this poorly understood disorder more manageable than ever before. WHAT IS IT? Schizophrenia is a chronic, severe, and disabling brain disease. Approximately 1 percent of the population develops schizophrenia during their lifetime – more than 2 million Americans suffer from the illness in a given year. Although schizophrenia affects men and women with equal frequency, the disorder often appears earlier in men, usually in the late teens or early twenties, than in women, who are generally affected in the twenties to early thirties. People with schizophrenia often suffer terrifying symptoms such as hearing internal voices not heard by others, or believing that other people are reading their minds, controlling their thoughts, or plotting 2006-06-27T03:18:31-04:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/Information,-Symptoms-and-Treatment-of-Schizophrenia-29882.aspx Personality Development in Psychology The first school of thought we studied this year was Freud’s. The identification of the id, ego, and superego personalities, the psychosexual stages that we grow through, and the defense mechanism all seem very logical. But from studying the theories more, Freud’s ideas become more of coincidences than truth for me. The id, ego, and superego types of personalities are something that I believe true of everyone. Every person has one of the characteristics that they can hold true to themselves depending on the situation. Someone could have a weakness for sweets and be constantly eating chocolate (id,) but that same person could be very thrifty and refuse to spend their money on something that they don’t need (superego,) and maybe everything else about them could fall in the middle (ego.) The psychosexual sexual stages also come off as obvious guesses to me. The thought that everyone goes through phases in their life I can attest to, and that certain ones come at certain times, but who didn’t know that? When children are real young they constantly put things in their mouth, so anyone, not only Freud, could call this an oral stage. The comparisons of the stages to fairy tales are far stretches. To think that famous authors had certain sexual thoughts in their heads when writing bedtime stories for kids is a little out there. Freud’s defense mechanisms are the most accurate of his ideas. I’ve always been curious as to why people act to certain situations the way they do. The mechanisms were one part of his ideas that I had used in everyday life. Rationalization and denial are things I saw everyday, and when learning about them, compared to other things he discovered, I could relate and see better where there was truth. Freud basically believed in the unconscious, and that it’s what rules everything we do. I believe in the subconscious, that it effects some decisions that we make, but I don’t think that it runs our life. There is a reason we have a conscious, so that we can be aware of choices that we are making and what is going on around us. Behaviorism is the opposite of Freud’s beliefs. Behaviorists believe that the unconscious is not at all involved in the decisions and choices people 2006-06-21T15:33:27-04:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/Personality-Development-in-Psychology-29767.aspx Analysis of the Human Brain The human being is considered to be the ultimate form of life on the earth. This is not because the human body is strong and agile. Many other animals posses skills much superior to humans and are able to perform feats humans can only dream of. The one thing that distinguishes humans from all of the other organisms on this planet is the brain. The brain is the site that controls the human body. However, unlike in animals, in man, the brain is also the site of the mind. The mind gives humans superiority over other creatures. It provides humans with the ability to reason, to feel and to adapt. Because of this, man has achieved so much, and has also realized that much more is still ahead. During the course of evolution, ever since early man and his ancestors walked on the surface of the earth, man has wondered about himself, and how he relates to the natural world. People learned and adapted to new lifestyles. As time passed, humans learned to record history. They analyzed past events and applied this knowledge to solve problems. These processes improved as more and more people supplied their experiences to the common pool of knowledge. Such co-operation created the modern man with his ability to think. Many studies were started. Some of them centered around humans. They included, among many others, psychology and neurology. While psychology deals with the mind and human behavior, neurology is the study of the nervous system. The nervous system of the human being consists of several parts. The main structures are the brain and the spinal chord. The system also includes nerves which sense external and internal stimuli and then relate all information to the central processing unit, i.e. the brain. Because of man's rapid evolution in technology and medicine, humans now know a great deal more about their own nervous system then they did even a few years ago. This increase in knowledge is partly due to the recent advances in nuclear medicine. Although X-ray machines have been the chief mechanical tools for internal observations of the human body since Wilhelm Roentgen discovered X-rays in 1901, the development of computers made it possible for better and more accurate techniques to be applied to scan the human 2006-06-21T14:53:14-04:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/Analysis-of-the-Human-Brain-29751.aspx Emotional Effects of Child Abuse Child abuse is reported every ten seconds in the United States. In 2001 in Iowa the DHS reported 25,696 cases, finding only that 8,920 cases were ruled abuse, which means that 16.8 Iowa children per 1,000 suffered from abuse. Of those 8,920 cases, only 29 were determined to be emotional abuse. This has dropped since 1998, when emotional abuse accounted for 6% of all victims suffering child abuse. Child abuse has been on the rise for the past ten years. I am here to tell you about the least understood form of abuse, yet it is the most prevalent and can be the most destructive of all types. It accompanies other forms of abuse but also may occur on its own. Emotional abuse is described as, any attitude or behavior, which interferes with a child’s mental health or social development. Rejecting or refusing to acknowledge a person’s presence, value or worth is the most common type of emotional abuse. Isolation, which is physical confinement is a way to make the child think he/she is not wanted. Terrorizing a child and inducing terror or fear upon them is also one of the main types of emotional abuse. Yelling, screaming, name-calling, shaming, and telling them they are bad, worthless, or lazy are just a few examples of how easy it is to emotionally abuse a child. Corrupting your child into accepting ideas or behaviors that are not appropriate is also emotionally toying with the child’s mind. Insulting, ridiculing, imitating and infantilizing are all ways of degrading a child. All of these types of emotional abuse are seemingly based on power and control. There are numerous reasons why children get abused, and not just by parents, but siblings too. Nearly one-third of women in prison reported abuse as children, with males being 14% of inmates reporting abuse in childhood. This brings me to my first cause. A person’s background. If the abuser, has had deprivation he/she is more likely to continue it. Parents who were abused don’t know any better because that’s how they were raised. Therefore, they punish their kids the way that their parents punished them. When a child sees or hears a family member being abused they also are victims of emotional abuse. So 2006-06-20T18:20:02-04:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/Emotional-Effects-of-Child-Abuse-29745.aspx Dealing with Stress Viktor Frankl once said, “Man can preserve a vestige of spiritual freedom, of independence of mind, even in such terrible conditions of psychic and physical stress.” Dealing with stress is not the easiest thing to do, but to overcome it, one must first look at what causes stress, and then how to deal with it. What is most times thought to be the main cause of stress is only a small percentage of the true things that cause stress. Outdoor leaders are faced with stress everyday, and it comes in many different forms. The job of a responsible leader is to recognize that stress, whether it be with himself, some one else, or the entire group, and assist in relieving it as soon as possible and in the best manner available. Physical danger appears to cause most stress in the outdoors, but it is truly the ordinary things that cause the most stress and are the toughest to handle. It is not the most obvious and dramatical situations that cause us stress but rather the everyday trivial proceedings that seem to bring about the most stress. There are many factors that cause stress. Everything from ignorant people to poor planning and disorganization can inflict stress on a person. It’s difficult to list or describe the exact situations that cause stress because of the fact that it’s different for each and every person. Each person has their own pet peeves and annoyances, so it’s not the specific things, but rather the ideas of what causes stress that are of more importance. Nonetheless, physical dangers such as weather and accidents do indeed cause stress but only a small amount of what we encounter in our daily lives. The mass is on the petty misunderstandings, and minor slipups accruing everyday. Stress can make or break a trip and if dealt with correctly can preserve the safety and enjoyment of the entire group. Once it is know what causes stress it makes it much easier to deal with it. There are a few steps to take to insure that stress is dissipated as soon as possible so that the experience may be as enjoyable as possible for all that are involved. The first step in dealing with any kind of stress is to take a deep breath. Calm down and asses the situation and it will be much easier to deal with 2006-06-20T17:12:08-04:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/Dealing-with-Stress-29713.aspx Attention Dficit Disorder in Today's Society Attention deficit disorder is the subject of two widely challenged debates in medicinal practice and theory. One, the argument for ADD being a clinical and mental “disorder”, is in favor of medical treatment, claiming the diagnosis is attributable to brain damage or neurological defects. The second gives an alternative idea behind ADD, stating that people showing traits of the disorder often exemplify characteristics such as creativity, inventiveness, and even giftedness. As a rising percentage of children are being diagnosed with the disorder, more and more research has been called for, in an attempt to find an actual cause. ADD is classified as multi-factorial, meaning that multiple reasons are generally attributed to its development and diagnosis. A diagnostic criterion includes hyperactivity, impulsivity, and inattention. The intent of this paper is to provide arguments and evidence on both sides of the issue, followed by standard and alternative methods for dealing with ADD. The history of attention deficit disorder goes back to World War 1, when a number of soldiers who experienced head injuries demonstrated hyperactivity as a side effect. It was then that ADD was classified as a disorder related to either brain damage or a defect of some kind. It has been proven, however, that this is false. ADD or attention deficit hyperactive disorder (ADHD) can also be attributed to giftedness. Studies show that ADD is genetic and it runs in families. Years ago, only children exhibiting severe affects of hyperactivity were diagnosed, mostly because they suffered brain damage or trauma. Today, the diagnostic criterion has been expanded so that any underachiever, or inattentive child fits the bill. Subsequently, millions of kids in America are getting labeled as ADD. Most studies show that 3 to 5 percent of the population possesses attention deficit disorder. Symptoms related to the DSM-IV criteria, which includes inattention, impulsivity, and hyperactivity, can show themselves in different ways. The two major types are ADD with hyperactivity, and ADD with inattention. The diagnostic criteria includes: • failing to give close attention to details or making careless mistakes • difficulty sustaining attention • appearing not to listen when spoken to directly • not following through on instructions and failing to complete tasks • organizational difficulties • avoiding, or not liking, tasks that require sustained mental effort • losing things necessary for tasks • being easily distracted • forgetfulness • fidgeting • leaving your seat 2006-06-20T15:57:51-04:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/Attention-Dficit-Disorder-in-Today-s-Society-29699.aspx Psychological Analysis of Rashomon Rashomon, by Ryunosaki Akutaguya provides great insight into the psychological discord that the Japanese culture was undergoing in the early part of the twentieth century. Japan was in the throes of a societal transformation, from a traditional, religious-based society, to a newly adopted weternized culture. Japan was rapidly assimilating industrial and scientific techniques and philosophies that were in conflict with, and were replacing traditional ways of life. Akutaguwa illustrates this with his opening two paragraphs where he shows the once proud and majestic Rashomon Gate, a religious monument, abandoned and in ruins. As we enter the story, it is raining, (symbolic of transformation or rebirth) and the author describes the city of Kyoto having undergone a series of calamities; earthquakes, fires and tornadoes which have left Kyoto in a state of decline. This image is put side by side with the Samurai’s servant, whose master, once prosperous, is wealthy no longer. The servant, therefore, has been discharged and is out on the street. Psychologically, the imagery of the first two paragraphs is important. The religious artifacts, once richly decorated with gold and silver, no longer proudly represent old Japan. The gold and silver has “worn off” and the statues, which themselves represent the collectivist mindset and values, are being chopped up and “sold” as firewood. This represents a westernized psychological mindset that everything is for sale, including the Japanese people’s once- idealized values. The Rashomon itself is now a repository for the Kyoto dead, symbolically, those who cannot adapt to the new psychology and values taking over Japan. The current states of the city and the Rashomon Gate sets the stage for the servant’s internal psychological struggle. We meet the servant, his once fine clothes are now “worn thin” just like the the gold of the icons. Discharged from his master, he is lost in this new world. He has “no particular idea” of what to do. He realizes he faces a hard decision: to try to make an honest living and starve, or to become a theif and survive. Akutagawa very effectively illustrates the servant’s psychological dilemma with the line “He had little choice. His mind, after making the same detour time and again, finally came to the decision to be a thief.” We see the servants continuing struggle as, even after making the decision, he returns to 2006-06-16T18:45:50-04:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/Psychological-Analysis-of-Rashomon-29643.aspx Deviance and Marijuana Use Deviance is any act, attribute, or belief that violates a cultural norm and elicits a negative or positive reaction. Peer pressure is a major contributor to the deviant behavior of marijuana use in young members of our society. Dealing with this peer pressure is a fact that most every teenager must sometime face. As teens grow older, they must face some challenging decisions, and peer pressure plays a factor when people your own age try to influence your decisions. Peer pressure is a major excuse as to why teens experiment with marijuana. Smoking marijuana is deviant behavior. This drug use goes against the norms of society and its effects can be extremely negative. Peers entice other young people to experiment with marijuana with the excuse that it is a safe drug. This is far from the truth. The Antidrug Commission published research of marijuana use on the brain. They found that "THC changes the way in which sensory information gets into and is acted on by the hippocampus. This is a component of the brain's limbic system that is crucial for learning, memory and the integration of sensory experiences with emotions and motivations." The THC (delta-9-tetrahydrocannabinol) is the main chemical in marijuana that gets you "high." Using marijuana with its strong THC content suppresses neurons in the information-processing system of the hippocampus. When we learn behaviors, which depend on the hippocampus, they are deteriorated because of marijuana smoke. Short-term memory is needed to learn and perform tasks that call for more than one or two steps. Smoking marijuana causes some changes in the brain that are like those caused by cocaine, heroin, and alcohol. The effects of smoking marijuana on the respiratory system can do serious damage. Someone who smokes marijuana regularly may have many of the same respiratory problems that tobacco smokers have. These individuals may have daily cough and phlegm, symptoms of chronic bronchitis, and more frequent chest colds (www.drugabuse.gov). It can destroy your immune system, because when you get "high", your whole body gets "high" even your T-cells, which help to fight disease. Regardless of the THC content, the amount of tar inhaled by marijuana smokers and the level of carbon monoxide absorbed are three to five times greater than among tobacco smokers. This 2006-06-16T15:39:40-04:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/Deviance-and-Marijuana-Use--29634.aspx Learning Disabilities in Today's Children While researching children’s learning disabilities and Attention Deficit Disorder, issues were brought to my attention, that I unfortunately, had never noticed. As I look back, even as far as elementary school, I remember children who were teased or made fun of, because they were “slow.” I now realize, almost all the children fit the disorder’s every description, and somehow still remained unnoticed by my peers and teachers. When looking at the topics from the LD/ADD website I chose gifted LD and self-esteem. I chose gifted LD because I had never thought of a person who had a learning disability to be gifted. This was a disorder that I never knew existed. In gifted LD, the child is exceptionally smart but has either a learning disability, or an emotional disorder, which prevents them from being in gifted programs. The children’s intelligence is then overlooked; ignoring all the children’s potential and instead focusing on the disabilities at hand. The saddest thing I learned about this disorder is, “ If students pass through public schools with one or both qualities unaddressed—and in most cases it's the giftedness left unnoted—research studies say it's more than likely such students will fall well short of their considerable potential for achievement and enter adulthood without skills to compensate for their learning disabilities. The result, numerous studies say: emotional turmoil, low self-esteem, and, probably, an academic washout.” This statement blows my mind. The fact that these students are above average, but will never reach their full potential, or for that matter, know they even have potential astounds me. It is my opinion that a teacher’s job is not only to recognize a problem but also to help try and solve it, and from this research, they are doing neither. In researching self-esteem, I was surprised to learn that high self esteem is connected to problem solving. Rather than answering for a child, it is better to help them, letting them reach their own conclusion. I was also interested to learn how easy it is to damage children with learning disabilities, self-esteem. Research shows that children with learning disabilities are more likely to suffer from lack of self-esteem than their peers, which adds to their frustration. I also learned about Scoptic Sensitivity Syndrome/ Irlen Syndrome. This is a perceptional problem, which 2006-06-16T15:13:57-04:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/Learning-Disabilities-in-Today-s-Children-29619.aspx Thorough Analysis of Attention Deficit Disorder Attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder(ADHD) is much more prevalent in today’s society compared to previous generations. More and more people are being diagnosed at an alarming rate. To my surprise, I learned this disorder does not only affect children. There are many adults who suffer from it also. ADHD characteristics are neuro-biologically based, and they often change as the individual gets older. One does not out-grow ADHD even though the behaviors, or symptoms may not be exhibited in the same manner or with the same intensity. After learning this fact, I thought it would be very interesting to see how this disorder affects both children and college students. Therefore, I choose one journal article which relates ADHD to children, and the other which deals with the effects of ADHD on college students. The first journal article I researched, “An Intervention Approach for Children with Teacher and Parent Identified Attentional Difficulties,” explained that inattention, impulsivity, distractibility, and restlessness are all signs of a child with an attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder. “There are three subtypes of ADHD which have been defined by the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders as: predominantly inattentive, predominately hyperactive impulsive, and combined” (Semrud-Clekeman, Nielsen, Clinton, Sylvester, Parle, and Connor, 1999). Usually children who exhibit these subtypes have difficulty completing assignments, displaying high qualities of work, and maintaining good behaviors. Children with the hyperactivity-impulsivity subtype do not display significant attentional problems, though they are identified as young as pre-schoolers. However, symptoms of inattention don’t typically emerge until the later ages, which must be why the predominately inattentive and combined subtypes of ADHD have been found in older school-age children. These children who have been identified as having ADHD, show an inability to use effective problem solving over a period of time. When researchers looked at their brain structures, they found that the frontal-striatal regions are involved with the child’s ability to inhibit, focus, and shift attention. Researchers have formed interventions involving the behavioral or cognitive management of children with ADHD. Attention-training strategies, classroom-based contingency systems, home-school contingencies, and peer-mediated contingencies are examples of these interventions. In an effort to measure students with ADHD, in addition to medication and intervention strategies, researchers conducted two types of tests. The first test, the visual attention task, required the child to scan fourteen rows of d’s, each d had one to three marks around it. The child was instructed 2006-06-16T15:07:26-04:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/Thorough-Analysis-of-Attention-Deficit-Disorder-29615.aspx Coping with Sibblings Do you have a brother or sister, who is a pest? I am one of the pest controllers for my twin sisters, who will stop at nothing to satisfy their endless list of needs. After eleven years of being an only child, I wasn’t exactly thrilled about having twin sisters appear in my life. Between the stories I had heard of the constant crying and the out-of-control tantrums that babies have, I wasn’t about ready to go into this willingly. I would have to put up with double the trouble, which would deprive me of the many advantages I had when I was an only child. I was stunned, when on the way home from picking up Chinese food at Yangtze, my mother said, “How would you like to have a sibling? I laughed at first, but my laughter soon turned into a serious reality of what it would be like to have a brother or sister. Having a brother might be cool, but I wasn’t looking forward to the responsibility I would have of taking care of him and watching him. I hadn’t even considered the thought of having sisters, better yet two. Thirty-eight weeks later on the day of delivery, I found out that I had twin sisters. I was ecstatic and jumping for joy. Yeah right. I was the first to see them up close. I saw two big, cute, newborn babies with their names, Brittany and Melanie, and their birth information on a sticker that was on the side of their basinets. When I first saw my sisters, they were fast asleep in their hospital basinets with a passiphire to prevent an outburst of crying, from two potential screech-professionals. After my sisters woke up, my parents told me that I should read to them. The first book I came across was Goodnight Moon, so I chose that one. Brittany and Melanie were sleeping on my lap, draining their milk bottles, and trying to pay attention to the story to the best of their abilities. Their eyes were glued to pages because this was their first real interaction with someone and the first time that they clearly heard someone’s voice. They loved it, and still love Goodnight Moon to this day. It was a very meaningful experience for all three of us, and we might not have been as close if I hadn’t seen them until they were 2006-06-16T14:36:10-04:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/Coping-with-Sibblings-29596.aspx Examining Modern Behavior Modification The purpose of this assignment was to examine behaviour modification and its applications in various settings. Reinforcement is a key concept when determining the various methods of behaviour modification and its consequences. Some methods of behaviour modification are more effective than others and this modifies the respective consequence as a result. More thought must be given to the various consequence for a person’s action and this would eliminate numerous anxieties experienced through inappropriate behaviour. Social interaction is also greatly responsible for shaping our types of behaviour and the way in which we exhibit them. Behaviour modification is defined as ‘a systematic approach to changing behaviour through the application of the principles of conditioning’(Weiten, 2001. P.256). To encourage people to adopt more appropriate behaviour, techniques are used to reward someone when the correct behaviour is used and to admonish someone when they act inadvertently. As a result of this, a person’s actions are responsible for the particular outcome of the situation. These techniques have been adopted successfully in many environments such as schools, prisons and hospitals. The presumed assumption defining behaviour modification is that ‘we do what we do in order to minimise those events or stimulus that we, as individuals, find to be aversive’(O’Leary, 1972). With learned behaviour, there are always consequences that follow as a result of one’s actions and the extent of pleasure depends on the effectiveness of these actions. Consequences that immediately follow the behaviour are far more effective than consequences that are delayed. Reinforcement is a detailed concept that manipulates change and development in our behavioural patterns. Social Interaction is one of the primary determinants influencing the type and intensity of behaviour that we exhibit. We are subconsciously aware of what shapes and controls our behaviour due to the fact that we have not learned to recognise reinforcing stimulus. By learning to more carefully observe consequences of behaviour, habits can be adapted to derive the desired outcome. Behaviour that is rewarding is usually repeated, and behaviour that is discouraging is not likely to be repeated. Any stimulus that maintains or accelerates behaviour is said to be a positive reinforcer. Positive reinforcement of behaviour is the most effective way of increasing the rate of specific desired behaviours. This is due to 2006-06-15T16:20:04-04:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/Examining-Modern-Behavior-Modification-29549.aspx Example of how Stress can effect Children Disturbing, resilience, and courageous are merely a glimpse of how impacting the story of Mary Karr’s life was growing up as a child in an unpredictable home life. Reading about situations that Mary and her sister experienced made me think about my own childhood with its crisis and misfortunes. I myself have never come close to experiencing anything in my life like she had, but how she described the situations she endured made me feel her frustrations and vulnerabilities. Even with the difference in the time era from today Mary’s traumatic and stressful childhood growing up in the 60’s coincides with what we have been learning in this class. There are many examples that can be related to the information about stress and how it affects children in today’s society. The way she starts her memoir is like she is unfolding memories she had tucked away during the pecks of the stressful and at many times traumatic events she experienced during her early childhood. The way in which she begins makes it seem like she is standing in the room as the events unfold. Mary used the terms, “may have” and “ I suppose” to describe her feelings and some details about the night her mother was pronounced Nervous. She described the way of coping in a very powerful manor. “When the truth would be unbearable the mind often just blanks it out.” This idea makes Mary’s coping strategy when she was a child similar to denial. She erased many of the details of that night to defend herself from the magnitude of the event. Later, this seems to be a defense mechanism when the older neighborhood boy sexually assaulted her. She seemed to block out the memory until she was mature enough to understand what had happened. However other crisis situations she explains with much more detail as if she did not store them away to make them as if they had never happened. Mary as a child has coping skills to help her deal with her situations but at her young age her management skills were not yet developed enough. She did not seem to use management skills when dealing with her peers and pressures to void violent or hostile arguments. As the story of her life unfolded anticipatory coping was sometimes present in her young age. When again she 2006-06-15T15:53:29-04:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/Example-of-How-Stress-Can-Effect-Children-29538.aspx Overview of Psycological Personality Tests To ask the question, “My theory of Personality” is a hard question to answer. I think the answer is one of many things. The personality that I have is much different from the one that you have. What I will do is use what I know about personality and also use information from other psychologist to answer this question. What I would like to call this theory is the “Myersonian theory of Personality”. A look at sixteen different personality types that I have constructed using the knowledge on my views of others and also the way in which my parents and sister saw people. I used the Biggs-Myers sixteen personality types as my basis of work and make my own spin off of what I think these sixteen stands for. So to ask the question, “My theory of Personality”, just keep reading and you will learn all about, “The Myersonian Theory of Personality”. The Idea behind the Briggs-Myers Questionnaire With the way in which I have grown up and the way in which I am a shy person, I have constructed my theory of personality around the way in which people act, the different attitudes that people have, and also the way in which people live their lives. I have chosen to use the BSM personality questionnaire along with my own spin off to the 16 personality types that are giving with the questionnaire. I thought that this fit my thoughts of personality perfectly. The BSM Consulting agency made up this questionnaire in 1998. The idea of taking this questionnaire is to determine your four-letter personality type. The questionnaire is designed mainly for adults of the western culture. The four letter types are broken down into different groups Sensing types and Intuitive types. Sub-groups are also shown, with thinking and feelings along with Extraverts and introverts of perceptive and judging. The questionnaire is used to determine your individual preferences and the way in which you yourself would handle situations. 16 Different Personality types Sensing types (Introverts) ~ISTJ (with thinking, Judging) ~ISTP (with thinking, Perceptive) ~ISFJ (with feeling, Judging) ~ISFP (with feeling, Perceptive) Sensing types (Extraverts) ~ESTP (with thinking, Judging) ~ESTJ (with thinking, Perceptive) ~ESFP (with feeling, Judging) ~ESFJ (with feeling, Perceptive) Intuitive types (Introverts) ~INFJ (feeling, Judging) ~INFP (feeling, Perceptive) ~INTJ (thinking, Judging) ~INTP (thinking, Perceptive) Intuitive types (Extraverts) ~ENFP (feeling, Judging) ~ENFJ (feeling, Perceptive) ~ENTP (thinking, Judging) ~ENTJ (thinking, Perceptive) ISTJ There are people 2006-06-15T00:40:43-04:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/Overview-of-Psycological-Personality-Tests-29524.aspx How Does Sleep Really Work for Us? We all know what sleep looks like, but how many people know how sleep works. Also how many people have stopped to think how sleep works. In this paper 2006-06-14T23:56:33-04:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/How-Does-Sleep-Really-Work-for-Us-29518.aspx Deviance in Athletics Nature always has a way of balancing itself out, and in my opinion, deviant behavior is no exception. For every report we read about how playing in a sports program has kept someone off the streets and out of a life of crime, we come across another about excessive violence or drug use by an athlete. Sports definitely discourage off the field problems, but they also bring about a whole new set of on the field problems. Playing sports brings out the competitive sides of many athletes. To most athletes, winning is everything, and they will do absolutely anything to make sure they win, including the use of performance-enhancing drugs. The idea of athletes using drugs has always been a hot topic, and will probably remain that way. In a recent article, Matt Bernard summed it up best – “We expect our athletes to celebrate nature and the body beautiful, but we also demand that they win competitions. What’s a jock to do?” (Bernard, 1998) World class athletes are pushed harder than anyone in the world, by fans, by coaches, by themselves. To succeed at a top level today, you almost have to use some type of performance-enhancing drug. According to the conflict theory, everything in sports begins with the financial aspect. The drive professional athletes have, despite what they may say about their love of the game, is usually their astronomical salaries. In most of the professional sports leagues, the salary you are given is based solely on how well you perform. The players with the highest stats are always the highest paid, and most athletes will do anything it takes to improve their personal game. Since so many players are using drugs today to be bigger, faster, and stronger, more up and coming athletes are forced into using supplements just to keep up. People today accept moderate drug use as “just part of the game,” while only 20 years ago it was a scandal to even be mentioned in the same breath with drugs. According to the interactionist theory, people play sports as a means to develop their own personality and identity. They use the opinions of their teammates, opponents, coaches, and fans as a way to discover themselves. This type of thinking can often lead players to succumb to peer 2006-06-14T23:32:36-04:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/Deviance-in-Athletics-29502.aspx Psychological Aspects of Dreams They are a gateway to another world and another place. Sometimes they are related to life and sometimes they are so out there they are unfathomable, but they are a part of everyone. Whether remembered or forgotten, everybody dreams. They are a chance to let go and let your mind run free. My dream was very random and strange, but was so intense my dream bordered on reality. I am walking to my dorm. It is August, yet the air blowing is quite chilly. Why is the air so cold in this time of the year? I search for my ID card in order to get into my building. I walk into the building and head for the elevator. I walk up to the panel and push the up button, and wait for the elevator. Finally the elevator comes. I walk in and push the button for the fifth floor. As the elevator goes up, I impatiently wait to get off. The elevator finally stops and the doors slowly open. As I walk to what I believe is my door I see a young pregnant woman walking around the floor. This woman keeps asking me whether or not I have seen her baby. I told her that I have not and I continue towards my room. As I walk down the barely lit hall I cannot find my room. I search and search, but my room is not here. I am going to sit in the common room and cry. Out of nowhere this man is coming towards me. Who is he? He has a shaved head, and he is talking to me. He kind of looks like my surgeon, from when I had my thumb surgery. He is talking to me, but it sounds mumbled. I cannot understand him. As I stand up, I realize that I am on the wrong floor. Then I wake up. When I woke up I was so sure that this dream was real. I felt like I had been crying. My legs 2006-06-14T23:26:34-04:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/Psychological-Aspects-of-Dreams-29498.aspx Side Effects of a Lack of Sleep Do you suffer from sleep deprivation? Most teenagers need 8-12 hours of sleep. Lack of sleep can cause delayed reactions or even learning disorders. Prolonged loss of sleep occurs for physical and mental reasons and has harmful physical and mental effects to the human body. Prolonged sleep is caused by many different functions of the body. An important cause of prolonged sleep is a teenagers biological phase-delay or a tendency to fall asleep and wake up at different times. Changes that occur at puberty in the internal body clock governing their circadian biological rhythms can cause them to sleep irregularly(Johnson, 3). Another good reasons why teenagers do not get enough sleep is because they simply do not make time for it. Some schoolwork, sports, jobs, girlfriends or boyfriends may take up most of a teenagers time or cause them to have stressful sleep(Johnson 3). Sleep deprivation can cause slow reactions of time. It may also cause headaches and nightmares more frequently. The mind will fall asleep if it cannot get enough sleep causing it to not function properly. Some side symptoms of chronic lack of sleep are feeling fatigue or depression as body becomes drained (Haynes). A major problem caused by sleep deprivation is behavioral changes such as: irritability, short temper, impatience, and stressful situations with more anger or sadness, also can cause more fear than they would normally have. If you continue to have prolonged lack of sleep your immune systems will begin to break down and become unstable to fight diseases (Haynes). To show how this is caused the researcher has done a study on how much sleep he/she got and how they felt that day. Sleep deprivation has many harmful effects and there are some reasons you cannot stop prolonged lack of sleep. Sleep is essential to the studying and learning if you do not get enough sleep the mind can shut down from not having enough rest and can harm the human body. Works Cited Haynes, Kendra. "Into bed late, out of bed late." Studies show teens perform better when sleeping late. April 24, 1997. Http://lps.k12.co.us/schools/littleton/activities/newspapper/1996_7/v49i6/ef.htm February 20, 2002 Hemos. "This-explains-my-college-years." Sleep deprivation increases brain activity. February 11, 2002. Online. Forum. Http://slahsdot.org/articles.pl? February 20, 2002. Johnson, Kyle P. "The sleepy teenager." Harvard Mental Health Letter. Novembor 2001: 3. Online. Letter. Http://ehostvgw7.epenet.com/fulltext.asp? February 12, 2002. Love, Aileen. "How much sleep do kids need?" Parenting. September 2000: 35. 2006-06-14T23:10:20-04:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/Side-Effects-of-a-Lack-of-Sleep-29490.aspx Psychological Significance of First Impressions In today’s wired society it important that you make a good impression with whomever you come in contact with. It has become more important because we as a people are 2006-06-13T18:44:47-04:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/Psychological-Significance-of-First-Impressions-29449.aspx Study of Cross Cultural Psychology The fathers in the video played different roles during the birth of their children. Manoel Oliveira wasn’t present during the birth of his son Sydney, while David Kaufman was with his wife Barbara from the start of labor until the end of delivery. There are varying reasons for the different roles that the two fathers played in the births. The two fathers were from very different cultures. Manoel and his family live in Brazil, and the Kaufmans are from New York City. These two cultures expend different expectations on the role that a mother and father should play in a child’s life from birth. The Oliveira family is large and Maria takes care of the children while Manoel works to support them. Sydney will be their 6th child, and Manoel is at work when Maria goes into labor. It is not financially feasible for Manoel to leave work to be with his wife while she gives birth to their son. In contrast, David Kaufman waits for the day their baby will be born and is just as excited as his wife. As a result it’s ok for him to take off of work to be with his wife, it would be strange if he chose to be at work instead. American society looks down on fathers who don’t see their children and families as a number one priority. So, David stays in the delivery room with Barbara from start to finish, and they gaze at their daughter together for the first time. It’s a bonding experience for the whole family. The differences in the roles of these two fathers at the birth of their children have everything to do with the culture they were raised in. David was probably taught from an early age that a father should be a large part of his children’s lives, or it’s been ingrained by the mass media, and peers. The workings of a culture involve shared customs, values, and behavior. This includes marriage practices, and parental roles. These things are taught to and learned by individuals in that culture, as a result from a young age children begin to know the role they should have in the world when they grow up. Another difference in the culture of Brazil and that of the U.S. is that Brazil is more of a Collectivistic society, while America is much more 2006-06-13T18:28:37-04:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/Study-of-Cross-Cultural-Psychology-29440.aspx Electroconvulsive Shock Therapy for Mental Disorders Since its introduction to the world in the mid 1930’s, electroconvulsive shock therapy, or ECT, has been one of the most effective and least understood treatments in psychiatry. The technique itself has changed in many ways since its conception and is now considered a safe and effective treatment of patients with major depressive disorder, manic episodes, schizophrenia, and other serious mental disturbances. However, the neurobiological changes critical to the therapeutic success of ECT have not yet been fully understood. Such a knowledge gap has led to an inaccurate portrayal of ECT in the media and misconceptions about ECT being held by many patients, lay people, and even health care professionals. “Convulsive therapy was introduced in 1934 in Europe by Ladislaus von Meduna as a treatment for catatonic schizophrenia. He induced seizures by the injection of camphor in oil but soon replaced camphor with metrazol because of its solubility and rapid onset of action. Also in 1934, Cerletti and Bini pioneered the use of electricity to induce seizures. Electrical-induced convulsions were more safe, reliable, and inexpensive than the camphor-induced convulsion” (Willoughby 12). According to the Journal of the American Medical Association, “the number of ECT procedures performed in the United States exceeds coronary bypass, appendectomy, or hernia repair” (Nobler 305). While the most common application of ECT is for psychological disorders, the uses of ECT range from major depression and schizophrenia to cancer and Parkinson’s disease (305). Although it’s mechanism of action is not understood, studies by the American Journal of Psychiatry showed a decrease in the level of glucose metabolism in the cerebral cortex of the brain following ECT. The “decreased neuronal activity” is consistent with potential anticonvulsant and antidepressant effects (305). In order for a patient to undergo ECT, the patient must give “informed consent” (Irvin 578). The patient and family members are informed of the risks and potential side effects including: anoxia during the seizure, memory loss, death rate of one per 10,000 treatments, and ventricular arrhythmias (578). During the procedure, ECT electrodes are placed on the head either bilaterally or unilaterally. The patient is given a muscle relaxant and a short-acting general anesthetic for sedation. An electrical current is applied to induce a grand mal seizure. The seizure must last at least 25 seconds to be effective. It 2006-06-13T17:31:12-04:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/Electroconvulsive-Shock-Therapy-for-Mental-Disorders-29410.aspx Isolating Feelings of being a Teenager The teenager is a creature far different from that of any other. These strange beings are classified into the species of the homo sapiens ranging from thirteen to eighteen years of age. Through the years, it seems that a teenager has grown more to be a separate class in itself rather than a certain time period in life. Although teenagers are really almost a separate sub- species of the human race, none of them are really quite the same. The teenager may be divided into three separate categories ranging from the radical, moderate, and conservative. The "radical" teenager may be best described as one going to all extremes to try and prove something that nobody else can really understand. Punks, stoners, new- wavers, skaters, surfers, and other similar people fall into this category. The "moderate" sub-species of the teenager may best be described as the classic teenager, or really a teenager who epitomizes most of the qualities of a "normal" teenager. This category comprises the widest range of people and could definitely be sub-divided within itself. This particular category of teenager is slightly vague as it can range from teenagers such as "jocks" to "brains". The last of these categories, the "conservative" teenager describes the class of teenagers who follow the rules and teachings of the adult world without a complaint or rejection. One will most likely find a "conservative" teen in the front of the classroom trying to get as close to the teacher's desk as possible. One will find that this person is usually quite timid and quiet the majority of the time. The description of any of these abstract creatures is quite difficult because of the vast difference in each one's features. These beings may range from 3 feet in height up to around 7 feet. They can be either tall, fat, thin, short, ugly, attractive, intelligent, slow, fast, responsible, irresponsable or a variety of several more features humanly possible. The "radical" and "moderate" teenagers are usually quite unpredictable and can usually never be trusted. The vast majority of teenagers begin to actually think and reason for the first time in their life and begin to have contrasting beliefs from what they have been taught by their 2006-06-13T03:12:11-04:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/Isolating-Feelings-of-Being-a-Teenager-29397.aspx Piaget's Theory of Child Develpoment In this story about a 2006-06-12T21:16:12-04:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/Piaget-s-Theory-of-Child-Develpoment-29387.aspx Displays of Abnormal Psychology Addictions and mental illnesses are the primary parts of abnormal psychology. Abnormal psychology is misunderstood among people of the world today. Most people do not understand the scientific reasoning or actual illness behind the symptom(s). People also tend to judge or mock things that they haven’t experienced or do not understand. Kleptomania is a rare condition that appears to occur in less than 5% of identified shoplifters. Females appear to be much more prone to be a klepto then males. The main cause of Kleptomania is failure to keep themselves from stealing things even though they have no personal use or value to what they steal. Individuals with this disorder will generally avoid stealing when they see a police officer standing around somewhere and think they will get caught and go to jail. They usually do not preplan the thefts or think about the consequences. The stealing is done without assistance of other people. Kleptomania should be distinguished from ordinary acts of theft or shoplifting. Ordinary theft (whether planned or unplanned) is motivated by greed and coveting something of worth. Some individuals, especially adolescents, may also steal on a dare, as an act of rebellion, or to get into a clique. Some sexual behaviors might be viewed as obsessive or compulsive if they are not viewed within their developmental context. Adolescents, for example, can become "obsessed" with sex for long periods of time. In adulthood, it is common for individuals to go through periods when sexual behavior may take on obsessive and compulsive characteristics. For example, in the early stages of romance, there is a natural developmental period where an individual might be obsessed with their partner and compelled to seek out their company and express affection. These are normal and healthy developmental processes of sexual development and must be clearly distinguished. Behaviors that are in conflict with someone's value system may be problematic but not obsessive-compulsive. Having sexual problems is common. Problems are often caused by a number of non-pathological factors. People can make mistakes. They can at times act impulsively. Their behavior can cause problems in a relationship. Some people will use sex as a coping mechanism similar to the use of alcohol, drugs, or eating. This pattern of sexual behavior can be problematic. Problematic sexual behavior is often remedied by time, experience, education or counseling. Obsessive and compulsive behavior, by its nature, is 2006-06-12T21:01:42-04:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/Displays-of-Abnormal-Psychology-29378.aspx Examining the Biological Side of Psychology Biology is an important part in a psychology course. Psychobiology is the area of psychology that focuses on the biological foundations of behavior and mental processes. The affects of drug addictions, behavioral disorders, sleep disturbances, memory, alterations in conscious awareness, and pain are all examples of the necessity of psychobiology during the biology chapters. Neurotransmitters are chemicals released by the synaptic vesicles that travel across the synaptic space and affect adjacent neurons. Major neurotransmitters can affect everything from movement to schizophrenia to memory. Acteylcholine affects arousal, attention, memory, motivation, and movement. But too much of this neurotransmitter can cause spasms and tremors while too little may cause paralysis and torpor. Dopamine, an inhibitor, inhibits a wide range of behavior and emotions including pleasure. It is also implicated in schizophrenia and Parkinson’s disease. Another inhibitor, serotonin, reduces virtually all activities. It is important for sleep onset, mood, and eating behavior. Norepinephrine affects arousal, wakefulness, learning, memory, and mood. Endorphins are an extremely important neurotransmitter. They inhibit the transmission of pain messages, or in other words, endorphins are the body’s natural painkiller. Drug abuse can alter every aspect of that person’s life. Substance abuse is defined as a pattern of drug use that diminishes the ability to fulfill responsibilities at home or at work or school, that results in repeated use of a drug in dangerous situations, or that leads to legal difficulties related to drug use. Depressants, such as alcohol, barbiturates, and opium derived substances, slow down behavior or cognitive processes. The social costs of alcohol abuse are high. Alcohol is involved in more than two – thirds of all fatal automobile accidents, two – thirds of all murders, two – thirds of all spouse beatings, and more than half of all cases of violent child abuse. Barbiturates, or “downers” as they are commonly called, are strikingly similar to alcohol. Both cause slurred speech, loss of inhibition, increases in aggression, and poor motor coordination. The opiates include drugs such as heroin and morphine. These drugs produce feelings of euphoria, well – being, and relaxation with severe withdraw symptoms after becoming addicted. The withdraw symptoms consist of prolonged periods of sleep lasting up to 12 hours, severe cramps, vomiting, and diarrhea, along with convulsive shaking and 2006-06-12T20:54:10-04:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/Examining-the-Biological-Side-of-Psychology-29373.aspx Sigmund Freud and the Analysis of Dreams PART I Sigmund Freud was born on May 6, 1856 in what is now Pribor, Czech Republic. He moved to Vienna, Austria in 1860 and Freud began school at Vienna University in 1875. In 1881, Freud qualified as a doctor of medicine. Freud researched medicinal effects of coca, hypnotherapy, and in 1895, he began to analyze his own dreams. PART II Freud formed his theory of dreaming, published in The Interpretation of Dreams, by the analysis of his own dreams. He kept a journal of his dreams, reflected on them, and concluded that dreams are the fulfillment of wishes, whether conscious or not. Freud said that all dreams contain common elements such as a childhood memory, possibly a conflict or an emotionally-charged experience. This early memory is blended with events from the past few days that relate to it. These recent events are called “day residue”. While dream analysis seems to be a simple process, early childhood memories or traumas are often repressed. An “inner censor” has hidden the dreamer’s true wishes. The inner censor distorts the dream’s meaning. Often, the features of many different people are compressed into one character. The censor can also transfer comments for one person to a different one in the dream, and sometimes substitute a symbol for a person. “… A father may become a king, a mother a cupboard, a child an animal.” (Muckenhoupt) The censor changes verbal thoughts into visual images, and other symbols can take the form of verbal cues. Once the censoring process is complete, the unconscious conflict has been changed and manipulated into symbolic content. When the person awakes he or she must make sense of the symbols and force a “logical structure” onto the dream. Freud wrote, “A dream is the (disguised) fulfillment of a (suppressed, repressed) wish.” (Muckenhoupt) Since a dream is simply a symbol for a deeper desire, the psychoanalyst must “decode” the latent content in order to find out what the subconscious is bringing out. A common type of dream that Freud dealt with was the anxiety dream. Some dreams of this type result from sexual wishes where this sexual energy, or libido, is converted into anxiety. This is especially true when the wish is revealed too clearly in the dream. Other times, the cause 2006-06-12T01:29:41-04:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/Sigmund-Freud-and-the-Analysis-of-Dreams-29248.aspx Importance of Parental Support in Child Development Each child develops in his or her own ways, while all children follow a similar path in the acquisition of speech, motor skills and emotional maturity. There is wide variation in how and when these milestones are achieved. During the first year, infants learn to control their attention and movements, sharpen their vision and hearing, and develop beginning on communication skills. Toddlers work at bonding with parents, learning to separate from them and developing autonomy. The school years are time for mastering 2006-06-11T18:52:34-04:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/Importance-of-Parental-Support-in-Child-Development-29197.aspx Effects of Stress and Balancing Stress in the Workplace 1. Introduction Stress is a very complex phenomenon. It is very much a personal condition and individuals vary in their ability to cope with different forms and levels of stress. In fact we all need some level of stress, as stimulus, to get going and live (Green 1993). However, higher levels of stress can greatly affect individual and organisational performance. It is not a stress-free environment that organisations and individuals need to aim for at work but a stress-controlled one, which is beneficial for everybody. It is important for organisations to recognise this and apply appropriate methods and processes to reduce stress. Creation of an inclusive, participative, inspirational and respectful work environment would not only reduce stress at work but also improve individual and organisational performance. 2. How Does Stress Affect Performance? This section explains the linkage between stress and performance. A specific work related definition by the US National Institute of Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH 1999) defines work stress as the harmful physical and emotional responses that occur when the requirements of the job do not mach the capabilities, resources and the needs of the worker. Stress can lead to poor health and even injury. A certain degree of stress is necessary for good mental and physical health. This is termed ‘eustress’. To much stress can lead to ‘distress’. Hawkins (1994, p.14) states that ‘…too much or too little stress can have deleterious effects on performance with resultant effects on the health of the individual and the organisation.’ (see Figure 2.1) Stress can arise in white as well as blue-collar occupations. Surveys have found little difference between white and blue-collar workers in terms of somatic complaints, health, life satisfaction, depression or other indicators of stress (Jones 1999). However, sources of stress are thought to differ between white and blue-collar workers. According to the Australian Chamber of Commerce and Industry (ACCI 1990), sources of work-related stress can be grouped into four general categories: • Work load - too much work; too little work; work too difficult; work too easy. • Work conditions - organisational structure; office politics; poor job design; organisational culture; low work control and autonomy. • Work patterns - shift works; repetitive work; machine-paced work. • Work roles - role ambiguity; conflicting job demands; conflict between job and personal commitment. American Psychological Association (APA 1996) reported that in recent insurance industry studies, nearly half of American workers say their job is “very or extremely 2006-06-11T02:57:10-04:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/Effects-of-Stress-and-Balancing-Stress-in-the-Workplace-29191.aspx Maintaining Gender Roles in Contemporary Australian Society A distinction is sometimes made between gender and sex, such that gender refers to socially conditioned characteristics or typical behaviour, and sex to the physical characteristics of men and women. The definition of gender is sociological concerns of sexual difference and human behaviours or a set of classes, such as masculine, feminine and neuter, which together include all nouns. The discussion of how the differences of gender are maintained in society today covers many different areas, such as growing into gender roles, sources of gender socialization, masculinity and femininity and expectations that humans live with daily. These will all be discussed and analysed in the following argument. We are born either male or female. Depending on the sex that you are, your parents, family and friends try and teach you certain stereotypical ideals. For instance, a little girl may have a pink coloured nursery and clothes. She may be given dolls and tea sets to play with. Whereas a boy may have a blue nursery and toys, and be given trucks and train sets to play with. This is encouraging the child to have feminine or masculine personal qualities, depending on their sex. When these adults are choosing gifts, it immediately comes to mind that a doll for a baby boy is not an appropriate gift. It has been shown that these actions by adults have been taught to them by culture and their surroundings as they themselves were growing up. These children do not have the ability to choose their own gender pathway, and therefore have to rely on their parents to lead them in the correct direction and trust their selection of gender roles. Once a child has become old enough to be able to choose for itself, they develop a more individual personality and variance of gender. Researchers have been debating whether or not males who have been raised as females develop features of masculinity once they reach puberty, and whether the biological sex will prevail. There is still much debate about this issue, but if this were to happen, the male would have to be taught acts of masculinity. The child would have to see what masculinity is to be able to act in this manner. Phrases such as “tomboy” have been used to describe females who act with some masculinity, and the opposite characteristics may be found in males that 2006-06-07T18:39:13-04:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/Maintaining-Gender-Roles-in-Contemporary-Australian-Society-29118.aspx Psychological Analysis of the Nature of Glamor In the preceding pages we dealt with certain definitions of the words (frequently used interchangeably) dealing with illusion and glamor. We found that: Illusion is primarily of a mental quality and was characteristic of the attitude of mind of those people who are more intellectual than emotional. They have outgrown glamor as usually understood. It is the misunderstanding of ideas and thought-forms of which they are guilty, and of misinterpretations. Glamor is astral in character, and is far more potent at this time than illusion, owing to the enormous majority of people who function astrally always. Maya is vital in character and is a quality of force. It is essentially the energy of the human being as it swings into activity through the subjective influence of the mental illusion or astral glamor or of both in combination. The Dweller on the Threshold, always present, swings however into activity only on the Path of Discipleship, when the aspirant becomes occultly aware of himself, of the conditions induced within him as a result of his interior illusion, his astral glamor and the maya surrounding his entire life. Being now an integrated personality (and no one is a disciple, my brother, unless he is mental as well as emotional, which is a point the [27] devotee oft forgets) these three conditions (with the preponderance of the effect in one or other of the bodies) are seen as a whole, and to this whole the term the "Dweller on the Threshold" is applied. It is in reality a vitalized thought-form - embodying mental force, astral force and vital energy. The problem, therefore, before all of you in this group is to learn first of all: To distinguish between these three inner illusory aspects. To discover what conditions in the environment or in the individual constitution induce these situations of difficulty. To find out what methods are effective in inducing a cessation of the bewildering deceiving conditions. It must be remembered also that these distorting conditions, found in all of you, are the medium whereby you are tuned in on the world glamor and illusion. The emphasis has been laid in esoteric teaching on the training and liberation of the individual aspirant. This is, of course, necessary, for the mass is made up of the individuals, and in the steady release from the control of these inner delusions will come the 2006-06-07T16:16:27-04:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/Psychological-Analysis-of-the-Nature-of-Glamor-29097.aspx Difficulties for Dealing with Teenagers and Adolescents Few parents today realize the need to change the way they deal with children as they grow up. Even the most caring adults frequently misunderstand teenagers. This isn’t due to a lack of effort; it has more to do with inaccurate stereotypes and portrayals of teenagers. The word teenager, for an instance, brings up an image of a rebellious, outrageously dressed, young person who loves to party, listen to annoying music and watch MTV. Teenagers are often very complex, but they are also not impossible to understand. When the world speaks of or thinks of “teenagers” they are likely to have a stereotype ideal in mind, and this often creates an unfortunate barrier that does not allow us to appreciate the individuality of each young person in the world today. Too often teenagers are treated as if they were just big toddlers or large children. The general view of parents today seems to be that children are “their” property and should learn to please them and obey their commands. This maybe true for toddlers but as growing young adults the role of parents is to assist a child into becoming an independent, responsible adult. This cannot happen unless the teenager is allowed to make some decisions for themselves. Not wild guesses or decisions based on their desires but informed based on considerations of the facts and the consequences of different actions. Statistics have shown that during different stages of a person life the way they are treated changes dramatically. When an infant is born they are shown lots of attention, encouragement, affection and total acceptance. Then as they go off to elementary school their parents become more involved in their life, they encourage and teach them and have appropriate expectations. As they get into high school, things start to change. Their parents say they have unrealistic expectations, over-interest in life, and focus too much on their friends and the type of people they are. These are the preconceived attitudes that are often shown to children from their parents. Teenage years are very crucial time in which it’s a time for young adults to figure out who they are and what they stand for. In order to do this, teenagers have to consider things and explore things for themselves. They will find out for themselves why things are valuable and will be 2006-06-02T16:37:08-04:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/Difficulties-for-Dealing-with-Teenagers-and-Adolescents-29051.aspx How Ritalin can create and unfair advantage in schools Treating ADHD with Ritalin is a way to ignore the situations and factors that may exacerbate the symptoms of the disorder. Parents need to take some responsibility for their children’s disorders and seek treatments besides Ritalin. Physicians should recommend a program that combines chemical and behavioral treatments to assist children in working through their disorder. It seems that Ritalin may be over prescribed in our country, with an estimated 2 million children taking Ritalin (Breggin, 1995). Physicians rarely take the time to find out if Ritalin is even the best solution for an ADHD child. The best way to determine this is to alternate days of giving a child Ritalin and a placebo and recording the resulting behavior. If Ritalin is found to be more effective than the placebo, the doctor should devise a plan to work the drug, along with behavioral therapy, into the child’s treatment plan for a limited amount of time. Behavioral therapy for ADHD children and families can help in a variety of ways. While behavioral therapy may take more time, effort, and money than simple drug treatments, it may have more lasting and valuable effects. For example, around the time children enter school, they begin to learn that they have to take responsibility for the choices and actions that they make. Without behavioral therapy, children on Ritalin may not be able to make those same conclusions, and instead blame their disorders for their actions (Breggin, 1995). It should be noted that with Ritalin alone, children with ADHD are still distinguishable among their peers in regard to behavior patterns and academic performance (Whalen & Henker, 1998). Behavioral therapy may teach children how to have normal interactions with others and increase the chance that peers will accept the ADHD child. This therapy may also be able to teach children strategies to help them succeed in school. Behavioral treatments should also involve the parents, who also carry some responsibility for their children’s improvement. Parents should be taught methods of discipline that do not involve giving into the children’s behavior. The therapy can also identify risk factors and issues in the family that may trigger reactions in ADHD children. If parents learn to deal with these issues, their children may 2006-06-02T02:52:08-04:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/How-Ritalin-can-Create-and-Unfair-Advantage-in-Schools-29012.aspx Self-Image Theory in Male and Female Adolescent Subjects Dr. Mary Pipher, a clinical psychologist wrote Reviving Ophelia to help parents and girls as they go through their Adolescent years. This book focuses on many issues young girls may face during adolescence, family relationships, divorce, developmental issues, depression and drugs and alcohol. Pipher observes the different selves of young girls and their evolving relationships with others. Adolescence is a time of discovering who you are and it is certainly not an easy task in the world in which we live in today. Girls are constantly focusing on their physical selves and the changing of their bodies. Many times young girls will allow culture and the outside world to define who they are and what they should look like. Young girls as adolescents don’t understand or want to understand that the average woman does not look like the Sports Illustrated model. Pipher explains to us that girl’s immaturity emotion level makes it hard for them to hold on to their own identity when experiencing peer pressure of adolescence. This is a time when even the smallest things can be overwhelming for young girls and they may deal with their emotions in many different ways. Staying connected with your emotions and being able to sort through the instability will prepare girls to emerge from adolescents and have a good sense of whom they are. Pipher urges parents to guide their daughters through these tough years so they can avoid emotional traps such as eating disorders, depression and suicide. Most adolescents are unable to think abstractly and this makes it difficult for people to reason with them. Young girls first entering into adolescents will read to deeply into causal comments and over react to simple glances. We can see and understand why girls find the need to categorize themselves into groups such as preps and geeks. Teenage girls see the world as black and white and believe that everyone is examining even the smallest detail about herself. Teenage girls are only able to focus on them and what they are going through. Many parents see this as being selfish, but it is only a developmental stage that every girl experiences during adolescence. Schools treat boys and girls extremely different. Boys are more likely to be noticed in the classroom. 2006-06-01T19:04:51-04:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/Self-Image-Theory-in-Male-and-Female-Adolescent-Subjects-28985.aspx Psychology of Schizophrenia and its Symptoms For many years the word “schizophrenia” has provoked enormous discomfort. Invested with meaning at once surreal and feared, it is still used as an instrument of ridicule in ordinary conversation, in the media, and even among professionals themselves. The word itself is ominous and evokes visions of madness and asylums. It is a discordant and cruel term, just like the disease signifies. “Schizophrenia continues to be an illness about which the public at large remains unaware even though, along with other psychiatric disorders, it has become more susceptible to modern scientific investigation yielding information that has clarified the origin, progress, and outcome of the disorder” (Orey). Brilliant advances in brain and behavioral research over the last couple of decades have armed scientists and clinicians to such a degree that both diagnosis and therapeutics now rest on more solid ground than ever before. “Schizophrenia is a complex disorder characterized by a constellation of distinctive and predictable symptoms that are most commonly associated with the disease. It is one of the most disabling and emotionally devastating illnesses known to man” (Orey). It is a relatively common disease with an estimated one percent to one and a half percent of the United States population being diagnosed with it over the course of their lives (Torrey 6). Schizophrenia usually begins by the individual having a “psychotic episode”, which is a serious onset of symptoms. The symptoms are divided into two main categories, positive and negative. Positive because these are new experiences and negative because these are every day parts of life, at a reduced level. These may occur together, separately or alternately. The positive symptoms are hallucinations, delusions, disorganized speech. Most commonly a person with schizophrenia will “hear” his own thoughts, for example, as if they have been spoken aloud within his head. The thoughts can appear to be so loud that the person may believe that people nearby will also be able to hear them. The mind usually adjusts to this very rapidly and as a result the thoughts then appear to come from some external source. These spoken thoughts are then called voices or, more technically, hallucinations. There can also be other kinds of hallucinations such as visual, smell or taste. A person who experiences hallucination will naturally attempt to find an explanation for what is happening. Which kind of explanation they decide on depends very much 2006-06-01T18:56:44-04:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/Psychology-of-Schizophrenia-and-its-Symptoms-28981.aspx The Psychological Disorder of False Memory Syndrome Memory is the mental faculty of retaining and recalling past experiences. A repressed memory is one that is retained in the sub conscious mind, where one is not aware of it but where it can still affect both conscious thoughts and behavior. When memory is distorted or confabulated, the result can be what has been called the False Memory Syndrome: a condition in which a person's identity and interpersonal relationships are entered around a memory of traumatic experience which is objectively false but in which the person strongly believes. Note that the syndrome is not characterized by false memories as such. We all have memories that are inaccurate. Rather, the syndrome may be diagnosed when the memory is so deeply ingrained that it orients the individual's entire personality and lifestyle, in turn disrupting all sorts of other adaptive behaviors. The analogy to personality disorder is intentional. False memory syndrome is especially destructive because the person assiduously avoids confrontation with any evidence that might challenge the memory. Thus it takes on a life of its own, encapsulated and resistant to correction. The person may become so focused on the memory that he or she may be effectively distracted from coping with real problems in his or her life. -- John F. Kihlstrom, Ph.D. There are many models which try to explain how memory works. Nevertheless, we do not know exactly how memory works. One of the most questionable models of memory is the one which assumes that every experience a person has had is 'recorded' in memory and that some of these memories are of traumatic events too terrible to want to remember. These terrible memories are locked away in the sub conscious mind, i.e. repressed, only to be remembered in adulthood when some triggering event opens the door to the unconscious. And, both before and after the repressed memory is remembered, it causes physical and mental disorders in a person. Some people have made an effort to explain their pain, even cancer, as coming from repressed memories of incest in the body. Scientists have studied related phenomenon such as people whose hands bleed in certain religious settings. Presumably such people, called stigmatics, "are not revealing unconscious memories of being crucified as young children, but rather are demonstrating a fascinating psychogenic anomaly that springs from their conscious fixation on the suffering of Christ. Similarly, 2006-06-01T02:28:01-04:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/The-Psychological-Disorder-of-False-Memory-Syndrome-28968.aspx Damaging Effects of Child Abuse and Social Consequences What is child abuse? By definition from www.dictionary.com, child abuse is the deliberate and willful of physical or emotional or sexual abuse of a child. The key word in the definition is deliberate. This involves an active, hostile, aggressive treatment to a child. When something like child abuse occurs in a young child’s life it could end up having a negative effect on them when they are adults. This is something that should be stressed because it is like a cycle. This topic is very important for anybody who wants to be future parents or if anybody wants to understand child abuse a little better. Hitting a child 2006-05-31T23:49:36-04:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/Damaging-Effects-of-Child-Abuse-and-Social-Consequences-28950.aspx Psychological Theory of Supervision Explored in Education Within an organization there’s a body of people where at least one person stands out as the leader or the one who supervises the rest of the body. Usually someone has appointed this person. I believe in order for one to have a purposeful organization, someone within should oversee the transitional processes of that organization. The supervisor is the overseer in most organizations and many times delegate duties to others within the organization. Analyzing the educational arena, supervisors seek to improve schools, classroom instruction, and the growth of the organizational body by using one of the three philosophies: essentialism, experimentalism, and existentialism. These three philosophies determine the manner in which the supervisor will direct the body of the organization. A supervisor who possesses the essentialist philosophy is one who does it in an authoritative manner. Still holding on to his or her goals of improving the school, classroom instruction and the growth of the organizational body, there’s little room for collaboration from the body of the organization. This type of philosophy places the supervisor as the person who teaches truths about the absolute standards. Educationally, the teachers mechanically and systematically feed content to the students. While I believe that there’s a time for essentialism or direct-control, I believe it limits teacher and student growth. As a supervisor it is important for the body of the organization to continue to grow and possess a sense involvement. Supervisors can also supervise using an experimentalist approach. When a supervisor use this type approach he or she continues to hold on to his or her goals of school improvement, classroom instruction, and organizational growth, however it is done by allowing the involvement of the organizational body (teachers). Supervision becomes developmental because it encourages the involvement, and collective action of others. The supervisor believes that teachers need to learn what are the truths of their time, but they should not rest content with that parcel of knowledge. The supervisor, which utilizes the experimentalist approach, allows teacher to test old ideas and try new ideas. This allows teacher and student growth, while at the same time improves classroom instruction. The third approach to supervision is the existentialistic. Within this approach, the supervisor continues to hold on to his or her goals, but the accomplishments of the goals are clearly achieved by the supervisor’s facilitation of the teacher. Using this approach allows the 2006-05-31T23:47:36-04:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/Psychological-Theory-of-Supervision-Explored-in-Education-28949.aspx Psychological Analysis and Effects of Depression in Adolesents Adolescent Depression: The Under Acknowledged Disease Depression is a disease that afflicts the human psyche in such a way that the afflicted tends to act and react abnormally toward others and themselves. Therefore it comes to no surprise to discover that adolescent depression is strongly linked to teen suicide. Adolescent suicide is now responsible for more deaths in youths aged 15 to 19 than cardiovascular disease or cancer (Blackman, 1995). Despite this increased suicide rate, depression in this age group is greatly underdiagnosed and leads to serious difficulties in school, work and personal adjustment which may often continue into adulthood. How prevalent are mood disorders in children and when should an adolescent with changes in mood be considered clinically depressed? Brown (1996) has said the reason why depression is often over looked in children and adolescents is because "children are not always able to express how they feel." Sometimes the symptoms of mood disorders take on different forms in children than in adults. Adolescence is a time of emotional turmoil, mood swings, gloomy thoughts, and heightened sensitivity. It is a time of rebellion and experimentation. Blackman (1996) observed that the "challenge is to identify depressive symptomatology which may be superimposed on the backdrop of a more transient, but expected, developmental storm." Therefore, diagnosis should not lay only in the physician's hands but be associated with parents, teachers and anyone who interacts with the patient on a daily basis. Unlike adult depression, symptoms of youth depression are often masked. Instead of expressing sadness, teenagers may express boredom and irritability, or may choose to engage in risky behaviors (Oster & Montgomery, 1996). Mood disorders are often accompanied by other psychological problems such as anxiety (Oster & Montgomery, 1996), eating disorders (Lasko et al., 1996), hyperactivity (Blackman, 1995), substance abuse (Blackman, 1995; Brown, 1996; Lasko et al., 1996) and suicide (Blackman, 1995; Brown, 1996; Lasko et al., 1996; Oster & Montgomery, 1996) all of which can hide depressive symptoms. The signs of clinical depression include marked changes in mood and associated behaviors that range from sadness, withdrawal, and decreased energy to intense feelings of hopelessness and suicidal thoughts. Depression is often described as an exaggeration of the duration and intensity of "normal" mood changes (Brown 1996). Key indicators of adolescent depression include a drastic change 2006-05-31T23:29:52-04:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/Psychological-Analysis-Effects-of-Depression-in-Adolesents-28944.aspx How the Sandinista Revolution Changed Traditional Gender Roles Before the Nicaraguan Sandinista Revolution had taken place in the late 1970s, male and female gender roles had been clearly and traditionally defined as to how one should behave and conduct one’s self. Men and women identified these ideal traits and behaviors for potential husbands and wives, or as guidelines in how to raise their children, and even so that the family order of gender role was not upset. Traditional male behavior had originally been based around the notion of machismo. In this way, they are meant to act aggressive, violent, dominant, sexually conquer and drink and gamble. Women on the other hand were expected to be soft spoken, obedient and caretaker of the household. Once the Revolution started, and as times were getting harder, the idea of the ideal New Man and woman had changed. “Two sets of values coexist, compete, and more than occasionally blur: the ideals of machismo, with its cult of aggressive masculinity, defined as a mode of sexual and physical conquest; and the ideals of the revolutionary New Man, who is envisioned as hard working, devoted and family oriented (Lancaster, 1992; pg. 40).” For women, her traditional role was in the household taking care of the children, cleaning, cooking and washing as would be expected. Furthermore, she was unable to voice her objections or opinions to her husbands’ sometimes abusive tendencies, and from that the New Woman had evolved also. Women started to lose faith in the war, growing tired as they were losing many husbands and sons to the war. Throughout Lancaster’s Life Is Hard, one can watch as the behaviors and society gender roles start to change as the Sandinista Revolution continued. “The new idea of a good man- that is, the revolutionary New Man- is someone who studies to improve himself and his country, who works hard, who is responsible toward his companera, his children, and is generous with those around him. The old idea of a good man- the ideal of machismo- was someone who could drink, fight gamble, and have a large number of sexual conquests (Lancaster, 1992; pg. 175).” Jaime is a good example of the New Man. He entirely supported the Sandinista Revolution in which he believed in improving his country, also an extremely bright scholar who kept improving himself through education; he was also a good friend and generous 2006-05-31T18:32:43-04:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/The-Sandinista-Revolution-Changed-Traditional-Gender-Roles-28926.aspx Psychology of Teenagers through Behavioral Model The teen brain consists of four main components that contribute to development. The first component is the corpus callosum, which is a nerve table that joins both sides of the brain. Although it is not completely stated what it is responsible for it is believed that it controls intelligence, consciousness, and self-awareness. This links to the teen brain model because it doesn’t mature till your mid 20’s which would explain why teens do so called “Dumb” things, because their brains are not fully developed. The second main component is the frontal lobe, which is located in the upper front part of the brain. The frontal lobe is responsible for self-control, judgment, organization, and regulation. The frontal lobe changes and undergoes a series of pruning. The first growth finishes at age five and then at about the age of 10 the brain begins to grow again. Which explains why most teens do not think things threw because this part of the brain is not fully developed. Another component is the changing in the Parietal lobes. The parietal lobe put together information and is in charge of senses like tactile or touch and sight, and makes it comprehensible. What happens to the parietal lobes is the long nerve fibers or white matter that is coated in fatty substance called myelin, allows the nerves to carry information faster and more efficiently when the process is finished. This process is developing until late teens early 20’s. Which means the teen brain does not send or receive information as fast or effective. The final result of the parietal lobes is that they can’t organize or incorporate the different signs that they receive. They do not adapt because the brain cannot react to it. Like the parietal lobe the temporal lobes are not developed during the teen years. The temporal lobes are responsible for language and emotion; they do not reach full maturity until approximately 16 years of age. The final component of the teen brain is hormones. The female’s hippocampus grows more quickly than males because it reacts to estrogen. Females react better to the reward and punishment system. Males however, the amygdala grows more rapidly than females because it reacts to androgen. Males react better to fears and emotions, which means an adolescent male may be easier to discipline if you put a fear in them. By this I 2006-05-31T18:16:19-04:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/Psychology-of-Teenagers-through-Behavioral-Model-28922.aspx Love: affection and friendship How can it be? I don’t understand. It can’t last forever, but they still want girlfriends. What drives them to wanting a significant other? Is it pride, do they just covet, or perhaps it’s because they see that others have girlfriends and they feel almost pressured (I personally think it’s a combination). If they wanted a girlfriend for the reason of pride would that not mean that their own pride, at that time, would have had to of been rather average, or perhaps even low. Now, of course it matters on the person himself. If he is confident in himself, his pride would be rather high. It can’t be pride if you have affection for the person, because pride won’t allow you to have affection for others. Pride also can’t be a factor when it comes to love, for there is no such thing as a prideful marriage. The subject of marriage is a rather sensitive subject. The two main topics are divorce and sex before marriage. I myself feel that the worst thing you can do is divorce someone, not only in marriage but in friendship as well. When I lived in Texas, I had a friend that hated divorce only because his parents divorced. At the same time though, he told me that God was personal, but He divorced His creation after He had made it. I think that was his way of dealing with the sin in the world. Unfortunately, I never really challenged him by asking how is it possible to be a personal God and at the same time be divorced with His creation. God tells us that he hates divorce: “For the Lord God of Israel says that He hates divorce, ‘for it covers one’s garment with violence,’ says the Lord of hosts. ‘Therefore take heed to your spirit, that you do not deal treacherously’” (Malachi 2:16). I do not wish to spent much time on the topic of divorce, only because I don’t know what I could say on it. I shall now go to sex before marriage. As for sex before marriage I see nothing wrong with it, but only if they truly love each other. Unfortunately most teens are so desperate for a significant other they are willing to do anything to keep them once 2006-05-30T19:37:24-04:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/Love-Affection-and-Friendship-28899.aspx Echo Personality Disorder Echo Personality Disorder is a specific and highly differentiated form of dependency, marked by behaviours of compliance and a need to 'mirror' significant others -parents, spouse, friends, employer. It has been found that those with EPD are highly attracted to relationships with individuals who show marked narcissistic tendencies. This mirroring behaviour was the reason for choosing the name Echo personality disorder, which is based on the Greek myth of Narcissus and Echo. In this story Echo, a forest nymph, falls completely in love with the egocentric youth Narcissus, and when he shows clear signs of rejecting her, she persists in her attatchement to him and will not be moved from her aim. She finally satisfies him with the masochistic task of echoing back to him all that he says. This too is the central feature of EPD behaviour in relationships, where the individual will mirror, echo, and compliment another at the expense of their own self-worth and dignity. Self descriptions by EPD sufferers focus strongly on percieved fears of abandonment, rejection, and loss, and these agonizing feelings are the driving force behind the above-mentioned interpersonal coping style (mirroring others). These individuals protect themselves from abandonment/rejection by being so agreeable to others, via their mirroring capacity, that chances of re-experiencing abandonment agony is brought to a low minimum. Unfortunately this approach amounts to a false existence with little or no true self expression, and eventually leads to poor psychological health. Characteristic experiential history for EPD often involves individuals being parented by caretakers who are themselves self-absorbed or narcissistic. In this environment the child learns that asserting ones true self will be met with a form of (often serial) rejection, to which they respond by substituting compliant behaviour in place of true selfhood. This 'compliant' behaviour can then be witnessed as a stable feature throughout the childs growing-up years, with other school children, and within the family. Depression, smoking, alcoholism, addictive behaviour all occur with very high frequency in this disorder. On a positive note, EPD people are excellent contributors to society, and to family, as they are found to be very perceptive of the needs of others. The highly respected religions of Christianity and Buddhism are based on the principles of altruism and charity, and this is a lifestyle at which the EPD individual can be said to be expert. Good traits such as these cannot simply be written 2006-05-10T03:22:38-04:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/Echo-Personality-Disorder-28825.aspx The phenomenon of bipolar affective disorder has been a mystery since the 16th century. Bipolar disorder or as the alternate names, manic depressive illness or affective bipolar disorder can be classified as a mood disorder characterized by mood swings from mania (exaggerated feeling of well-being) to depression. History has shown that this affliction can appear in almost anyone. Many famous and historical individuals have been said to have suffered from this disorder, most notably the great painter Vincent Van Gogh is believed to have had bipolar disorder. It is clear that in our society many people live with bipolar disorder; however, regardless of the abundance of people suffering from the it, we are still waiting for concrete reasoning for the causes and cure. The one fact of which we are painfully aware is that bipolar disorder severely undermines its' victims ability to obtain and maintain social and occupational success. It is also believed that the lithium level is what causes these mood swings. Suffers of bipolar disorder suffer from a large varity of symptoms that can be broken into manic and depressive episodes. The depressive episodes are characterized by intense feelings of sadness and despair that can become feelings of hopelessness and helplessness. Either the manic or the depressive episodes can predominate and produce few mood swings or the patters of mood swings my be cyclic. Some of the symptoms of a depressive episode include anhedonia, disturbances in sleep and appetite, psycomoter retardation, loss of energy, feelings of worthlessness, guilt, difficulty thinking, indecision, and recurrent thoughts of death and suicide (Hollandsworth, Jr. 1990 ). Some of the other symptoms that may occur in the depressive stage can be also fatigue that can last anywhere from weeks to months and a person may not be aware of why this is actually happening. Daytime sleepiness can also occur making it hard for a person with this illness to hold down any sort of a job for a length of time. Unintentional weightloss can make the doctor go in a different direction in this making it difficult for them in diagnosis because of all the possible symptoms that a person may exhibit. A person may also have some memory loss episodes or episodes of amnesia, going blank for a periods of time. They may not even be aware that they have a family to take care of and often times lose sight of 2006-05-09T20:12:41-04:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/Bipolar-Disorer-28822.aspx Effects of Gender on Education This topic is also well discussed in many of the standard textbooks, but a bit unevenly and a bit oddly. Thus Haralambos and Holborn (1990), or Barnard and Burgess (1996) have good sections specifically on gender and educational achievement. However, rather strangely, the section on education is treated almost entirely as a sort of empirical matter and not linked very well to the other admirable sections on gender generally, or gender in the family or work sections. This is especially odd in the Bilton et al (1996) classic, written by a team that includes a prominent feminist (M Stanworth) and which has good sections on genderas an organising pespective in the theory and methodology chapters. So, one suggestion is to take the material specifically on gender in education, but to read up the topics more widely and generally in the other relevant chapters as well. As before, I\'ll try to show how this might be done via my own glosses and interests: Early work focused on female underachievement in the formal education system, which was (finally) considered to be as much of a \'dysfunctional\' outcome as underachievement by working class kids ( see file on connections between educational policy and functionalist models of stratification). If the educational reforms of the period in Britain after World War 2 were designed to make sure the most talented kids got to the highest levels of achievement, we would expect as many girls as boys to hit those levels -- selective schools, sixth-form, examination success, university entrance or whatever. This was clearly not the case in the 1950s and 1960s. These gender differences began to be explained initially using the same sort of factors that had been used to explain working-class underachievement. 1. Early theories suggested that females were not as able or as intelligent as males, and there is still a lot of stuff around on relative brain sizes or supposedly innate cognitive limits. There are obvious objections to this view too, of course -- such as that the tests of intelligence are likely to be value-laden. Equally, there is a methodological problem, one which runs through all the work on gender that involves biological explanations - biological accounts are reductionist in that they try to reduce a number of complex social differences to one simple set of biological differences (always a suspicious move). At the common-sense level it 2006-05-07T06:13:57-04:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/Effects-of-Gender-on-Education-28810.aspx The Effects of Divorce on Children The statistics for divorce in the 1990's suggest that nearly sixty percent of marriages end in divorce. Given this startling figure, the presumption can be made that many children will experience some effects caused by the life-changing event called divorce. What is it exactly about divorce that causes negative consequences for these children? In what ways will these children be effected? Will these effects show outwardly? The unsettling fact is: young children of divorced parents face great psychological challenges due to the environmental conditions and changes associated with divorce (Wolchik and Karoly 45). When we pass the year 2000, we will see two groups of working age adults emerging. One group will have received psychological, social, economic, educational and moral benefits and the other group will have been denied them all. The first group will have grown up with both parents present in the house and the second group will have not had both parents present. Parental conflict appears to have a pronounced effect on the coping efforts of children. The intense anxiety and anger between some parents in the early stages of divorce is real. Often times parents allow their children to get in the middle of fierce verbal fighting between them. Berating the other parent in front of the child is another way of placing the child in an unfair position, which in essence is expecting the child to choose between the parents. Any form of parental conflict, no matter to what degree, lends to a difficult adjustment period for children involved. (Jekielek 1-3). The deterioration in parent-child relationships after divorce is another leading cause in psychological problems for children. With a divorce comes a parenting plan of some kind. A child may experience shared custody between both parents or custody by one parent with visitation by the other parent. Variations of these plans can be included or added at different times in the child's life depending on special circumstances. More often than not, the mother is awarded custody of the children. The absence of the father on a full time level is detrimental to the healthy development of the children. In the case that the father is awarded custody of the children, the opposite applies as well. Studies have shown that a decay in custodial parent-child relationships may frequently occur in the first year or two following divorce (Wolchik and Karoly 2006-05-07T06:10:07-04:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/The-Effects-of-Divorce-on-Children-28809.aspx Kushner, a Rabbi, tried to make sense of many of the traditional arguments of God’s existence and the reasons for some of the tragic events of the modern world. Overall, Kushner provides a usable argument for God as his idea rests on the fact that although God is not all-powerful, He is a God of love. There have been many times in life when I have turned to a “God” with problems and wanted answers or solutions and received nothing. When this happens, I take the time to reflect and ask myself, “Why, when I do some many good things, do I not receive any answers or solutions to my problems?” The book When Bad Things Happen to Good People, written by Harold S. Kushner, has brought some answers to my problems. This book explained and helps clarify why even though I am not a bad person, that sometimes bad things are bound to happen. When Kushner wrote this book I feel that, the meaning of his writings were that God does not mean to punish us, he just means to test us and present us with problems and see how we react to them. As put best he wrote, “The God I believe in does not send us the problem; he gives us the strength to cope with it.”(127). Kushner makes many references to the bible and his belief in a higher power, “God”. Many people personally may not think there can be one and only one God but I do believe in a higher being or power and I like how Kushner makes sure to point out that he is not calling it the God but “his” God. It shows an almost non-biast opinion and it shows a lot of respect towards all groups of people. I remember one time specifically when my grandma recently passed away I turned to God for answers. Instead of getting an answer, I got more problems. My grandma and grandma both had strokes, my best friend who is also my cousin got merry and is unhappy, my friend is going through an crisis with her family along with all of the other normal problems that go on in live that we, as humans, have learned to expect in everyday life. In the belief that I thought was that while God took one away, he renewed faith in another. At first, of course, I was 2006-05-04T16:56:12-04:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/When-Bad-Things-Happen-to-Good-People,-written-by-Harold-S_-28796.aspx Echo Personality Disorder Echo Personality Disorder is a specific and highly differentiated form of dependency, marked by behaviours of compliance and a need to 'mirror' significant others -parents, spouse, friends, employer. It has been found that those with EPD are highly attracted to relationships with individuals who show marked narcissistic tendencies. This mirroring behaviour was the reason for choosing the name Echo personality disorder, which is based on the Greek myth of Narcissus and Echo. In this story Echo, a forest nymph, falls completely in love with the egocentric youth Narcissus, and when he shows clear signs of rejecting her, she persists in her attatchement to him and will not be moved from her aim. She finally satisfies him with the masochistic task of echoing back to him all that he says. This too is the central feature of EPD behaviour in relationships, where the individual will mirror, echo, and compliment another at the expense of their own self-worth and dignity. Self descriptions by EPD sufferers focus strongly on percieved fears of abandonment, rejection, and loss, and these agonizing feelings are the driving force behind the above-mentioned interpersonal coping style (mirroring others). These individuals protect themselves from abandonment/rejection by being so agreeable to others, via their mirroring capacity, that chances of re-experiencing abandonment agony is brought to a low minimum. Unfortunately this approach amounts to a false existence with little or no true self expression, and eventually leads to poor psychological health. Characteristic experiential history for EPD often involves individuals being parented by caretakers who are themselves self-absorbed or narcissistic. In this environment the child learns that asserting ones true self will be met with a form of (often serial) rejection, to which they respond by substituting compliant behaviour in place of true selfhood. This 'compliant' behaviour can then be witnessed as a stable feature throughout the childs growing-up years, with other school children, and within the family. Depression, smoking, alcoholism, addictive behaviour all occur with very high frequency in this disorder. On a positive note, EPD people are excellent contributors to society, and to family, as they are found to be very perceptive of the needs of others. The highly respected religions of Christianity and Buddhism are based on the principles of altruism and charity, and this is a lifestyle at which the EPD individual can be said to be expert. Good traits such as these cannot simply be written 2006-05-03T05:01:26-04:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/Essay-on-Echo-Personality-Disorder-28783.aspx Critical Evaluation of the Cognitive Theory of Stereotyping B231: Social Interaction, Exam Paper 1998, Question 4. Graeme Gordon Stereotyping is a form of pre judgement that is as prevalent in today's society as it was 2000 years ago. It is a social attitude that has stood the test of time and received much attention by social psychologists and philosophers alike. Many approaches to, or theories of stereotyping have thus been raised. This essay evaluates the cognitive approach that categorisation is an essential cognitive process that inevitably leads to stereotyping. Hamilton (1979) calls this a 'depressing dilemma'. Brown's (1995) definition of stereotyping through prejudice is the 'holding of derogatory social attitudes or cognitive beliefs, the expression of negative affect, or the display of hostile or discriminatory behaviour towards members of a group on account of their membership to that group'. This definition implies that stereotyping is primarily a group process, through the individuals psyche's within that group. A further idea of stereotyping, defined by Allport (1954) as 'thinking ill of others without warrant', is that people 'make their mind up' without any personal experience. This pre judgement about a whole group is then transferred to the stigmatisation of any individuals in that group. It is these ideas that the essay aims to evaluate, through the cognitive process of categorisation and the above definitions that bring about three distinct features of stereotyping, that our cognition can be demonstrated through. The first characteristic of stereotyping is over-generalisation. A number of studies conducted found that different combinations of traits were associated with groups of different ethnic and national origin (Katz and Braly, 1933). However, stereotyping does not imply that all members of a group are judged in these ways, just that a typical member of a group can be categorised in such judgements, that they possess the characteristics of the group. Still, when we talk of a group, we do so by imagining a member of that group. The second feature and characteristic of stereotyping is the exaggeration of the difference between ones own group (the in-group) and the 'other' group (the out-group). This can be traced back to the work of Tajfel during the 1950's - 'the accentuation principle' (Tajfel, 1981). Tajfel's work was specifically on physical stimuli, and concluded that judgements on such stimuli are not made in isolation, but in the context of other factors. Applied socially - a judgement about an 2006-05-03T04:17:20-04:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/Critical-Evaluation-of-the-Cognitive-Theory-of-Stereotyping-28778.aspx A Psychological Aspect of Susan Smith: Dependent Personality Disorder On October 25, 1994, Susan Smith drowned her two sons, Michael and Alex, in the John D. Long Lake in Union County, South Carolina. For nine days she lied about knowing where the boys were. On November 3, she confessed to the killings and would soon go to trial. Susan’s defense team hired a psychiatrist to conduct a psychiatric evaluation of her. She was diagnosed as having dependent personality disorder. He described her as a person who “feels she can’t do anything on her own”. “She constantly needs affection and becomes terrified that she’ll be left alone” She was only depressed when she was alone. The psychiatrist studied her family history and concluded that based on her family history and his interviews with her, Susan had a tendency toward depression that began in her childhood. Susan’s attorney argued that his client was psychologically destabilized by a lifetime of betrayal. A father who killed himself when she was just six, a stepfather who sexually molested her as a child, a husband who cheated on her and a boyfriend who toyed with her affections (Pergament). Her boyfriend testified that “the pleasure she got from sex was not physical pleasure, it was just in being close and being loved”. The psychiatrist testified that Susan had sex with four different men during the six-week period leading up to the murders and she had begun to drink heavily during this time (Pergament). Alcoholism is a component of dependent personality disorder. After only four days of testimony, the defense rested its case. Susan was charged with two counts of murder and sentenced to life in prison with the chance of parole in 30 years, the year 2025. Dependent personality disorder is an inability to function without significant reliance on a forceful or dominant person providing direction. Individuals diagnosed with dependent personality disorder are usually quiet, and needy for attention, valuation, and social contact. Lack of self-confidence and relying on others are typical. Threatened with solitude or separation, a dependent disorder person may panic with feelings of profound helplessness (Gillihan). The person may be convinced that he/she is incapable of functioning on his/her own. A dependent person seeks direction from others, even on insignificant issues. The relationships of individuals with dependent disorder are usually unbalanced. They tend to seek all-powerful helpers, or people they believe can protect them 2006-04-30T07:19:39-04:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/A-Psychological-Aspect-of-Susan-Smith-Dependent-Personality-28765.aspx 1. Consciousness is the fundamental fact of human existence, from the view point of persons examining their own experience. There are various aspects of consciousness, such as perception, mental imagery, thinking, memory and emotions. I believe that consciousness is a property of some lower animals and machines. An ant for an example has a conscious mind about staying in covered areas during the rain and to panic when something attacks it. This shows memory, perception and thinking which shows that it does have a conscious. Some machines have something similar to a conscious. A computer for example has a hard drive which is a lot like a “memory”, in which it stores something, and it has ram, which is basically information stored and ready to be used. If I were to open a web page browser and than open up a word document, I could instantly jump back to the browser because its stored on my hard drive, but loaded on my ram, which is a lot like how if we think about an old memory, such as grade school, and than wash our hands, the memory of grade school is still fresh in our mind, and we can go back and instantly load it up with less difficulty than the first time. 2. The mind-body problem asks what is the relationship between the mind(conscious) and the body( brain). The two major positions are dualism and materialism. -Dualism holds that mind and body are made of different substances: the body is material but the mind is some immaterial soul stuff, and the mind interacts with the body to control human behavior. Out of body and near death experiences have also been offered in support of dualism, but alternative, naturalistic explanations of these experiences are available. -Materialism is the view that mind and body are inseparable: mental events are produced by brain events. There are 4 types: -Epiphhenomenalism is the view that conscious is a side effect of brain activity but it has no role in controlling behavior. -Identity theory says that mental events are identical brain event. For each mental event, there is a corresponding brain event. - Emergent interactionism- is the hypothesis that consciousness is an emergent phenomenon: it is produced by brain processes, but it has holistic properties of its own and it exerts downward control on brain processes. -Functionalism is the view that the functional characteristics of 2006-04-26T05:33:10-04:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/Consciousness-and-Fundamental-Act-of-Human-Existence-28752.aspx Cognition is the process involved in thinking and mental activity, such as attention, memory and problem solving. In this essay on cognitive development I will compare and contrast the theories of Piaget and Vygotsky, who were both influential in forming a more scientific approach to analyzing the cognitive development process of the child active construction of knowledge. (Flanagan 1996 P.72). I will then go onto evaluate the usefulness of these theories in understanding a child's development. Both Piaget and Vygotsky agreed that children's cognitive development took place in stages. (Jarvis, Chandler 2001 P.149). However they were distinguished by different styles of thinking. Piaget was the first t reveal that children reason and think differently at different periods in their lives. He believed that all children progress through four different and very distinct stages of cognitive development. This theory is known as Piaget’s Stage Theory because it deals with four stages of development, which are sensorimotor, preoperational, concrete operational and formal operational. (Ginsburg, Opper 1979 P. 26). In the first stage sensorimotor, which occurs from birth to the age of two is the time in an infant’s life when the child basically deals with what is presented to him. They learn about physical objects and are concerned with motor skills and the consequences of some of their actions. (Thomson, Meggit 1997 P.107). During this stage children will learn the concept of object permanence. This is where an object will continue to exist even if it is out of sight. (Ginsburg, Opper 1979 P.48) The preoperational stage last from two to seven years. In this stage it becomes possible to carry on a conversation with a child and they also learn to count and use the concept of numbers. This stage is divided into the preoperational phase and the intuitive phase. Children in the preoperational phase are preoccupied with verbal skills and try to make sense of the world but have a much less sophisticated mode of thought than adults. In the intuitive phase the child moves away from drawing conclusions based upon concrete experiences with objects. One problem, which identifies children in this stage, is the inability to cognitively conserve relevant spatial information. This is when, when a material is manipulated and no longer matches the cognitive image that a child has made, that child believes the amount of material has been altered instead of just its shape. (Jarvis, Chandler 2001 2006-04-19T03:59:54-04:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/Comparison-of-Piaget-and-Vygotsky-on-Children-Cognition-28727.aspx The theory of Cognitive Dissonance states that when individuals are presented with information that implies we act in a way that contradicts our moral standards, we experience discomfort (Aronson, Wilson, and Akert, 1998, P. 191). This is considered Cognitive Dissonance. A psychological term used to describe mental conflict that occurs when beliefs or assumptions are contradicted by new information; arouses unease or tension; relieved by one of several defensive maneuvers: rejecting, explaining away, or avoiding new information; persuading self that no conflict really exists; reconciling differences; or resorting to any other defensive means of preserving stability or order in conception of world and of self; first introduced in 1950s; has become major point of discussion and research in psychology (as cited in Compton’s Interactive Encyclopedia, 1996). This theory was developed by Leon Festinger (1957), is concerned with the relationships among cognitions. Cognition, for the purpose of this theory, may be thought of as a piece of knowledge, thoughts, feelings, or beliefs. Knowledge may be about an attitude, an emotion, a behavior, or a value. For instance, the fact that you like the color red is cognition. People have a massive amount of cognitions at the same time, and these cognitions create irrelevant, relationships with one another. Therefore, that the two cognitions have nothing to do with each other. This occurs most often when we do something that contradicts our moral beliefs. If dissonance is experienced it is almost always uncomfortable, so the individual is motivated to reduce it. This causes the individual to identify the magnitude of their discomfort and, it is possible to predict what we can do to reduce dissonance. There are three basic ways to reduce dissonance. First are changing cognitions, an example is if two cognitions don’t relate we can change one to make it relate to the other; or change each cognition in the direction of the other. The second is adding cognitions, if two cognitions cause a certain degree of dissonance, adding one or more cognitions can reduce the degree of dissonance. The third is altering importance, attempting to justify the behavior by adding new cognitions. These are the three basic ways of reducing cognitive dissonance (Aronson, Wilson, and Akert, 1998, P. 192). Leon Festinger and James Carlsmith also tested his theory in 1959. They put all the participants through a dull task. The task consisted in placing a large number of spools on pegs 2006-04-16T04:46:01-04:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/The-Theory-of-Cognitive-Dissonance-28721.aspx A Reaction Paper to: “How Moral Are You?” by Kohlberg, L. (1963); The Development of children’s orientation…of moral thought & “Telling The Truth” by Barasch, Douglas S.(Family Life) I read both of these articles and found them to be interesting. In the first article, “How Moral Are You?” published in Forty Studies that changed Psychology IV by Roger R. Hock, what is discussed is Lawrence Kohlberg’s research on the formation of morality. Kohlberg believed the ability to moralize situations encountered in life develops in a specific pattern during our childhood years. He believed that a child must reach a certain stage and mentality in order to create a level of morality. I found the information he presented was interesting. Things such as: each ‘stage’ a child undergoes increases the understanding of the concept of morality and the stages always occur in a step-by-step pattern. Kohlberg reasoned the stages are “prepotent,” meaning the child understands every stage that he/she has been through and a vague idea of the stage above them (197). As for how he researched his theory, the process seems simple enough. He supplied children of different ages with “10 hypothetical moral dilemmas”(197). I found myself answering the questions about moral issues with confusion. The question that was most difficult to answer was the ‘Heinz Dilemma’ in which a man commits a crime to save his wife from dying. I would forgive his [the husband] actions because the druggist was being unfair in his offering price for his medicine. That kind of druggist shouldn’t be allowed to be creating drugs anyway…his job is to aid people not the antithesis. I enjoyed reading this article but conceived of a few flaws in his theory that he [Kohlberg] did not address though many other critiques did. The glitches in his theory were such as: although Kohlberg represents an interpretation of morality, most of these ideas represent Western culture’s and failed to apply to non-Western cultures. It was also difficult to apply his theory equally for both men and women. He did a wonderful job of explaining morality even though it would not stand up on it’s own in the years to come. The second article I read, I found to be similar to my first in the fact that they both discussed moral reasoning of children and different so-called ‘stages.’ It was published by Douglas S. Barasch in the 1998 February 2006-04-16T04:18:41-04:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/Children-s-Morality-Vs-How-Moral-Are-You-28717.aspx Through what they experience on television, children are forced into adulthood at too young of an age. The innocence of youth is lost when children stare endlessly at a screen displaying the horrors of murder, rape, assault, devastating fire, and other natural disasters. Although these are occurrences in everyday life, things adults have grown accustomed to hearing about, children do not have the maturity level to deal with these tragedies appropriately. Children’s behavior changes because they become desensitized to the violence. There are many preventative techniques that can be applied to ensure that negativity on television will not interfere with a child’s development. Children see violent acts on television and make an attempt to process it, and in doing so, their innocence is lost. According to Dr. David Elkind, president emeritus, National Association for the Education of Young Children, “Television forces children to accommodate a great deal and inhibits the assimilation of material. Consequently, the television child knows a great deal more than he or she can ever understand. This discrepancy between how much information children have and what they can process is the major stress of television.” (160) Children’s minds are not fully developed; therefore, they can not be expected to understand the violence on television. The media, specifically television, has become more and more violent, in not all too subtle ways, exposing many children to behaviors not appropriate to a young audience. Remember “the Menendez brothers, who ruthlessly shot their parents as they ate ice cream and watched TV in their family room, planted in children’s minds the worst possibility -- that a parent could die violently at the hands of a child.” (Medved, et. al. 243) Seeing the violence, hearing about it, watching news reports about violent acts committed by real people, especially other children, affects the viewer negatively. Children can not relate to what they see when they are so young, making the act of watching violent television extremely questionable. Children should not know about murder and rape; however according to Gloria Tristani, Commissioner for the Federal Communications Commission, by the time they finish elementary school, children have witnessed 8,000 murders and 100,000 acts of violence. (Tristani website) Children should not be allowed to view such behavior as they are far too young to comprehend the severity of what they see. Younger children are more susceptible to the impact of television violence in part because they 2006-04-16T03:17:13-04:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/Children-and-Television-Violence-28715.aspx Anger and Aggression Everyone has felt anger or aggression many times in there life. It happens all of the time. We all face the same challenge of trying to control our temper. It may be easier for some people than it is for others. Many studies show that it is healthy for a person to let out their anger once in a while. They believe that it will help in your relationship with others and that it will increase your self-esteem. They also believe that holding anger in is bad and unhealthy for your body. If you let the anger build up it could go from just being a verbal argument to a point in which someone or something is hurt or destroyed. To control your anger you should release your aggression in a way that is not harmful to others or yourself. People that look into a problem more closely can control their anger better. These people get all of the facts and make a proactive decision. Also by looking into the problem your may find out that it wasn't as bad as you first thought. Looking into the problem will also help you look at the consequences of the action you are going to take. Researchers also believe that tv and movies have an impact on the ways we release our aggression. They believe that in some way we are all influenced in some way by movies and tv shows that we watch. If we can learn to control our anger we will see that our life, and everyone else's life is a lot safer and more peaceful. Some people may ask, "What causes a person to feel angry?" There are two answers to the question. The first is that you may feel angry with yourself or something that you may have done. The second is that you may be angry at another person or object. Some people may refer to feeling angry with yourself as internal anger and anger towards another person as external anger. An example of internal anger is that you did not do as good as you wanted to do on your test. An example of external anger is getting into an argument with a friend. There are different ways of dealing with your anger. The best way is to go right to the person that you are feeling angry with and talk to 2006-04-15T04:54:24-04:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/Anger-and-Aggression--28705.aspx There have been many times in life when I have turned to a “God” with problems and wanted answers or solutions and received nothing. When this happens, I take the time to reflect and ask myself, “Why, when I do some many good things, do I not receive any answers or solutions to my problems?” The book When Bad Things Happen to Good People, written by Harold S. Kushner, has brought some answers to my problems. This book explained and helps clarify why even though I am not a bad person, that sometimes bad things are bound to happen. When Kushner wrote this book I feel that, the meaning of his writings were that God does not mean to punish us, he just means to test us and present us with problems and see how we react to them. As put best he wrote, “The God I believe in does not send us the problem; he gives us the strength to cope with it.”(127). Kushner makes many references to the bible and his belief in a higher power, “God”. I personally may not think there can be one and only one God but I do believe in a higher being or power and I like how Kushner makes sure to point out that he is not calling it the God but “his” God. It shows an almost non-biast opinion and it shows a lot of respect towards all groups of people. I remember one time specifically when my grandma recently passed away I turned to God for answers. Instead of getting an answer, I got more problems. My grandma and grandma both had strokes, my best friends and a cousin got merry and is unhappy, my friend is going through an crisis with her family along with all of the other normal problems that go on in live that we, as humans, have learned to expect in everyday life. My belief in one and only one “God” diminished. I felt that there was no one up there looking out for me and then in reading this book answered a bunch of my questions on why “God” did not give me any specific answers. It showed me that perhaps God has given me the strength to move on and realize that everything will go on and how to cope with everything. Kushner also had a good point in saying that, “Could 2006-04-07T00:46:36-04:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/When-Bad-Things-Happen-to-Good-People-My-Life-Experience-28670.aspx Smoking: Onset And Maintenance Discuss the role of psychological factors in explaining the onset and maintenance of smoking. A health behavior is defined as a ‘behavior aimed at preventing disease’, such as eating a healthy diet (Karl & Cobb, 1996). Health impairing habits are those that include the use of behaviour pathogens, such as smoking (Matarazzo, 1984). Studies have been done which look at the extent to which our own behaviour is responsible for our health. In 1979, McKeown stated that ‘contemporary illness is influenced by the individual’s own behaviour and it is on modification of personal habits that health primarily depends’. He also found that the main cause of death in affluent societies is people’s own behaviours and in 1981, Doll & Peto found that of all cancer deaths, around thirty percent can be directly attributed to the behavioural factor, tobacco smoking. It is now widely recognised that regular cigarette smoking is harmful to health and smoking cessation would have major and immediate health benefits for men and women of all ages (Novello, 1990). These include the risk of diseases such as lung cancer, first reported in 1954 (Doll & Hill), heart disease and emphysema (Peto et al. 1994). However, in spite of all the evidence about the detrimental effects of smoking, the world consumption of cigarettes is estimated at around six hundred billion cigarettes per year (Bawazeer et al. 1999). In Britain, the amount of cigarettes smoked per person, the prevalence of smoking, is decreasing, much more in men than women, but in comparison, women are starting to smoke more, therefore stopping more, whereas men may start less than women, but they are quitting less too (Ogden, 2000). A General Household Survery conducted in 1994 found that two-thirds of people want to give up smoking and the majority of people stated it is difficult to not smoke for the whole day. Research investigating the reasons that people smoke has evaluated social, pharmacological and psychological factors. Recently there has been more focus on children and adolescents who smoke, since most try a puff of a cigarette (Ogden, 2000). It is difficult to distinguish between actual initiation and maintenance of smoking behaviour and in 1962, no common agreement on the reasons why people start to smoke had been reached. For the most part, the various explanations fell into the psychological realm (Seltzer, 1962). Now, it is widely accepted that the factors that influence 2006-02-16T03:23:39-05:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/Smoking-Onset-And-Maintenance-Psychological-Factors-28496.aspx Let Me Hear Your Body Talk Nonverbal Dictionary. Com defines nonverbal communication as communication behavior that is expressed in any other means besides “words”. Research suggests that nonverbal communication is more important in understanding human behavior than words alone--the nonverbal "channels" seem to be more powerful than what people say. Zig Ziglar is quoted in saying “nonverbal communication can also be described as dynamic process that engages body, mind and society” . Presenting You need to be aware of your nonverbal communication from the moment you stand up until your presentation is completed. The importance of positive eye contact and the correct use of posture and hand movement or any nonverbal cue to accompany your presentation cannot be overstated. Nonverbal cues are symbols with meaning interpretations. In general, nonverbal symbols perform five functions in communication. 1. Accenting-calling attention to the message source using some device (hitting the table for example) 2. Complimenting-using nonverbal cues to enhance the meaning of verbal symbols, 3. Substituting-a nonverbal symbol replaces a verbal symbol (holding up hand to indicate “stop”) 4. Contradicting-the nonverbal symbol sends a message different from the verbal symbols. (agreeing to a subject with your arms folded) 5. Regulating-While engaged in a conversation, you would most likely use nonverbal communication as an indicator of the flow of conversation. (when speaking you may wait a moment for a pause to interject an opinion. Nonverbal symbols can be arranged among three general categories: 1. Paralanguage--nonverbal enhancements to language symbols 2. Kinesics--nonverbal symbols of body movement (gestures, eye contact, facial expressions, appearance) 3. Proxemics--nonverbal symbols of distance, space, and time The inflection, tempo, emphasis, or tone adds meaning to oral presentations. Paralanguage includes any device that can be used to modify the meaning interpretation of a verbal symbol. These devices include inflection or emphasis added to spoken symbols or highlighting, bolding, or all capital letters added to written symbols. For example, look at the following sentence and read it while emphasizing each word in sequence. I didn't say she stole the money. When emphasizing the word "I," the sentence takes on a shaded meaning from its non-emphasized state. Emphasizing the word "didn't" changes the meaning of the sentence, as does emphasizing the word "say." Depending on which word is emphasized (paralanguage), the sentence carries a different meaning interpretation. 2006-02-04T17:21:24-05:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/Nonverbal-Communication--28468.aspx Cognitive Dissonance Theory "Your best friend is having a beer bash tonight. Everyone you talk to indicated their positive intentions of going to the best beer bash of the millennium. However, you have a Psyc 135 final next morning that you haven't studied for. Your midterm scores have been low going into the final, but everyone claims that the final is easy every semester. Should you stay home and study for the final or go to this millennium beer bash and merrily consume alcohol?" Above stated scenario raises several questions in my mind and lands me in a state of psychological tension. Having a choice of attending a social event or studying for the final exam puts me in a dilemma as to what to do next. Deciding to stay home and study for a test may very well anger my friends, but may also cause a terrible sense of well being of missing out on a social event. While deciding to go to the party instead, it leads me in a state of tension as the party time can be well spent on studying for the final exam next morning. This state of uneasiness or tension is easily understood as Cognitive Dissonance. Cognitive Dissonance Theory, developed by Leon Festinger (1957), is concerned with the relationships among cognitions (Festinger, 1957). In this context, cognition can be perceived as a piece of knowledge that may inscribe an element of an attitude, an emotion, a behavior, a value, and so on (Festinger, 1957). For example, the knowledge that you like the color blue is a cognition. People hold a multitude of cognitions simultaneously, and these cognitions form irrelevant, consonant or dissonant relationships with one another. Cognitive Irrelevance probably describes the bulk of the relationships among a person's cognitions. Irrelevance simply means that the two cognitions have nothing to do with each other. Two cognitions are consonant if one cognition fits with or is consistent with the other. People like consonance among their cognitions. We do not know whether this aspect is innate or is learned, but people do prefer cognitions that fit together to those that do not. It is this simple observation that gives the theory of cognitive dissonance its interesting form. And, two cognitions are said to be dissonant or incompatible if one cognition follows from the opposite of another (Festinger, 1957). Continuing on with the scenario, having decided to attend 2005-12-22T11:03:49-05:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/Cognitive-Dissonance-Theory-28200.aspx Bipolar Disease Description: What is unipolar illness? When the mood is just depressed. This is far more common than bipolar illness. What is bipolar disease? Bipolar disorders (manic-depressive illness) are marked by periods of manic, greatly elated moods or excited states as well as by periods of depression. Although the manic-depressive psychosis may alternate from one of its phases to the other, one or the other phase is usually dominant for a while. Depression is more often dominant than mania. Manic-depressive patients often recover spontaneously for periods of time, but relapses are fairly common. Most often this disease is genetic. Bipolar is a severe mental disorder. There are 2 types of the bipolar diseases: Bipolar 1 & bipolar 2. Bipolar 1- person experiences at least one, and usually many more, manic episodes, alternating with episodes of major depression Bipolar 2- the individual experiences periods of hypomania alternating with episodes of major depression. What is cyclothymia? Similar to bipolar disorder since it is characterized by mood swings from mania to depression. However, there are several important differences between the two. A person with cyclothymia experiences symptoms of hypomania but never a full-blown hypomanic episode. A person with cyclothymia is never symptom-free for longer than two months. The Affective Spectrum- Some people who have bipolar disorder (manic depression) or unipolar disorder (depression-only) have co-existing conditions such as migraines, attention deficit disorder, fibromyalgia, eating disorders, etc The following have been identified (so far) as part of the medical spectrum, which may accompany affective disorders: · attention deficit disorder (ADD & ADHD) · body dysmorphic disorder · cataplexy · eating disorders (bulimia, anorexia, binging) · fibromyalgia (includes chronic fatigue) · impulse-control disorders · irritable bowel syndrome · kleptomania · migraine/severe headache · narcolepsy · intermittent explosive disorder · pathological gambling · pyromania · personality disorders · post traumatic stress disorder · substance abuse and addiction (includes alcoholism) · obsessive-compulsive disorder · panic disorder · Tourette's disorder · anxiety disorders · autism Symptoms: Mania- Increased energy- Decreased Sleep, Little Fatigue, an Increase in Activities, and Restlessness. Speech disruptions- Rapid Speech and Incoherent Speech Impaired judgment- Lack of Insight, Inappropriate Humor and Behavior, Impulsive Behavior, Financial Extravagance, and Grandiose Thinking. Changes in thought patterns- Irritability, Excitability, Hostility, and Feelings of Exhilaration Changes in Perception- Inflated Self-Esteem, Hallucinations, Paranoia, and Increased Religious Activities Depression- Changes in Activity- Decreased Energy, Fatigue, Lethargy, Diminished Activity, Insomnia or Hypersomnia, Loss 2005-12-22T11:02:30-05:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/Bipolar-Disease-Description-28199.aspx As far back as we have written records, there have been accounts of the unusual phenomena occurring in connection with dreams. Dreams are the release of unconscious thoughts and desires. I also feel like dreams are a an important unifying factor within humanity. The ancients typically believed that dreams were divinely inspired experiences providing counsel and instruc­tion for their waking lives. The Egyptians practiced dream incubation, i.e., sleeping in temples in a deliberate effort to induce divinely inspired dreams. In fact, There are many types of paranormal experiences that have been reported in dreams. There is nothing in this field that is a 100% concrete fact. There are always differing viewpoints regarding the psychology of dreams. One of the most widespread theories concerning the cause of dreams concerns, the psyche. “Dreams are the result of subconscious thoughts and desires. The other theory to dreams are random noises in the neurons of the brain without special meaning. Dreams are the mental activity that takes place during sleep. “Usually during REM sleep is when dreams occur” (Oxford University). Normally everyone dreams several times a night…some drugs and alcohol may impair the dream process. The inability to recall dreams is not abnormal though. Dreams are c communication of the body, mind, and spirit in a symbolic state. The human brains are in constant activity when sleeping. Different states of conciseness cause different brain wave activity. The brain usually has ordinary sequences of imagination. For thousands of years dreams were regarded as “visions” or “prophesies.” Dreams seem to be a way for the subconscious mind to sort out and process all the input that is encountered while people are awake. Dreams can also improve your emotional well being, reduce stress, improve creativity, and provide a “playground for your mind” while your body recovers and repairs itself. Contrary to the view that dreams server no function one theorist suggests that, “dreams are the brains way of ‘unlearning’ or removing certain or unneeded memories” (Kasschall, Richard). In other words dreams are a form of mental housecleaning.” (www.GoldenEssays.Com) Therefore, it can be inferred that even the top scientist in the world will never discover the true meaning of dreams, or maybe we as humans already have and just do not realize it. In Judeo-Christian and Islamic scriptures the divinely inspired dream is a well-known theme. This suggests that there was some familiarity with the idea of 2005-12-01T04:57:23-05:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/Synchroncities-in-the-History-of-Paranormal-Dreaming-28144.aspx The development of a child in its mother’s womb is affected by everything she consumes and inhales. All the nourishment is provided in all the vitamins, minerals, and important foods that she eats. So too are toxins. While this is not truly “providing” for the child, it is still affecting its growth and development in negative ways. The smoking of marijuana can affect the future behavior of the child while alcohol can cause severe physical abnormalities. These can be detrimental to a child and a burden for the parents for a lifetime. The following describes and explains the effects of cannabis and alcohol to a developing child in its mother’s womb. Cannabis, weed, stink, and dank are just a few words to describe marijuana these days. Along with the creative names come even more potent hybrids of this illegal substance. These more certainly have the varying effects on the growing fetus of a mother that so chooses to smoke marijuana while she conceives and is pregnant. It’s bad to say that one substance is better than another when it comes to the malfunctioned development of a child, but it seems that the effects of marijuana pale in comparison to alcohol. Many studies have been conducted concerning the effects of marijuana on a child while in the mother's womb and after being born. Dr. Beth Nordstrom acknowledges one of the lasting effects of marijuana when she states that, “Children prenatally exposed to marijuana are two times more likely than unexposed children to rail a standard hearing test by age 7” (Brunk p. 1). Upon further research, many hearing deficiencies were addressed as well as success in the classroom. Dr. Nordstrom adds that, “…children exposed to marijuana throughout pregnancy were nearly three times more likely to experience school-age hearing problems than children exposed to the drug around the time of conceptions only” (p. 1). Hearing loss can be addressed and dealt with if income level allows. These victims of their mothers’ enjoyment will have problems if the problem is not addressed. Children who suffer from hearing problems tend to have difficulties in the classroom due to the simple fact that they are not hearing sounds correctly. Speech may be impeded thus leading the child to develop a lisp. The child may have to spend time with a speech therapist to rectify the problem (if it can be). These children may have difficulties with peers that 2005-11-26T01:49:38-05:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/The-Effects-of-Alcohol-vs-Marijuana-on-a-Fetus-28133.aspx “Explain the concept of a double-dissociation using the contrast between Broca’s and Wernicke’s aphasia” An important concept in neuropsychology is the notion of double-dissociation. The purpose of this essay is to discuss this topic in relation to language disorders, specifically Broca’s and Wernicke’s aphasia. The hypothesis of double-dissociation within language suggests that the two language aphasias are separable and can occur independently of each other. This hypothesis will be addressed with both archival and more recent journal articles and experimental evidence. Aphasia is defined as a loss or impairment of language function caused by damaged to language and association areas of the brain. There are a number of possible causes including a stroke, tumor, head trauma, toxic conditions, and degenerative disease such as Parkinson’s and Alzheimer’s. The two syndromes relevant to this essay are Broca’s and Wernicke’s aphasia. In France in 1871 Paul Broca’s first patient was a man known as ‘Tan’ because that was the only syllable he was able to utter. Broca found that the patient appeared to have normal language comprehension and could indeed use hand gestures to communicate. Since the patient didn’t show serious cognitive impairment it suggested that damage to a specific brain region could be causing these problems. At autopsy Broca discovered there to be a large lesion in an area of the left frontal lobe, this area is now known “Broca’s area”. Subsequent studies of Broca appeared to show that the center for speech production is localised in Broca’s area in the left prefrontal cortex. The language deficit caused by damage to Broca’s area is now called Broca’s aphasia. Broca’s aphasic’s speech is slow, laboured, halting, and lacking many function words. Speech is “telegraphic” although comprehension is generally good. The fragmented results produced with great effort give rise to the other names for Broca’s aphasia, such as “non-fluent aphasia” or ‘expressive aphasia’. We also know that Broca’s area is responsible for structure, planning and organization of speech, it is located next to the articulation centers on the motor cortex. Broca’s area is responsible for the phonemic representations used for speech production. Since in Broca’s aphasic’s comprehension is good and production is poor then these processes must be considered separable. Subsequent to Broca’s localisation of language production, Karl Wernicke was able to determine the area of the brain responsible for language comprehension (1874). He found that many patients 2005-11-03T14:19:13-04:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/Broca-vs_-Wernicke-s-Aphasia-a-Double-Dissociation-28080.aspx Insomnia comes in many forms and worries people of all ages, most commonly for just a night or two, but sometimes for weeks, months, and even years. Insomnia has many causes. Insomnia is a symptom, much like fever or stomachache. There three symptoms commonly shown by people who have insomnia: difficulty falling asleep, no problem falling asleep but difficulty staying asleep with many awakenings, and waking up too early. Difficulty sleeping at night may be related with the following daytime symptoms: sleepiness, anxiety, impaired memory, impaired concentration, and irritability. There are three basic types of insomnia. The first type is called transient insomnia -- lasting for up to several nights and is usually caused by excitement or stress. Adults may sleep poorly before a key meeting at work or after a quarrel with his or her partner. Many people sleep worse than usual for the first night or two away from home, particularly if they have traveled across many time zones. Nighttime strong physical movements, the flu or other brief illnesses may disrupt sleep temporarily. The second one is situational insomnia. That is two or three weeks of poor sleep and is often developed during ongoing stress at work or at home. Situations such as job delay, divorced, serious illness or death are primary in this type of insomnia. Relief from the situation that provoked disturbed sleep or accommodation to it usually returns a person to his or her usual sleeping pattern. Chronic insomnia is the third and most serious type of the sleeping problems. This sleeping problem lasts for three weeks or longer with poor sleep every night, most nights, or quite a lot of nights of a month. This is a complex disorder with many possible causes. In more than half of all cases of persistent insomnia the cause appears to be a physical illness, such as disorders of breathing or muscle activity. These figures were derived from a nationwide study of 8,000 patients and conducted by the Association of Sleep Disorders Center. One of the causes of insomnia is the use of stimulants. Even though caffeine near bedtime may not disturb sleep, it may bring awakenings later. Caffeine related components are also found in soft drinks, chocolate, and strong tea. Nicotine is a stimulant and it has been shown that smokers take longer to fall asleep and sleep worse than non-smokers. Ingredients in many commonly used drugs, 2005-09-27T03:34:08-04:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/Sleep-Disorders-Insomnia-28035.aspx Psychology - Pragmatism and Idealism Some say that mankind is complex beyond comprehension. I cannot, of course, speak for every other individual on this earth, but I do not believe that I am a very difficult person to understand. My life is based upon two very simple, sweeping philosophies: pragmatism in actions and idealism in thought. Thus, with these two attitudes, I characterize myself. Pragmatism in actions. I believe utterly in one of those old cliches: we are given only a limited time upon this earth and every moment wasted is lost forever. Therefore, I do not engage in those things that I view as useless. The next question is obvious. What do I view as useless? In reality, perhaps too many things and definitely too many to address in one essay. However, I can indulge in the discussion of a few. Hate is a wasted emotion. Hate accomplishes nothing. It does not relieve hunger. It does not alleviate pain. It creates only avoidable aggression. I do not believe in any kind of hate, including prejudice and racism. My energies and time can be better spent elsewhere. Anger too. What does anger do? Nothing. It frustrates us and aggravates us, and we can avoid it. Being frustrated is not a pleasing experience for me. When I was young, or rather, when I was younger than I am now, I would explode at the smallest disturbances (I'm sorry mom and dad). Now, I have realized that anger is a waste of time, and I no longer have a temper to lose. I would much rather wallow in happiness. And in my happiness, I do not worry much over my image in the eyes of others. The important word here is much, for there are opinions of certain individuals about which I do care a great deal, but these are few. They include my family, my close friends, and those who possess the power to affect my life significantly (for example, university admissions officers). Otherwise, I pay no attention to whispers behind my back or vague rumors circulating in the air above. As long as I know the truth, however harsh it may be, and those that I care about know the truth, I am not troubled. The masses may think as they wish. They are entitled. As can probably be observed from this essay thus far, my outlook on life saves 2005-09-18T05:59:28-04:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/Pragmatism-and-Idealism-Psychology-27991.aspx Development Of Dunstan Ramsey Scientist, psychologist, biologist all pose the question of How the complex human mind develops, Robertson Davies shows the rise, zenith and decent of his character Dunstan Ramsey. The development of Dunstan Ramsey, in Fifth Business, is associated with the psychological rebirth. Jungian psychology identifies this as individuation. Daryl Sharp simply explains individuation in The Jung Lexicon as; “Induced by ritual or stimulated by immediate personal experience, it results in an enlargement of the personality” [Sharp, 4]. In terms of Fifth Business, Diana, Faustina, Mrs. Dempster and Liesl fulfill the role of ‘stimulus’, meanwhile Dunstan Ramsey absorbs this profound knowledge, in his quest to become Fifth Business. The first phase of Jungian Individuation is the biological identity, given by Diana Marfleet. She was a beautiful volunteer nurse were Dunstable was taken during the war, she cared for Dunstable while he was bed ridden. “She had been nursing me… she had also washed me and attended to my bed pan and the urinal” [Davies, 77]. Diana became a mother figure to him, as the relationship grew; Dunstan began to reject her presence. Jung explains “The mother complex… experience of the personal mother, then by significant contact with other women…” [Sharp, 21]“In homosexuality, the son's entire heterosexuality is tied to the mother in an unconscious form; in Don Juanism, he unconsciously seeks his mother in every woman he meets” [Jung, 162]. Don Juanism displays why Dunstan would reject Diana because in his unconscious she represent his mother. Diana represents Eve in mythical terms; she has insightful information but is rejected jus as Adam did. Romantic-biological and emotion outline the second phase of development. Faustina fills this void for Dunstan, she teaches him about his sexual body and unconsciously won over his heart. “But I loved her!… to watch her very rapid changes from Gretchen to Venus… she was almost naked” [Davies, 210]. Dunstan’s lack of sexual experience is accounted for by the negative mother complex; “…either sexuality does not function properly … responded to with impatience and irritation.” [Jung, 170]. In Faustina Dunstan does not find mother like traits, which allows him to open up to her. “Jungian, Passive projection is completely automatic and unintentional event, like falling in love…” [Davies, 3] explains Dunstan’s boyhood crush on Faustina. In Greek mythology, Helen of Troy is seen as Faustina, “Helen's beauty became legendary. It was obvious to all that the child would 2005-08-18T07:06:22-04:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/Development-Of-Dunstan-Ramsey-27710.aspx I DIDN'T DO IT How The Simpsons Affects Kids The Simpsons is one of Americas most popular television shows. It ranks as the number one television program for viewers under eighteen years of age. However, the ideals that The Simpsons conveys are not always wholesome, sometimes not even in good taste. It is inevitable that The Simpsons is affecting children. Matt Groening took up drawing to escape from his troubles in 1977. At the time, Groening was working for the L.A. Reader, a free weekly newspaper. He began working on Life in Hell, a humorous comic strip consisting of people with rabbit ears. The L.A. Reader picked up a copy of his comic strip and liked what they saw. Life in Hell gradually became a common comic strip in many free weeklies and college newspapers across the country. It even developed a cult status. (Varhola, 1) Life in Hell drew the attention of James L. Brooks, producer of works such as Taxi, The Mary Tyler Moore Show, and Terms of Endearment. Brooks originally wanted Groening to make an animated pilot of Life in Hell. Groening chose not to do so in fear of loosing royalties from papers that printed the strip. Groening presented Brooks with an overweight, balding father, a mother with a blue beehive hairdo, and three obnoxious spiky haired children. Groening intended for them to represent the typical American family "who love each other and drive each other crazy". Groening named the characters after his own family. His parents were named Homer and Margaret and he had two younger sisters named Lisa and Maggie. Bart was an anagram for "brat". Groening chose the last name "Simpson" to sound like the typical American family name. (Varhola, 2) Brooks decided to put the 30 or 60 second animations on between skits on The Tracy Ullman Show on the unsuccessful Fox network. Cast members Dan Castellaneta and Julie Kavner did the voices of Homer and Marge. Yeardley Smith (later to star in Herman's Head) did the voice of Lisa. Nancy Cartwright did the voice of Bart. Cartwright previously supplied the voices for many cartoons, including Galaxy High, Fantastic Max, Richie Rich, Snorks, Pound Puppies, My Little Pony, and Glo-Friends. Tracy Ullman later added Cartwright to her cast. (Dale and Trich, 11) Brooks, Groening, and Sam Simon, Tracy Ullman's producer, wanted to turn the Simpson family into their own show. The Fox network was looking for 2005-08-15T08:45:41-04:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/How-The-Simpsons-Affects-Kids-27679.aspx Effects of Television Violence on Children This literature review is based on the effects of television violence on children. More specifically, it deals with the relationship found between television violence and aggression found in young children. I chose this topic because I found it interesting to learn that studies have indeed found a connection between television viewing and the behavior of people, especially children. The first study reviewed is entitled "Television Violence and Children's Aggression: Testing the Priming. Social script, and Disinhibition Predictions," by Wendy Josephson. Josephson begins her study by commenting on other studies which pertain to the idea of television violence leading to aggressiveness in children's behavior. She acknowledges that, in fact, there are still differing views over whether or not behavior is affected by the violence. However, Josephson tends to rely more on the idea that it is affected and feels that more research should be directed to this area. Mostly, attention is focused on factors such as the disinhibition effect and cue-triggered aggression. Josephson aims to differentiate these two areas and how they are affected by television violence. The overall purpose of her study is to research the effect this violence has on boys' aggression. Special emphasis is placed on factors such as teacher-rated characteristic aggressiveness in the boys, timing of frustration (before or after watching the televised violence, and violence related cues. Josephson's study is detailed and technical. However, sometimes it gets very difficult to understand the study due to the many advanced, technical terms used. The purpose of the study is somewhat easy to determine, and the three hypotheses on which she bases her research on are outlined clearly in the end of the review. It is understandable, from the review, how she came to her hypotheses. The second study reviewed is by Leonard D. Eron. Titled "Interventions to Mitigate the Psychological Effects of Media Violence on Aggressive Behavior," it begins with Eron's realization that although many studies were conducted which support the link between violence on television and aggressive behavior, very few studies have been conducted which attempt to intervene between the two. Interventions between television violence and aggression could be useful because, then studies could be conducted on reducing the effects of violence on the viewer. Also, the results of such a study could be helpful in researching the cause and effect relationship which may exist between the two. However, this would require that the interventions pertain exclusively 2005-08-15T08:41:22-04:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/Effects-of-Television-Violence-on-Children-27675.aspx The Effects on Children When Both Parents are Employed, Socio-economic Conditions Socio-economic conditions in North America have contributed to the need for dual incomes for families. Economically, "the number of two parent families below the poverty line would increase to an estimated 78% if they were to become single income families." (Ontario Women's Directorate 9) Socially, it was the norm, in the past, for women to stay at home having a more expressive role in the family; taking care of the children and providing emotional support for the family. Presently, women feel that their traditional roles as child bearers and homemakers must be supplemented with a sense of achievement outside the home. Recent studies reflect an increased trend towards the dual income family and projections are for this trend to continue. In 1961, 30% of married women were working; in 1978, 38% were employed; by 1981 50% were working and in 1985, 55% held paying positions outside the home. (Jarman and Howlett 95) In 1961, only 20% of all two parent families were dual wage families, but by 1986, more than half (53%) of all families were dual earning families. (Ramu 26) In light of the fact that the majority of two parent families in the 1990's have also become dual wage earning families, it is important to examine the effects of such a phenomenon on society in general and on child rearing in particular. Children acquire their goals, values and norms based on the way that they view or identify with their parents as well as from the quality and amount of care, love and guidance given to them by their parents. Parents who work present a different image to their children than parents who do not work. In addition, wage earners, including parents, must (in most cases), be absent from the home during the day. When considering these modifications to the family dynamics, there is considerable basis for proof that the positive effects outweigh the negative effects experienced by offspring in families were both parents are employed. The working parent occupies an important exemplary role within the family. Working parents often command considerable respect from their children, because they demonstrate the worthy characteristics of industriousness, social compatibility, self reliance, maturity, intelligence and responsibility. Because children identify with their parents, the feedback from such positive influences tends to be positive as well because many of these positive characteristics are imparted upon 2005-08-15T08:39:32-04:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/The-Effects-on-Children-When-Both-Parents-are-Employed-27672.aspx Tourette's Syndrome Tourette Syndrome (TS) is an inherited, neurological disorder characterized by repeated and involuntary body movements and uncontrollable vocal sounds. In a minority of cases, the vocalizations can include socially inappropriate words and phrases. These outbursts are neither intentional nor purposeful. Involuntary symptoms can include eye blinking, repeated throat clearing or sniffing, arm thrusting, kicking, shoulder shrugging or jumping. These, and other symptoms, typically appear before the age of 18 and the condition occurs in all ethnic groups with males affected three to four times more often than females. Although symptoms of TS vary from person to person and range from moderate to severe, the majority of cases fall into the mild category. Associated conditions can include attention problems, impulsiveness, and learning disabilities. However, most people with TS lead productive lives and participate in all professions. Increased public understanding and tolerance of TS symptoms are of paramount importance to people with this still mysterious disorder. Discovery: Tourette Syndrome is also known as Gilles de la Tourette Syndrome after the neurologist who described the disorder in 1885. Until the end of the nineteenth century, movement disorders, referred to as motor incoordinations, were diagnosed as chorea, a Greek word meaning dance. In 1825, the first description of a patient with TouretteÕs disorder appeared in a paper by Itard, who described a French woman who displayed not only involuntary tics, but also obscene vocalizations. Since the age of seven, she suffered from involuntary compulsive spasms in her arms and hands. Progressively, her symptoms grew worse. At the time, Itard could only explain the illness as an "idiopathic irritation of the brain". Gilles de la Tourette proposed that the symptoms observed in nine patients, six of whom were his own, constituted a new disease category, which should be separated from chorea. He called the illness a "nervous affliction characterized by generalized motor incoordination and noises," accompanied by vocal outbursts. Gilles de la Tourette was the first physician to identify the unique development of this odd disorder. Motor symptoms are the first to appear, most frequently of the face, specifically eye blinking, and spreading to the upper limbs. As the disorder progresses, symptoms become verbal, including incoherent cries. Echolalia, repetition of oneÕs own words, follows and was considered by Gilles de la Tourette to 2005-07-26T05:54:28-04:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/Tourette-s-Syndrome-27387.aspx Psychological effects of Zimbardo Prison Experiment Description of the study The prison experiment carried out was a simulation study of the psychological imprisonment conducted at Stanford University. In the summer of 1971 Dr Zimbardo set out to find the answers to the following posed questions. “What happens when you put good people in an evil place?” “Does humanity win over evil or does evil triumph?” The planned two week experiment, hand to be brought to a halt in barely six days, because of how the students behaved of who participated. In a matter of a couple of days, the guards became sadistic and the prisoners became very stressed. This shocking study about social psychology reveals the hidden truth about the nature of human nature. Volunteers for this experiment were chosen via a newspaper, asking for people to take part in a study of the psychological effects of prison life. The experiment was aimed in finding out what the psychological effects were of becoming a prisoner or prison guard. Setting up a simulated prison and noting the behavior of those inside created this. Finally 24 college students were chosen from over 70 applicants. They were from the Stanford area and wanted to earn $15 per day by participating in a study. The 24 white, males were all normal, healthy middleclass students. They were put into 2 groups by flipping a coin, and then randomly decided one group would be the guards and the other group would be prisoners. Zimbardo and other researchers called upon help of others to simulate a prison environment close to a real one. Their prison was constructed in the basement of the psychology department at Stanford. Prison cells were created by taking off doors and replacing them with steel bars and cell numbers. “The Hole” was created to become solitary confinement. This was dark and very cramped. The prisoners were blindfolded and in shock when brought in to “Stanford County Jail”. They were greeted by a warden who explained the seriousness of their offence. Each prisoner was searched and stripped. They were once again kept blindfolded at all times and deloused with spray in supposedly believing that he may have germs or lice. Many of the procedures carried out by the prison guards as a form of humiliation were very similar to methods undertaken in real life prisons, many in the past and some from prisons of today. The prisoners were 2005-07-26T05:47:20-04:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/Psychological-effects-of-Zimbardo-Prison-Experiment-27386.aspx The Effects Of Sleep Deprivation Towards Depression "It's bedtime, Honey." We have all heard that horrid phrase when we were little. We tried every excuse in the book to stay awake. As we grew older, though, we realized that we need sleep to live normal lives. Sleep is essential to life. According to Colliers Encyclopedia sleep is, "a state of suspended sensory and motor activity known to occur periodically in humans and other warm-blooded animals"(78). If you don't get enough rest you can experience something called sleep deprivation. Sleep deprivation can have many negative outcomes. Some of these outcomes of sleeping only a few hours a night are lessening of your attention span, irritability, and fatigue. We know sleep deprivation is not good for our health but could it have positive outcomes? Everybody needs sleep; it is the one thing in the world that is universal to everyone. As Sleep is common aspect to life, sleep deprivation is becoming more prevalent in today's society. Why wouldn't it be more common since stress is more abundant and the environment runs at a faster pace than it did fifty years ago? Just think of how many people have sleep disorders like insomnia (a disorder in which you can't sleep), sleep apnea (a disorder in which you stop breathing momentarily during sleep), or even narcolepsy (a disorder where a person can fall asleep at any moment). Sleep is the key to preventing these disorders. If you deprive a normal human being of sleep what happens? According to The Psychology of Sleep, "the effects of prolonged sleep deprivation are well known: a loss of efficiency in mental and physical functioning, irritability, and tendencies toward perceptual distortion and ideational confusion"(Foulkes 10). Sleep deprivation could end up in serious health problems; therefore it is recommended that a person get their required sleep each night. Britannica encyclopedia suggests, "that an adolescent get six to nine hours of sleep a night"(876). If you have ever been in college you know what an all-nighter is. However, this is not the most brilliant idea, unless you want to be depressed, irritable, and grouchy the next day. What if sleep deprivation could actually help some people? Depriving people who are severely depressed of sleep could actually lessen their depression. When you think of depression, you think about people who hide from the world and cry. Lets say you are a very depressed person on 2005-07-10T05:02:01-04:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/The-Effects-Of-Sleep-Deprivation-Towards-Depression-27279.aspx Various Psychology Disorders and Related Theories Anxiety Disorder Psychoanalysts believe that anxiety disorders are caused by internal mental conflicts often involving sexual impulses. These impulses cause an overuse of the ego's defense system that fails over time. This shows that the unacceptable impulses the ego has blocked are the generalized anxiety disorders. These blocked impulses cause an unconscious state of apprehension for which the person does not know the cause of. Phobias, however, occur if the person sets the cause of the anxiety to a certain object, or situation, which they can more easily avoid than the actual source of anxiety. Panic disorders and agoraphobia are caused by separation anxiety, mainly separation from parents, early in life. This happens in children who were taught to intervene in separation from a parenting figure by throwing tantrums. Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder is seen as a fixation in the mind at the primary stage of psychosexual development. The fact that compulsive behavior rituals often involve cleanliness shows that there is mental fixation during a period of mastering unclean bowel movements. Behaviorists believe that in anxiety disorders the individual is not "fixated" but they have a conditioned fear that does not involve oedipal complexes or displacement. The theory of classical conditioning says that phobias are the result of learned associations of neutral stimuli and frightening events. This also demonstrates why an individual might have a phobia of guns after being shot by one. Biological theorists believe that people with anxiety disorders have unusually responsive autonomic systems that are more easily aroused by environmental stimuli. This condition is known as autonomic lability that contributes to a tendency to be jumpy or anxious. They feel that the basal ganglia has loops in the sensory input and behavioral output centers. Somatoform Disorders Psychoanalysts feel that somatoform disorders are caused by unresolved sexual impulses that produce intense anxiety that is converted into physical symptoms. Because of this conversion the original anxiety produced is now reduced, this process is termed primary gain, but if the person is allowed to escape or avoid stressful life situations. Similar to the psychoanalysts' perspective of secondary gain, behaviorists feel that if a person is allowed to escape or avoid the physical symptoms are reinforced. Biological theorists, have very little to say since there seems to be no physical cause of the symptoms, except that there may be some genetic predisposition to Somatoform disorders. Dissociative 2005-06-21T23:11:48-04:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/Various-Psychology-Disorders-and-Related-Theories-27122.aspx Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD) Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD) or Attention Deficit Disorder without the Hyperactivity (ADD) is a condition of the brain that makes it difficult for children to control their behavior in school and social settings. This condition is also called by various names: hyperactivity, minimal brain dysfunction, minimal brain damage and hyperkinetic syndrome. In 1968 the name was changed to hyperkinectic, meaning wildly fast-paced or excited, reaction of childhood. The focus was on Hyperactive children who had a lot of trouble sitting still in the classroom and getting there work completed (Peter Jaska, Ph.D). In 1980's the name was changed to attention Deficit Disorder because it became recognized that severe attention problems and poor impulse control were characteristic as well. It also became clear that ADHD did not go away in childhood but continue through adulthood. As per Peter Jaska, Ph.D., President, National ADDA, they know now that this genetic, inherited condition is not due to brain damage at all but rather to a variation in how the brain functions. All of these condition terms describe a condition that affects a child's ability to concentrate, to learn and to maintain a normal level of activity. Peter Jaska, Ph.D., 1999 National ADDA. A child with ADHD/ADD has difficulty finishing any activity that requires concentration, doesn't seem to listen, impulsive, restless even during sleep, calls out in class and has a hard time waiting his turn in games or groups. The symptoms of ADHD are grouped into two broad categories: inattention and hyperactivity-impulsive behavior. In general, children are said to have ADHD if they show six or more symptoms from each category for at least 6 months. These symptoms must significantly affect a child's ability to function in at least two social settings -- at home and at school. This helps ensure that the problem isn't with a particular teacher or only with parents. Children who have problems in school but get along well at home are not considered to have ADHD. In most children, symptoms appear between 4 and 6 years of age, although they sometimes may occur even earlier. Mayo clinic- Last Updated: May 18, 2001. Most children with ADHD don't have all the signs and symptoms of the disorder. Furthermore, symptoms may be different in boys and girls; boys are more likely to be hyperactive, and girls tend to be inattentive. Attention Deficit Hyperactivity disorder is thought 2005-06-21T21:53:48-04:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/Attention-Deficit-Hyperactivity-Disorder-ADHD-27090.aspx What is the true study of modern human emotion, thought, and behavior, psychology or philosophy? This question’s answer does not come easily to its solicitor; in fact, the two seemingly different subjects have a distinct and discernible relationship to one another. “Some things are up to us and some are not up to us. Our opinions are up to us, our impulses, desires, aversions, in-short whatever is our doing. Our bodies are not up to us, nor our possessions, our reputations, or our public offices, or that is, whatever is not of our own doing (Epictetus 1).” This citation, from a philosopher who lived around 100 B.C., illustrates the relationship between psychology and philosophy. When one examines the language housed within the passage he will understand, in order to lead a blissful life, one must have power over his reaction to an event and not let the event have power over his reaction. This effortless Stoic belief has lead to the development of a modern psychological therapy known as Rational-Emotive-Behavior-Therapy. This therapy uses a logical approach in order to solve problems with the human psyche.If one were to scrutinize the word “Psychological,” he will notice the word “Psycho” which is related to the word “Psyche,” which, in turn, means the human mind and its perception of consciousness. Upon further study of the word “Psychological,” the person in question will notice the latter part of the word is “Logical” which deals with the processing and the capability of rational human thought; therefore, one can infer that a psychological therapy must deal with the subjects awareness of his situation and his ability to rationalize his thoughts of such events. Rational-Emotive-Behavior-Therapy executes this conjecture to the letter. REBT is a reflexive approach to psychology that is gaining popularity. Today, REBT uses can be seen in everything from: combating unhealthy emotional outbursts, solving chemical dependencies, and improving a person’s overall mental self-image. Foremost, one must understand Rational-Emotive-Behavior-Therapy in order to apply REBT to the above-mentioned modes of use. REBT is a therapy residing in a subdivision of psychological therapies known as Cognitive therapy, or an assumption based therapy relying on the premise that psychological problems are due to maladaptive patterns of thinking (Hockenbury and Hockenbury 523). Gerald Metalsky Ph.D., Associate Professor of Psychology at Wisconsin’s Lawrence University, explains cognitive therapy to be the process of “Identifying deprossogenic thoughts, evaluating these thoughts, and challenging the cognition 2005-06-19T18:10:27-04:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/Rational-Emotive-Behavior-Therapy-27001.aspx A Dream's Worth A picture is worth a thousand words. You've heard it so many times that it sounds trite. But a picture really IS worth a thousand words. And if a dream is a very special kind of picture, how much is IT worth? Maybe more? What about very simple pictures and very simple dreams? No doubt they're worth a little bit less than complex, elaborate ones. Or are they? In my psychotherapy course one day, I presented my undergraduate students with these questions. "Here's a very simple dream from a psychotherapy client I worked with years ago. I won't tell you anything about the client. I'll just tell you his dream, and then lets see what we can discover about him by exploring it...... O.K? Here's the dream:" "I was wearing a white shirt and a purple tie." The students just stare at me, expecting more to come. "No," I explain, "that's it. That's the dream. Now let's start to explore it." I then lead them through a group process of free associating to the dream (much like I describe on the Working and Playing with Dreams Page). "Just let your imagination go. Take every element of the dream and just let your mind wander on it. Whatever comes to mind. Don't censor anything, that's important. There is no right or wrong. It can be a fun, playful exercise - although the results sometimes may be serious and powerful. Freud thought that free association bypasses the defenses of rational, logical thinking and unlocks deeper links within the unconscious. It opens one up to fantasy, symbolism, and emotion - the very place from which dreams spring." Here is a list of some of the associations the students come up with. For the purpose of this article I've organized them somewhat, whereas during the actual exercise the ideas surface in a much more freewheeling stream of consciousness: PURPLE .... royalty, bruises, choking, holding one's breath, grief, a combination of blue and pink, goes well with black, The Color of Purple TIE .... formal attire, going to work, phallic symbol, tied up, being tied to something, chokes the neck, confining PURPLE TIE .... unconventional, stands out, rebellious, showing off WHITE .... clean, pure, unstained, "good," light SHIRT .... the top part, covered up, tucked in, stuffed shirt, where are the pants? WHITE SHIRT.... conventional, boring, going to work, going to church, corporate America WHITE SHIRT AND PURPLE TIE.... unusual combination, contradictory combination, very unconventional, 2005-06-16T09:46:14-04:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/A-Dream-s-Worth-Lesson-on-Psychology-of-Dreams-26884.aspx Freud: Scientist and / or Humanist My aim in this paper is to use historical analysis as a way of reflecting on the deepest philosophical assumptions of psychoanalysis. In preparing it, I have been very influenced by its venue, reflecting what I hope is an interest in the study of life, human nature and society. I have a certain sense of occasion about the growth of interest in the history of the human sciences. In fact it is a quarter of a century since I embarked on a doctoral dissertation in this area. It was, I don't mind saying, lonely work, and I cannot sufficiently convey my pleasure that there now appears to be a real interest in this country in humanistic scholarship about the history of the disciplines which seek to understand our humanity. I wish it well and I will do all I can to help it on its way. When I became a professional historian of psychology, it was considered sufficiently noteworthy that the main entrepreneur in the field, Robert I. Watson, dubbed me the 'first person ever to receive a doctorate in the history of psychology in the Anglo-Saxon world'. (I have never known if that was true or not, but it felt nice at the time.) I have moved on more than once, but I have remained preoccupied with human nature, the constraints on it, what can be hoped for and perhaps achieved, in a variety of guises: researching, teaching, supervising, editing, agitating a bit, making films about it, writing and publishing. I came to Britain to look into the issues lying conceptually beneath and historically behind Freud's metapsychology, in particular his first book On Aphasia (1891), and the philosophical assumptions conceptual confusions underlying psychoanalytic metapsychology. The doctoral dissertation I did was on the history of cerebral localization from the first empirical work, that of Gall and phrenology, to the first experimental work of Fritsch and Hitzig and of David Ferrier. Note that I make no mention of Freud whatsoever. The reason is that I was strongly advised by my doctoral supervisor not to go into psychoanalysis at all and by my department head not to mention any interest in the history of medical or psychiatric topics. The first because psychoanalysis wasn't psychology, and the second because medicine wasn't knowledge. Psychoanalysts were charlatans and medics were plumbers, I was told. Neither was respectable, nor was taking up an 2005-06-16T09:44:10-04:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/Freud-Scientist-and-or-Humanist-26883.aspx Infidelity in Men: More than Just Sex The subject of infidelity is a frightening one to me. I have only been unfaithful once, but I remember it vividly. The thought that I could do something like that to a person that I cared about is depressing. Although I can clearly depict how bad cheating made me feel, I cannot explain why I did it. The best reason that I have been able to come up with is physical pleasure. The idea that I could betray somebody that I loved troubles me, but even more troubling is the prospect of infidelity in my own marriage. As a twenty-year-old, it is hard to imagine spending fifty years with only one person. I want to commit myself and have a family, but I worry that I might make a stupid mistake and tarnish a hopefully wonderful relationship. These worries have prompted me to investigate the reasons that men decide to have extra-marital sex. Although most research points to the idea that while women enter affairs for emotional reasons, men have extramarital sex for purely sexual reasons, I have concluded that a large part of a man’s desire to be unfaithful results from emotional causes as well. Gender-Based Differences According to Cathy Young, “gender differences in sexual attitudes and behavior are much more dramatic than in virtually any other area.” Men cheat on their wives at much more alarming rates than women cheat on husbands. More than half of all men are suspected of cheating on their wives at some point in their relationships. Most theorists suggest that the reason men tend to cheat more lies in a fundamental difference between the sexes. This difference can be manifested in a number of ways, including “in attitude towards the whole sexual experience. Whereas most women tend to view sex as an aspect of love and emotional intimacy men tend to see it in the same way they see going out with the boys and having a few beers… as a way to have a good time.” Some theorists suggest the idea that “men in our society generally draw a sharp distinction between physical sex and emotional love, whereas most women do not draw such a distinction; for them physical sex and emotional love are the same thing.” The question of whether these sex differences are genetically or societal-induced is not important for this paper. 2005-06-16T04:56:44-04:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/Infidelity-in-Men-More-than-Just-Sex-26873.aspx [i:c9ad100d69]"A child's future relationships are almost entirely determined by the quality of attachment to the mother." Discuss, referring to relevant empirical evidence.[/i:c9ad100d69] The primal importance of a child's bond to its mother has always been recognised, and is a topic that has fascinated people for thousands of years. Playwrights from Sophocles to the modern day have explored this, and in more recent times psychologists have devoted much research and conjecture to understanding it. Among psychologists, there is much debate about exactly how important this attachment is, and why. At the turn of the century, the treatment of new-born babies was regarded as having little significance for later life, as babies were thought to be immune to influence. This idea, like many others prevalent at that time, was attacked by Sigmund Freud. He believed (see Freud, 1933 for a synopsis, but this theory was put forward considerably earlier) that the relationship a child has with its mother is a prototype on which all future relationships are based. Freud's theory held that the child becomes attached to its mother because she is its source of food, hence she gratifies its most basic needs. Slightly later in childhood, the drive for food is supplemented by another basic drive - the need for sexual pleasure. According to Freud's theory, the mother, who is already an object of love because of her role in satisfying the first need, becomes an object of desire with whom the child wants to gratify its sexual desire (this is with reference to boys - an equivalent mechanism was proposed for girls, but much criticised, and Freud eventually admitted to not understanding female sexuality). In the normal course of growing up, the child comes to accept that this can not be, and sets out to become an adult, and find another figure with whom to satisfy this need. It follows that if future relationships are a substitute for the mother-child bond, then they will also be modelled on it. Many people have questioned this cynical view of infants, including John Bowlby (1969, 1973). He disregarded what he called Freud's "cupboard love" theory of attachment, believing instead that a child is born biologically pre-disposed to become attached to its mother for two important reasons. These are the need for comfort, and the fear of the unknown, both of which are characteristics that can be observed in all children. Thus the bond with the mother is 2005-06-06T07:30:21-04:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/Child-s-Relationships-Based-on-Attachment-to-Mother-26834.aspx [i:26430bb9a3]Discuss Le Bon’s view that crowds are "intellectually inferior, driven by emotion and instinctual urges, and free from the restraints of civilised life and reason."[/i:26430bb9a3] In October this year (1998) an accident occurred in Gothenburg, Sweden, were approximately 67 individuals died. About 200 people were gathered in a room when the place took fire. Having only one exit, people rushed at the same time towards the entrance. The entrance was blocked and people were falling on top of each other. A tragedy was a fact. What caused the people to rush to the exit? Did they become too emotional? Did they think that that was the most optimal choice? In this essay we are discussing Gustave Le Bon’s theory of crowd behaviour. First we will take a closer look at Le Bon’s view that crowds are irrational, emotional and unconscious and secondly we will discuss his theory in comparison to other theories or research that has been developed or done in the area. According to Gustave Le Bon (1841-1931) the crowd submerge the individuals rationality and (private) self-awareness. It is worth noting that a psychological crowd is not only a group of people together. For Le Bon, a psychological crowd is a group of people that "under certain given circumstances, and only under those circumstances, an agglomeration of men presents new characteristics very different from those of the individuals composing it" (Le Bon, p. 2, 1895). In the phase where the individuals loose their selves, the crowd reach the state that Le Bon called the collective mind. In this state of mind the individual feels, thinks and acts differently compared to if he were alone. The emotions, thoughts and acts spread like a disease in the crowd – the result being that everybody behaves in the same manner. This is what Le Bon called contagion. When the crowd is in the same state of mind, they replace private self-awareness with primitive instinctual urges. According to Le Bon the psychological crowd holds characteristics which are savagery, primitive and uncivilised (e.g. no self-awareness, unconscious). "Crowds are only powerful for destruction. Their rule is always tantamount to a barbaric phase" (Le Bon, p. xviii, 1895). This process of self-immolation that individuals go through to merge into the crowd is caused by several reasons. Firstly, group membership delivers anonymity, which gives the member ‘invincible power’, and less personal responsibility. Secondly, ideas and feelings are spread rapidly 2005-06-06T07:26:08-04:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/Discussion-of-Le-Bon-s-View-of-Crowds-26833.aspx "Critically review the ways in which intelligence is measured." Intelligence has always been a major and controversial issue for psychologists. Intelligence has three major areas of debate: its definition, its measurement, and its heritability (Source: Weinberg, 1989). The title of this essay asks specifically about measurement of intelligence, but this thereby requires an investigation into the definition of intelligence used, because of its massive influence on its potential measurement. It also raises the question of whether intelligence can be measured at all. A common criticism of I.Q. tests is that they only show how good you are at I.Q. tests and do not reflect ‘true’ intelligence. The solution therefore to understand intelligence better before we try to measure it, although this is by no means an easy task. Cicero was the first to use the term ‘intelligentia’ in an attempt to provide a Latin equivalent for a Greek philosophical term (Source: Cyril Burt, 1955 pp. 159). Today there are many different definitions of intelligence, and obviously this shows that it means different things to different people. Intelligence therefore is a term that is vague yet flexible and has many characteristics. (Source: I. Roth 1990) Nowadays it is widely accepted that intelligence is a ‘general cognitive ability’ (i.e. capacity), but this is still far to vague a definition to be useful in measuring it. Binet and Simon (1905) raised the issue that intelligence’s generality is a problem: "Almost all the phenomena that occupy psychology are phenomena of intelligence..... Should we put all of psychology in the tests?" (Binet and Simon, 1905; Quoted in Wolf, 1973, p.178) There are 3 major approaches to intelligence: the psychometric approach, the information processing approach and the developmental approach. The psychometric approach, as the name infers, focuses on the measurement of intelligence. Psychometrics takes a practical approach to intelligence, but the definition of intelligence it uses- "that which is measured by IQ tests" - is flawed in that it does not avoid the problem of defining intelligence, it merely predisposes the problems of definition onto the structure and type of test used. The information processing approach is more complex that the psychometric approach: it enquires into the nature of intelligence and how it works, rather than attempting to measure it, and in doing this it is a more advanced and mature approach. Hebb (1949) divided intelligence into two categories that have proved useful in approaching intelligence: Intelligence A and Intelligence B. 2005-06-06T07:24:40-04:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/Critical-Review-on-how-Intelligence-is-Measured-26832.aspx "Artificial Intelligence is impossible because computers will never be able to think and behave in the same way as human beings." Artificial intelligence (AI) is a young interdisciplinary field of research that combines cognitive science and computer sciences. A good general definition of its aims was made by Professor Aaron Sloman in Computers and Thought (1989, MIT Press): "AI is a very general investigation of the nature of intelligence and the principles and mechanisms required for understanding or replicating it." This essay aims to make a critical analysis of the title, taking into consideration any relevant views held by experts in the AI field. It also aims to illustrate some of the major philosophical stumbling blocks that occur in the arguments. AI is a field of research that has captured the public eye. If AI were possible to the standard of human intelligence it would have a massive impact on our society and lives in general. Consider that at present automation is limited to repetitive, mundane tasks and this alone has slashed the number of jobs in industry. Then consider the advent of automated systems which have intelligence: they could be used in literally any niche of presently human-based employment. Some of the issues AI raises open a "Pandora's box" of controversial arguments, similar to those raised by genetic engineering. For example, is it right for us to attempt to 'play God' and create intelligence? If we are able to create an artificially conscious 'being', independent of any 'divine intervention', what does this infer about the religious issue of Divine intervention in the creation of human consciousness? It is no surprise that the public is tending to avoid the issue by denying its validity point blank. Computer hardware does have some significant advantages over biological nervous tissue: these advantages indirectly aid the development of AI. The following points are paraphrased from Roger Penrose in his essay "Setting the scene: the Claim and Issues" from the volume "The Simulation of Human Intelligence" (1993, Blackwell). Firstly, Electronic circuits are already about a million times faster than speed of a nerve cell transmitting an impulse. Secondly, electronic circuits have an immense advantage over brains in terms of precision in timing, and accuracy of action. One major pitfall is that no neural network yet constructed has anywhere near the multitude of synapses (ie connections between neurones) that occur in a biological brain, but this may be overcome 2005-06-06T07:23:44-04:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/Is-Artificial-Intelligence-Possible-26831.aspx Kohlberg Moral Development Theory Lawrence Kohlberg was born in Bronxville, New York on October 25, 1927. He was born into a wealthy family and enjoyed all of the luxuries that the rich lifestyle had to offer including the finest college prep schools. However, Kohlberg was not too concerned with this lifestyle. Instead he became a sailor with the merchant marines. During World War II, Kohlberg played an instrumental role in smuggling Jews through a British blockade in Palestine. It was during these times that Kohlberg first began thinking about moral reasoning, a subject that would later make him famous. After this Kohlberg enrolled at the University of Chicago where he scored so high on admission test that he only had to take a limited number of courses to earn his bachelor’s degree. This he did in one year. Kohlberg remained at the University Chicago as a graduate student. In 1958, Kohlberg completed his Ph.D. which dealt with moral decision making and was based primarily on the earlier work of Jean Piaget. The result was his doctoral dissertation, the first rendition of his new stage theory. Later he served as an assistant professor at Yale University from 1959 to 1961, began teaching at the University of Chicago in 1963. He remained at Chicago until his 1967 appointment to the faculty of Harvard University, where he served as professor of education and social psychology until his death in 1987. Many of our inner standards take the form of judgments as to what is right and what is wrong. They constitute the moral and ethical principles by which we guide our conduct. Lawrence Kohlberg refined, extended, and revised Piaget’s basic theory of the development of moral values. Like Piaget, Kohlberg focused on the moral judgements in children rather than their actions. The manner in which moral judgments develop has been studied extensively by Kohlberg, through the questioning of boys seven years old and up. Kohlberg presented his subjects with a number of hypothetical situations involving moral question like the following. If a man’s wife is dying for lack of an expensive drug that he cannot afford, should he steal the drug? If a patient who is fatally ill and in great pain begs for a mercy killing, should the physician agree? By analyzing the answers and particularly the reasoning by which his subjects reached their answers. Kohlberg determined that moral judgments develop through a 2005-05-27T07:40:18-04:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/Kohlberg’s-Theory-on-Moral-Development-in-Children-26785.aspx Classical Conditioning vs Operant Conditioning Classical conditioning and operant conditioning are different learning methods. The two methods have the word conditioning in common. What is conditioning? Conditioning is the acquisition of specific patterns of behavior in the presence of well-defined stimuli. Both classical and operant conditioning are basic forms of learning. Classical conditioning is a type of learning in which an organism learns to transfer a natural response from one stimulus to another, previously neutral stimulus. Manipulating reflexes does this. Operant conditioning is a type of learning in which the likelihood of a behavior is increased or decreased by the use of reinforcement or punishment. Operant conditioning deals with more cognitive thought process. These two forms of learning have similarities and differences. Their similarities are that they both produce basic phenomena. One such phenomenon is acquisition. Both types of conditioning result in the inheritance of a behavior. One of the most famous of experiments that illustrates classical conditioning is Pavlov's Dogs. In this experiment, Pavlov sat behind a one-way mirror and controlled the presentation of a bell. The bell was the conditioned stimulus. A conditioned stimulus was an originally neutral stimulus that could eventually produce a desired response when presented alone. Directly after the ringing of the bell, Pavlov gave the dog food. The food was the unconditioned stimulus. This means that the food caused an uncontrollable response whenever it was presented alone. That response would be the salivation of the dog. A tube that was in the dog's mouth then measured the saliva. When the unconditioned stimulus (US) was paired with a conditioned stimulus (CS), it eventually resulted in a conditioned response. Extinction results if there is a decrease in frequency or strength of a learned response due to the failure to continue to pair the US and the CS. Extinction can also occur in operant conditioning. The key to operant conditioning is reinforcement. Reinforcement is when a stimulus is presented that increases the probability that the preceding response will recur in the future. If reinforcement is withheld, extinction will occur in operant conditioning. Another factor that is involved in conditioning is spontaneous recovery. That is the reappearance of an extinguished response after the passage of time, without further training. If Pavlov's dogs did not hear the bell for a few years, and if when they heard it later they drooled, it would be an example of spontaneous recovery. Something 2005-05-27T07:32:02-04:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/Classical-Conditioning-vs-Operant-Conditioning-26781.aspx Development of Language Knowing a language means one can speak, be understood and understand others who know the language. Although I have taken three years of Spanish, I would not say that I definitively know Spanish. I would not feel comfortable going to Spain alone and trying to survive merely with the three years training that I received. I would inevitably make mistakes, conjugating verbs improperly or stringing nonsensical sentences together. Knowing a language means knowing the things that you aren?t taught. I could spend five more years in a Spanish class, learning all the rules and vocabulary, but I still would not feel I knew the language. Knowing the language means understanding the unspoken rules behind that language. It is in understanding what is possible and, conversely, what is impossible in a language that one can truly know that language. Logically it follows then to ask; if this unspoken knowledge is not taught, how is it learned? Prior to the lecture on language competence I would have said, purely from an observational standpoint, that those rules of language are learned chiefly through imitation. A child hears what his or her parents say and mimics them. Through correction and over time, these rules are then conditioned into that child. When asked, however, how do you explain the fact that children do not make random mistakes, but rather predictable ones, this theory begins to break down. Allotting sole propriety to imitation as the means by which we learn a language also brings to light further problems. If children are merely imitating, why do they make mistakes and simplify rules, applying them in the wrong context? Furthermore, how can children, if merely imitating, make up words we don?t have or form sentences they have never heard before? While I still believe that the role of imitation holds credence as a factor in language acquisition, there must be some other explanation. Since the imitation explanation of language acquisition falls on the side of nurture in the whole nature/nurture debate, one must then logically conclude that its opposite, nature, must also play a role. One could posit that learning a language is unlike learning how to ride a bike, being instead much like learning to walk. Language is an innate biologically programmed human ability. Learning to ride a bike is a conscious decision; it is not an ability that one just picks up along the 2005-05-27T07:15:29-04:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/Development-of-Language--26778.aspx Sex or Subordination? Violence and Pornography In the late Seventies, America became shocked and outraged by the rape, mutilation, and murder of over a dozen young, beautiful girls. The man who committed these murders, Ted Bundy, was later apprehended and executed. During his detention in various penitentiaries, he was mentally probed and prodded by psychologist and psychoanalysts hoping to discover the root of his violent actions and sexual frustrations. Many theories arose in attempts to explain the motivational factors behind his murderous escapades. However, the strongest and most feasible of these theories came not from the psychologists, but from the man himself, "as a teenager, my buddies and I would all sneak around and watch porn. As I grew older, I became more and more interested and involved in it, [pornography] became an obsession. I got so involved in it, I wanted to incorporate [porn] into my life, but I couldn't behave like that and maintain the success I had worked so hard for. I generated an alter-ego to fulfill my fantasies under-cover. Pornography was a means of unlocking the evil I had burried inside myself" (Leidholdt 47). Is it possible that pornography is acting as the key to unlocking the evil in more unstable minds? According to Edward Donnerstein, a leading researcher in the pornography field, "the relationship between sexually violent images in the media and subsequent aggression and . . . callous attitudes towards women is much stonger statistically than the relationship between smoking and cancer" (Itzin 22). After considering the increase in rape and molestation, sexual harassment, and other sex crimes over the last few decades, and also the corresponding increase of business in the pornography industry, the link between violence and pornogrpahy needs considerable study and examination. Once the evidence you will encounter in this paper is evaluated and quantified, it will be hard not come away with the realization that habitual use of pornographic material promotes unrealistic and unattainable desires in men that can leac to violent behavior toward women. In order to properly discuss pornography, and be able to link it to violence, we must first come to a basic and agreeable understanding of what the word pornography means. The term pornogrpahy originates from two greek words, porne, which means harlot, and graphein, which means to write (Webster's 286). My belief is that the combination of the two words was originally meant to describe, in literature, 2005-05-26T10:00:26-04:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/Sex-or-Subordination-Violence-and-Pornography-26745.aspx On Narcissism: Psychological Theories and Therapeutic Interventions in the Narcissistic Disorders Introduction Understanding the Narcissistic Phenomenon The so called 'narcissistic personality disorder' is a complex and often misunderstood disorder. The cardinal feature of the narcissistic personality is the grandiose sense of self importance, but paradoxically underneath this grandiosity the narcissist suffers from a chronically fragile low self esteem. The grandiosity of the narcissist, however, is often so pervasive that we tend to dehumanize him or her. The narcissist conjures in us images of the mythological character Narcissus who could only love himself, rebuffing anyone who attempted to touch him. Nevertheless, it is the underlying sense of inferiority which is the real problem of the narcissist, the grandiosity is just a facade used to cover the deep feelings of inadequacy. The Makeup of the Narcissistic Personality The narcissist's grandiose behavior is designed to reaffirm his or her sense of adequacy. Since the narcissist is incapable of asserting his or her own sense of adequacy, the narcissist seeks to be admired by others. However, the narcissist's extremely fragile sense of self worth does not allow him or her to risk any criticism. Therefore, meaningful emotional interactions with others are avoided. By simultaneously seeking the admiration of others and keeping them at a distance the narcissist is usually able to maintain the illusion of grandiosity no matter how people respond. Thus, when people praise the narcissist his or her grandiosity will increase, but when criticized the grandiosity will usually remain unaffected because the narcissist will devalue the criticizing person. Akhtar (1989) [as cited in Carson & Butcher, 1992; P. 271] discusses six areas of pathological functioning which characterize the narcissist. In particular, four of these narcissistic character traits best illustrate the pattern discussed above. " (1) a narcissistic individual has a basic sense of inferiority, which underlies a preoccupation with fantasies of outstanding achievement; (2) a narcissistic individual is unable to trust and rely on others and thus develops numerous, shallow relationships to extract tributes from others;(3) a narcissistic individual has a shifting morality-always ready to shift values to gain favor; and (4) a narcissistic person is unable to remain in love, showing an impaired capacity for a committed relationship". The Therapeutic Essence of Treating Narcissism The narcissist who enters therapy does not think that there is something wrong with him or her. Typically, the narcissist seeks therapy because he or she is unable to maintain the grandiosity which protects him 2005-05-26T09:57:48-04:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/Psychological-Theories-on-Narcissism-26743.aspx Bipolar Disorder Research Paper The phenomenon of bipolar affective disorder has been a mystery since the 16th century. History has shown that this affliction can appear in almost anyone. Even the great painter Vincent Van Gogh is believed to have had bipolar disorder. It is clear that in our society many people live with bipolar disorder; however, despite the abundance of people suffering from the it, we are still waiting for definite explanations for the causes and cure. The one fact of which we are painfully aware is that bipolar disorder severely undermines its' victims ability to obtain and maintain social and occupational success. Because bipolar disorder has such debilitating symptoms, it is imperative that we remain vigilant in the quest for explanations of its causes and treatment. Affective disorders are characterized by a smorgasbord of symptoms that can be broken into manic and depressive episodes. The depressive episodes are characterized by intense feelings of sadness and despair that can become feelings of hopelessness and helplessness. Some of the symptoms of a depressive episode include anhedonia, disturbances in sleep and appetite, psycomoter retardation, loss of energy, feelings of worthlessness, guilt, difficulty thinking, indecision, and recurrent thoughts of death and suicide (Hollandsworth, Jr. 1990 ). The manic episodes are characterized by elevated or irritable mood, increased energy, decreased need for sleep, poor judgment and insight, and often reckless or irresponsible behavior (Hollandsworth, Jr. 1990 ). Bipolar affective disorder affects approximately one percent of the population (approximately three million people) in the United States. It is presented by both males and females. Bipolar disorder involves episodes of mania and depression. These episodes may alternate with profound depressions characterized by a pervasive sadness, almost inability to move, hopelessness, and disturbances in appetite, sleep, in concentrations and driving. Bipolar disorder is diagnosed if an episode of mania occurs whether depression has been diagnosed or not (Goodwin, Guze, 1989, p 11). Most commonly, individuals with manic episodes experience a period of depression. Symptoms include elated, expansive, or irritable mood, hyperactivity, pressure of speech, flight of ideas, inflated self esteem, decreased need for sleep, distractibility, and excessive involvement in reckless activities (Hollandsworth, Jr. 1990 ). Rarest symptoms were periods of loss of all interest and retardation or agitation (Weisman, 1991). As the National Depressive and Manic Depressive Association (MDMDA) has demonstrated, bipolar disorder can create substantial developmental delays, marital and family disruptions, occupational setbacks, and financial disasters. This devastating disease 2005-05-26T09:54:47-04:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/Bipolar-Disorder-Research-Paper-26742.aspx Battered Women's Syndrome: A Survey of Contemporary Theories In 1991, Governor William Weld modified parole regulations and permitted women to seek commutation if they could present evidence indicating they suffered from battered women's syndrome. A short while later, the Governor, citing spousal abuse as his impetus, released seven women convicted of killing their husbands, and the Great and General Court of Massachusetts enacted Mass. Gen. L. ch. 233  23E (1993), which permits the introduction of evidence of abuse in criminal trials. These decisive acts brought the issue of domestic abuse to the public's attention and left many Massachusetts residents, lawyers and judges struggling to define battered women's syndrome. In order to help these individuals define battered women's syndrome, the origins and development of the three primary theories of the syndrome and recommended treatments are outlined below. I. The Classical Theory of Battered Women's Syndrome and its Origins The Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM-IV), known in the mental health field as the clinician's bible, does not recognize battered women's syndrome as a distinct mental disorder. In fact, Dr. Lenore Walker, the architect of the classical battered women's syndrome theory, notes the syndrome is not an illness, but a theory that draws upon the principles of learned helplessness to explain why some women are unable to leave their abusers. Therefore, the classical battered women's syndrome theory is best regarded as an offshoot of the theory of learned helplessness and not a mental illness that afflicts abused women. The theory of learned helplessness sought to account for the passive behavior subjects exhibited when placed in an uncontrollable environment. In the late 60's and early 70's, Martin Seligman, a famous researcher in the field of psychology, conducted a series of experiments in which dogs were placed in one of two types of cages. In the former cage, henceforth referred to as the shock cage, a bell would sound and the experimenters would electrify the entire floor seconds later, shocking the dog regardless of location. The latter cage, however, although similar in every other respect to the shock cage, contained a small area where the experimenters could administer no shock. Seligman observed that while the dogs in the latter cage learned to run to the nonelectrified area after a series of shocks, the dogs in the shock cage gave up trying to escape, even when placed in the latter cage and shown that escape was 2005-05-26T09:53:32-04:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/Battered-Women-s-Syndrome-A-Survey-of-Contemporary-Theories-26741.aspx Troubled Adolescence Adolescents today are growing up in a totally different setting than the generation before them. New problems and choices are entering these young, and influential kids lives. There are a lot of different factors in children's lives that weren't as common one generation ago. Adolescents today are filled with stress due to everyday problems in their lives. There are many factors that are playing into all of this stress put on children. One of these factors is divorce, one-parent families. Since 1960, the divorce rate has almost doubled. Almost one half of all marriages end in divorce. With this, about one quarter of all births are to unmarried women. Adolescents growing up in a single parent family are more likely to try health compromising activities, like drugs, alcohol, unprotected sex, and smoking. Also, with the separation of their parents comes a higher rate of mental illness, and dropping out of school. Worst of all is the increased suicide rate. (Losing Generations 43-49) Children also have a lot of stress put on them at school. This is a place where children are supposed to have fun and learn basic fundamentals of life. Instead they are getting picked on and even beat up. They go through school scared, and this takes their minds off of schoolwork. Then when their grades fail, their parents punish them. The children need support and a sense of well-being. If all they know is getting made fun of and picked on, there is going to be hatred and aggression built up. While all these angers are building up inside of them, it lets their defenses down a little. It makes them vulnerable to peer pressure. They tend to be more daring and experimental, and they fail to think about the physical attributes that come into play. Like having unprotected sex, doing drugs, smoking, and drinking alcohol. These could have a major affect on their physical, and even mental state of being. The really sad thing is that the kids don't even understand what they are doing to themselves. They are caught up in a world of separation, and aggression. Adolescents with all of these problems and aggression have been known to bring on some of the most violent crimes in the country. This is a 2005-05-20T09:41:13-04:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/Troubled-Adolescence--26688.aspx Conflict in Romantic Relationships As long as people have gotten romantically involved with one another, there has been conflict within those relationships. Some people argue that conflict is bad for the relationship and will ultimately lead to the demise of that relationship. Others argue that the conflict is good for the relationship and will help it to flourish. Conflict can be both positive and negative for a relationship. It can both help and hinder the relationship. No matter what stage the relationship is in and whether or not the relationship is being helped or hurt, conflict is always happening in different contexts. Conflict is also caused by numerous reasons. These reasons include a lack of interpersonal communication skills, low levels of trust, physical abuse, an individual's past history in relationships, and many others. Not many people in the world can say that they have had a 100% successful romantic relationship. Looking at the high divorce rate in the United States can prove this. However, there are those couples that have remained together for numerous years. As I am sure that conflict played a big part in ending a large number of relationships, I am also sure that the successful relationships have had their fair share of conflict and have even been helped by that conflict. In this paper, I have constructed nine propositions relating conflict to certain behaviors within romantic relationships. Each one will be defined, summarized, and supported according to the available research. P1- Women that have been abused in the past are more likely to remain in an abusive relationship. Unfortunately, thousands of women are abused everyday in the United States. This abuse can be physical, verbal, or psychological. Women, by nature, seem to hold a higher sense of personal worth when involved in a relationship. From birth, women are taught by society to conform to certain expectations and definitions of what it means to be a female. Growing up, women always here phrases such as "That's not lady like" or "You should be treated like a lady". What does it mean to be a lady? According to most societies, it means that women are the weaker sex and are always in need of a man to take care of them. Men are taught, from birth, what it means to be 2005-05-20T09:25:53-04:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/Conflict-in-Romantic-Relationships-26685.aspx The Parmenidean Paradox Of Motion Philosophical thought begins with the Milesians, where intellectual curiosity propelled thinkers like Anaximander and Heraclitus to attempt to explain the phenomena of the universe by means of specific physical elements. During the 6th century BC, Eleatics, like Parmenides and Zeno, had rejected physical phenomena and propounded metaphysical paradoxes that cut at the roots of belief in the very existence of the natural world. Parmenides uproots the theories of his predecessors by bearing to light the logical possibilities of any philosophical inquiry. He argues that that the only things about which we can inquire about must exist, else our search is fruitless. Through deductive reasoning, Parmenides proves that if something exists, then it cannot come to be or perish, change or move, nor be the subject to any imperfection. His proteges were left with an enormous problem: how could one reconcile Parmenides' rejection of change with the possibility of giving a rational account of the changing world of sense experience? By accepting only certain parts of his doctrine of being, his successors ultimately fail in their attempts to explain the changing universe in light of the Parmenidean paradox. How does Parmenides draw the conclusion that if something is, then it is unchanging? A more formal examination of his arguments regarding subjects of inquiry shows how he comes to the conclusion that all is one. The only ways of inquiry there are for thinking: the one, that it is and that it is not possible for it not to be, is the path of Persuasion (for it attends upon the Truth), the other, that it is not and that it is necessary for it not to be, this I point out to you to be a path completely unlearnable, for neither may you know that which is not (for it is not to be accomplished) nor may you declare it (Curd fr.2 ll.3-8, pg.45). Parmenides' subject of inquiry, as show in the fragment, either you must assume that your subject is or it is not. Careful consideration of the statement 'is not' shows that it is impossible to point out what does not exist, because it has no attributes or true predicate. Parmenides concludes that if something does not exist, then its non-existence cannot allow for it to come into being or perishing, because if it comes to be, then formally, 2005-05-16T05:39:18-04:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/The-Parmenidean-Paradox-Of-Motion-26632.aspx Situational Influences on Purchasing Behavior Abstract There was an investigation in an attempt to understand what situational influences affect purchasing behaviors of consumers. Fifty subjects were asked to complete a survey in determining what attributes affect the decision to purchase a product. The effect of purchase was based on three different times of day: morning, afternoon, and evening. The effect of purchase was also based on whether subjects preferred caffeinated or non-caffeinated soda depending on the time of day. The subjects were asked to rate their preferences on a 5 point rating scale, one being agree and five being disagreed. The results indicated there was a relationship between caffeination and usage situation. Situational Influences on Purchasing Behavior Why do people shop? How do situational factors influence the decision to purchase certain items? The act of purchase is affected by many factors: mood, time pressures, or even a person's disposition towards shopping. Time can be seen, as an important factor because it often determines how much effort and search a consumer will put into making a purchasing decision. A person's mood can be affected by the degree of pleasure or arousal that is present in the store's atmosphere. Most people tend to base a purchase decision towards a specific occasion; or even the way an individual may feel at a specific point in time can also play a big role in what we feel like purchasing. These factors may cause one to decide more carefully on a purchase. Marketers like to use segmentation strategies when advertising to let buyers know their product will meet a specific need one may be looking towards. Overall, many consumers' purchase decisions are greatly affected by groups or social settings. The presence of other people around often has a positive influence on one's purchasing behavior. Consumers look for different product attributes depending on they intend to use their purchase. In an attempt to understand how situational influences affect purchasing behaviors, researchers looked at several different approaches to study consumer behavior. Monroe and Lee (1999) based their research on issues involving the buyers' processing of price information. Their assumption concerned how prices influence buyers' purchasing behaviors has been that a consumers already know the prices of products that 2005-05-16T05:09:05-04:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/Situational-Influences-on-Purchasing-Behavior-26628.aspx Freud on Dreams Dreams have been objects of boundless fascination and mystery for humankind since the beginning of time. These nocturnal vivid images seem to arise from some source other than our ordinary conscious mind. They contain a mixture of elements from our own personal identity which we recognize as familiar along with a quality of `otherness' in the dream images that carries a sense of the strange and eerie. The bizarre and nonsensical characters and plots in dreams point to deeper meanings and contain rational and insightful comments on our waking situations and emotional experiences. The ancients thought that dreams were messages from the gods. The cornerstone of Sigmund Freud's infamous psychoanalysis is the interpretation of dreams. Freud called dream-interpretation the "via reggia," or the "royal road" to the unconscious, and it is his theory of dreams that has best stood the test of time over a period of more than seventy years (Many of Freud's other theories have been disputed in recent years). Freud reportedly admired Aristotle's assertion that dreaming is the activity of the mind during sleep (Fine, 1973). It was perhaps the use of the term activity that Freud most appreciated in this brief definition for, as his understanding of the dynamics of dreaming increased, so did the impression of ceaseless mental activity differing in quality from that of ordinary waking life (Fine, 1973). In fact, the quality of mental activity during sleep differed so radically from what we take to be the essence of mental functioning that Freud coined the term "Kingdom of the Illogical" to describe that realm of the human psyche. This technique of dream-interpretation allowed him to penetrate (Fine, 1973). We dream every single night whether it stays with us or not. It is a time when "our minds bring together material which is kept apart during out waking hours" (Anonymous, 1991). As Erik Craig said while we dream we entertain a wider range of human possibilities then when awake; the "open house" of dreaming is less guarded (Craig, 1992). Superficially, we are all convinced that we know just what a "dream" is. But the most cursory investigation into the dream's essence suggests that after describing it as a mental something which we have while sleeping," and perhaps, in accord with experiments currently being carried out in connection with the physiological accompaniments of dreaming, such as Rapid-Eye Movements (REM), the various stages and 2005-05-16T04:10:55-04:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/Dreams-in-Freudian-Theory-26618.aspx Childhood Depression Essay In recent years, we have heard of depression and the affects of the disorder, and what medications and theories help to prevent depression in adults. Many people are not aware that not only is depression diagnosed in adults, recently studies show that depression is diagnosed in adolescents. Not only adults become depressed. Children and teenagers also may have depression. Depression is defined as an illness when it persists. Childhood depression is one of the most overlooked disorders. Depression probably exists in about 5 percent of children in the general population. Children under stress, who experience loss, or who have, learning or conduct disorders are at a higher risk of depression. Studies show that depression is more likely to show up in boys than in girls. Depression in men and meal adolescents most of the time is over looked are misdiagnosed. Men for instance, have higher rates of drug abuse and violent behavior that do women or young female adolescents do, and some researchers belie that this behavior masks depression or anxiety (Canetto, 1992; Kessler al., 1994). Some Psychologists believe that the reason that young males are more likely to suffer from depression because of the stigmatism of being a male and being taught by adults that expressing there feelings are wrong. According to Carol Wade, Travis, Depression (Major Depression) is a disorder that is sever enough to disrupt a person's ordinary functioning (Physiology filth edition, 586). The diagnoses of depression might be the same for adults and adolescents, but the behavior of depressed children and teenagers differs from the behavior of depressed adults. Child and adolescent psychiatrists advise parents to be aware of signs in there youngsters such as persistent sadness, A major change in sleeping and eating patterns and increased activity or irritability. Depression is accompanied by physical changes as well. Frequent complaints of physical illness such as headaches and stomachaches A child who used to play often with friends may now spend most of the time alone and without interest. Things that were once fun now bring little joy to the depressed child. Then symptoms could trigger antisocial personality, a disorder characterized by antisocial behavior such as sealing, lying and sometimes violence: a lack of social emotions and impulsively. Children and adolescents and adolescents who are depressed may say they want to be dead or may talk about suicide. Depressed adolescents may 2005-05-15T01:51:38-04:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/Childhood-Depression-Research-Paper-26602.aspx The Effects of Representations of Spaces How do representations of space affect our relationship to a place? To answer this question, we should perhaps ask ourselves an equally important question: how can we probe nature to learn about it without changing it. By analyzing this question using six main representational themes – cartographic, political, Cartesian perspectivalism, optical, transcendental, and biological – we will answer the original question. I believe that there are no representations of space that would not in some way affect our relationship to a place. Likewise, there are no representations of space that do not alter perspectives of everything and everyone around us. Human psychology and its biological representation of space force us to interact with nature and influence our relationship to places. Before we begin, we must be clear on the definition of our terms. A space in this context is any real or imaginary area with real or artificial boundaries. The space represents a place, which is a tangible entity in reality. There are several ways in which spaces can represent places. We will analyze the representations with regards to cartographic, Cartesian perspectivalism, political, transcendental, and biological points of view. Cartography, the study of maps and surveying, is an ancient science and is mostly a thing of the past. At one time cartographers possessed much power and were held in high esteem. Kings and lords would patronize cartographers to draw out maps of their lands. Due to benefaction, cartographers would often embellish the area of the land on the map to favor the patron. These incidences led to a variety of political silencing, omitting, and highlighting in maps. Eventually because of human nature, what started out as a scientific study became a corrupt and political practice as the people in charge of making and distributing maps hold all the power. J.B. Harley takes note of this phenomenon in his “Maps, knowledge, and power”: The map served as a graphic inventory, a codification of information about ownership, tenancy, rentable values, cropping practice, and agricultural potential, enabling capitalist landowners to see their estates as a whole and better to control them. (285) As a written document, maps contain a certain authenticity and demand reverence; those who hold the maps also hold the power because land that is claimed on paper is considered legitimate. 2005-04-24T08:16:38-04:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/The-Effects-of-Representations-of-Spaces,-Psych-and-Bio-26560.aspx A thesis-driven analysis on “Identical Twins Reared Apart” In the essay, “Identical Twins Reared Apart”, Constance Holden states of how the identical twins reared apart showed more similarities than the differences. She exemplifies many cases and people’s work to show the similarities and some differences of the twins reared apart. She also argues that many experiments show the genetic affects more on the similarity of the twins than the heredity does. However, towards to the end of the text, she discusses about the lack of the evidence which cannot prove the hypothesis that many scientists made; genetic over heredity on the similarity of identical twins reared apart. Holden ends the essay by giving out a part of her point with the quote of James Shields. Her main point is that according to many evidences and cases which the psychologist Bouchard mainly worked on at the University of Minnesota, it is credible that gene has more affect on the similarity of the identical twins reared apart than the environment, but there aren’t enough evidences to prove it. Her essay doesn’t effectively persuade the readers to her point because there are too many distractions which makes her essay confusing and loses her point. Holden uses many scientific words which make the essay very formal and makes the readers to lose interest on her point. Uses of the many scientific words make the essay sounds more like lab report than an article on the popular science magazine. For example, defining the meaning of the easy words to hard scientific terms is distracting. She defines “identical” to “monozygotic” and “fraternal” to “dizygotic.” (377) Also, Holden uses many medical terms which reader might not familiar with such as “hemorrhoids” and “idiosyncrasies galore.” (379) Holden has very serious tone of the essay than humorous because it is based on actual facts and scientific experiments. However, she uses very informal sentence all the sudden at the middle of factual explanations. The purpose of her changing tone was to draw out readers interested attention which it actually worked in reverse. For example, after she was explaining of all different kinds of the tests that the experimenters gave out to twins she asks question, “And the upshot of all this probing?” (378) This question loses the reader and make the context awkward because it is 2005-04-24T08:11:57-04:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/Analysis-on-Identical-Twins-Reared-Apart-26558.aspx Criminal Rehabilitation Prison inmates, are some of the most "maladjusted" people in society. Most of the inmates have had too little discipline or too much, come from broken homes, and have no self-esteem. They are very insecure and are "at war with themselves as well as with society" (Szumski 20). Most inmates did not learn moral values or learn to follow everyday norms. Also, when most lawbreakers are labeled criminals they enter the phase of secondary deviance. They will admit they are criminals or believe it when they enter the phase of secondary deviance (Doob 171). Next, some believe that if we want to rehabilitate criminals we must do more than just send them to prison. For instance, we could give them a chance to acquire job skills; which will improve the chances that inmates will become productive citizens upon release. The programs must aim to change those who want to change. Those who are taught to produce useful goods and to be productive are "likely to develop the self-esteem essential to a normal, integrated personality" (Szumski 21). This kind of program would provide skills and habits and "replace the sense of hopelessness" that many inmates have (Szumski 21). Moreover, another technique used to rehabilitate criminals is counseling. There is two types of counseling in general, individual and group counseling. Individual counseling is much more costly than group counseling. The aim of group counseling is to develop positive peer pressure that will influence its members. One idea in many sociology text is that group problem-solving has definite advantages over individual problem-solving. The idea is that a wider variety of solutions can be derived by drawing from the experience of several people with different backgrounds. Also one individuals problem might have already been solved by another group member and can be suggested. Often if a peer proposes a solution it carries more weight than if the counselor were to suggest it (Bennett 20-24). Further, in sociology, one of the major theories of delinquency is differential association (Cressey 1955). This means some people learned their ways from "undesirable" people who they were forced to be in association with and that this association "warps" their thinking and social attitudes. "Group counseling, group interaction, and other kinds of group activities can provide a corrective, positive experience that might help to offset the earlier delinquent association" (Bennett 25). However, it is said that 2005-04-14T04:32:33-04:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/Criminal-Rehabilitation-Research-Paper-26497.aspx The words "ego" and "id" are Greek, and we have carried them into the English language and then nominalized. By doing this our consciousness solidifies them as things within our brains. The word "ego" means "I" or "self". The word "id" means "non-I" or "non-self", or "it." We dont say "the I" when we refer to ourselves. But so often we say "the ego" as if to refer to a specific part or thing of our minds. The other confusion that adds to nominalization is then believing the rest of the book is about things in space. Yet, Freud specifically says, "The state of things which we have been describing can be represented diagrammatically, though it must be remarked that the form chosen has no pretensions to any special applicability, but is mere intended to serve for purposes of exposition (p. 18)." What Freud is saying is that in order to communicate clearly what is happening in ones psyche, or mind, there needs to be a working model of the psyche. That is to say, a model meaning a diagram with its parts that do not act as the psyche itself (or of reality), but shows what the psyche consists of. He does this by discerning that which is "descriptive," and that which is "dynamic." The descriptive only describes through language or imaginative use, while dynamic is more at the process that actually occurs. Now the model Freud eventually used as a diagram is not a very good model. In fact it is a bit unwieldy and clumsy and in the end served little purpose (later in he updated the model in 'New Introductory Lectures on Psycho-Analysis', 1933). Because Freud is the first to devise the model, it is primitive and modifications would be neccessary. Actually Freud seemed to have modeled what looks to be an ill-defined organ giving way to the idea that it functions like a heart would. While reading the book, I chose not to use the model he drew, but rather found it useful to create my own based on his descriptions of where things are in relation to each other. This does not mean I believe the model is a literal drawing of my mind or anyone elses, but rather a means in which we understand how one part of the psyche works with another. Similarly is Neil Bohr's model of the atom. He did not 2005-03-29T01:30:50-04:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/The-Ego-and-the-Id,-by-Sigmund-Freud-Discussion-26441.aspx Does entertainment influence society's attitude towards violent behavior? In order to fully answer this question we must first understand what violence is. Violence is the use of one's powers to inflict mental or physical injury upon another, examples of this would be rape or murder. Violence in entertainment reaches the public by way of television, movies, plays, and novels. Through the course of this essay it will be proven that violence in entertainment is a major factor in the escalation of violence in society, once this is proven we will take all of the evidence that has been shown throughout this paper and come to a conclusion as to whether or not violence in entertainment is justified and whether or not it should be censored. Television with its far reaching influence spreads across the globe. Its most important role is that of reporting the news and maintaining communication between people around the world. Television's most influential, yet most serious aspect is its shows for entertainment. Violent children's shows like Mighty Morphin Power Rangers and adult shows like NYPD Blue and Homicide almost always fail to show human beings being able to resolve their differences in a non-violent manner, instead they show a reckless attitude that promotes violent action first with reflection on the consequences later. In one episode of NYPD Blue three people were murdered in the span of an hour. "Contemporary television creates a seemingly insatiable appetite for amusement of all kinds without regard for social or moral benefits" (Schultze 41). Findings over the past twenty years by three Surgeon Generals, the Attorney General's Task Force on Family Violence, the American Medical Association, the National Institute of Mental Health, the American Psychiatric Association, the American Psychological Association, the American Academy of Pediatrics, and other medical authorities indicate that televised violence is harmful to all of us, but particularly to the mental health of children (Medved 70-71). In 1989 the results of a five year study by the American Psychological Association indicated that the average child has witnessed 8,000 murders and 100,000 other acts of violence on television by the time he or she has completed sixth grade. In further studies it was determined that by the time that same child graduates from high school he or she will have spent 22,000 hours watching television, twice as many hours as he or she has spent in school (Bruno 124). In a 2005-03-29T01:17:32-04:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/Does-Entertainment-Influence-Attitudes-Towards-Violence-26433.aspx The Deviant Nature of Obesity Obesity has become increasingly more prominent in American society. The Unites States has even been termed an overweight nation. Some twenty to thirty percent of American adults are now considered obese (Hwang 1999 and Hirsch et al 1997). With this in mind, Americans constantly look around themselves determining their weight status as well as that of those around them. While some Americans do fit the healthy category, others enter the underweight, overweight, and even obese categories, all of which can be unhealthy. Obesity can be termed deviant for a variety of reasons. Not only is it unhealthy, but it is also a widely unaccepted behavior in US society. The obese are labeled "...obscene, lazy, slothful, and gluttonous" (Adler and Adler 2000). People are ostracized, often never to regain full societal acceptance. According to Hammarlund et al (1998) prevention is necessary to decrease prevalence of obesity because few adults who actually do lose weight are able to keep it off. Obesity is attributable to many factors, nature and nurture included. Some individuals are inclined to blame the obese individual for his or her health status. Still others blame the heredity and/or ethnicity of the person. Many place the blame on more environmental sources. These might include, but are not limited to, education level, peer group, and scocio-economic factors. The American Medical Association identifies genetic, environmental, and psychological influences on obesity (Hwang 1999). According to the American Medical Association, being obese means that 30% of your ideal body weight is constituted by fat. As a general idea, the American Dietetic Association provides these thresholds for obese weight. Certain stipulations, such as muscle content and build would alter the given thresholds. In Feet and Inches In Pounds 5' 153 5'3 169 5'6 186 5'9 203 6' 221 6'3 240 Obesity occurs when a person has a greater caloric intake than he or she burns during that day (Hwang 1999). David F. Williamson of The New England Journal of Medicine (1999) states that doctors need to encourage greater weight loss in obese patients due to the fact "...that obese people are twice as likely to die from any cause as people of normal weight." This creates a greater susceptibility to a variety of health problems including Heart Disease and Stroke, Type II Diabetes, Non-insulin Dependent Diabetes, Cancer, Sleep Apnea, Osteoarthritis, and Gallbladder Disease (Hwang 1999). Allison et al claim that 2005-02-28T02:36:04-05:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/The-Deviant-Nature-of-Obesity-26342.aspx Bipolar Disorder The phenomenon of bipolar affective disorder has been a mystery since the 16th century. Bipolar disorder or as the alternate names, manic depressive illness or affective bipolar disorder can be classified as a mood disorder characterized by mood swings from manis (exaggerated feeing of well-being) to depression. History has shown that this affliction can appear in almost anyone. Even the great painter Vincent Van Gogh is believed to have had bipolar disorder. It is clear that in our society many people live with bipolar disorder; however, despite the abundance of people suffering from the it, we are still waiting for definite explanations for the causes and cure. The one fact of which we are painfully aware is that bipolar disorder severely undermines its' victims ability to obtain and maintain social and occupational success. It is also believed that the lithium level is what causes these mood swings. Because bipolar disorder has such debilitating symptoms, it is imperative that we remain vigilant in the quest for explanations of its causes and treatment. A smorgasborg of symptoms that can be broken into manic and depressive episodes characterized by affective disorders. The depressive episodes are characterized by intense feelings of sadness and despair that can become feelings of hopelessness and helplessness. Either the manic or the depressive episodes can predominate and produce few mood swings or the patters of mood swings my be cyclic. Some of the symptoms of a depressive episode include anhedonia, disturbances in sleep and appetite, psycomoter retardation, loss of energy, feelings of worthlessness, guilt, difficulty thinking, indecision, and recurrent thoughts of death and suicide (Hollandsworth, Jr. 1990 ). Some of the other symptoms that may occur in the depressive stage can be also fatigue that can last anywhere from weeks to months and a person may not be aware of why this is actually happening. Daytime sleepiness can also occur making it hard for a person with this illness to hold down any sort of a job for a length of time. Unintentional weightloss can make the doctor go in a different direction in this making it difficult for them in diagnosis because of all the possible symptoms that a person may exhibit. A person may also have some memory loss episodes or episodes of amnesia, going blank for a periods of time. They may not even be aware that they 2005-02-28T02:00:07-05:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/Bipolar-Disorder-26339.aspx Eating Disorders Eating disorders are sweeping this country and are rampant on junior high, high school, and college campuses. These disorders are often referred to as the Deadly Diet, but are often known by their more popular names: anorexia or bulimia. They affect more than 20% of females between the age of thirteen and forty. It is very rare for a young female not to know of someone with an eating disorder. Statistics show that at least one in five young women have a serious problem with eating and weight (Bruch, 25). The Deadly Diet appears to be a mostly female problem. Eating disorders are most common in the middle to upper middle class families. Currently, the incidence is much lower in females from the "blue collar" families. The Deadly Diet can begin anywhere from the ages of ten to thirty. The peak age for the beginning of the Deadly Diet in females is eleven to fifteen; the peak for males is between fifteen and eighteen (Bauer, 89). Most of the information on the Deadly Diet says that it is a problem of teenage girls, but as clinics have found, most of the people who come to get therapy are in their twenties and thirties. This may be because younger people are less likely to seek professional help. Most often it is the parent who brings the patient for help. Adults who have left home and had to deal with managing their lives usually tend to realize more clearly the need to seek help and make changes. Everywhere one looks today, one will notice that our culture places a very high value on women being thin. Many will argue that today's fashion models have "filled out" compared to the times past; however the evidence of this is really hard to see. Our society admires men for what they accomplish and what they achieve. Women are usually evaluated by and accepted for how they look, regardless of what they do. A woman can be incredibly successful and still find that her beauty or lack of it will have more to do with her acceptance than what she is able to accomplish. "From the time they are tiny children, most females are taught that beauty is the supreme objective in life" (Claude-Pierre, p18). The peer pressure 2005-02-28T01:06:31-05:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/Eating-Disorder-Research-Paper-26338.aspx Classical conditioning and operant conditioning are different learning methods. The two methods have the word conditioning in common. What is conditioning? Conditioning is the acquisition of specific patterns of behavior in the presence of well-defined stimuli. Both classical and operant conditioning are basic forms of learning. Classical conditioning is a type of learning in which an organism learns to transfer a natural response from one stimulus to another, previously neutral stimulus. Manipulating reflexes does this. Operant conditioning is a type of learning in which the likelihood of a behavior is increased or decreased by the use of reinforcement or punishment. Operant conditioning deals with more cognitive thought process. These two forms of learning have similarities and differences. Their similarities are that they both produce basic phenomena. One such phenomenon is acquisition. Both types of conditioning result in the inheritance of a behavior. One of the most famous of experiments that illustrates classical conditioning is Pavlov's Dogs. In this experiment, Pavlov sat behind a one-way mirror and controlled the presentation of a bell. The bell was the conditioned stimulus. A conditioned stimulus was an originally neutral stimulus that could eventually produce a desired response when presented alone. Directly after the ringing of the bell, Pavlov gave the dog food. The food was the unconditioned stimulus. This means that the food caused an uncontrollable response whenever it was presented alone. That response would be the salivation of the dog. A tube that was in the dog's mouth then measured the saliva. When the unconditioned stimulus (US) was paired with a conditioned stimulus (CS), it eventually resulted in a conditioned response. Extinction results if there is a decrease in frequency or strength of a learned response due to the failure to continue to pair the US and the CS. Extinction can also occur in operant conditioning. The key to operant conditioning is reinforcement. Reinforcement is when a stimulus is presented that increases the probability that the preceding response will recur in the future. If reinforcement is withheld, extinction will occur in operant conditioning. Another factor that is involved in conditioning is spontaneous recovery. That is the reappearance of an extinguished response after the passage of time, without further training. If Pavlov's dogs did not hear the bell for a few years, and if when they heard it later they drooled, it would be an example of spontaneous recovery. Something similar occurs with operant conditioning. If an animal 2005-02-23T09:47:05-05:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/Classical-versus-Operant-Conditioning-26335.aspx Psychologist A psychologist is a person who counsels and works to help understand people's problems. Therefore, to understand this career, one must know the definition/duties, education/training, working conditions, salary, and job outlook in order to be successful. As a result of studying the characteristics of this career, one will become more qualified. To emphasize, one must be familiar with the duties and definition of a psychologist. Psychology is the way people think and behave. The field of psychology has a number of subdisciplines all pertaining to the study of the different levels and contexts of human thought and behavior. Psychologists in the military conduct experiments to determine the best equipment design work procedures, and training course context. One must conduct research on human behavior. Psychologists also treat people with mental problems. Psychological research for the national defense can show how to improve military training, job assignment, and equipment design. One must use their knowledge to a broad range of studies. A person who promotes good health through health maintenance counseling programs is referred to as a health psychologist. One who studies the relation between the brain and behavior are called Neuropsychologists. Psychologists who deal with the special problems forced by the elderly are called Geropsychologists. Experimental psychologists study the brain study the basic sensory mechanisms: vision, taste, hearing, taste, touch, and smell. One that is concerned with the neurological and physiological events that underlie human thought and action are called Physiological Psychologist. Psychological psychologists are sometimes concerned with mapping the functions of the brain. These are just some subdisciplines. In order to be a psychologist, one must have an education. To prepare to be a psychologist one should take advanced placement courses. "School psychologist must hold at least a master's degree." Psychologists who want to specialize in clinical services must complete two years of supervised post-doctoral experience and one must complete one year of internship. "Licensed psychologist must have a doctorate in psychology from an accredited university with training in the areas of intended practice." Psychologists have many different work conditions. Psychologists who are in the military are mostly in a military hospital. One who works in schools may have offices in the school headquarters. People who work in colleges have an office on campus. Some psychologists are self-employed, but most work as clinical 2005-02-23T08:46:55-05:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/Psychologist-Career-Profile-26325.aspx Comparing Freud And Skinner Both classical conditioning and psychodynamic theory have played a pivotal role in the development of social psychology. For nearly all of the past century they have shaped and influenced the way psychologists, philosophers and ordinary people have felt about the nature of the human psyche. It is because of this that we continue to use those theories today to predict the outcome of certain situations. In our particular case we have a situation where one hundred women have been asked to rate the degree to which they agree or disagree with a certain a statement when associated with a picture of an old man or of a young man. Separately, there is the question of their preferences for being supplied few or many facts. It is in such cases that both theories can be used to predict what their opinions will be. Classical Conditioning, or behaviorism, began with John Watson and continued with B.F. Skinner. It ultimately became a well known but widely discredited theory based on the hypothesis that human behavior can be explained entirely in terms of reflexes, stimulus-response associations, and the effects of reinforcers. More specifically, it contends that mental states can be analyzed through behavior or through a predictable way of acting, and that the greater the number of presentations of stimuli there are, the greater the produced response is. In our particular case, those aspects will help to predict the influence on the women's ultimate response both to the pictures of the old and young man and to the number of facts supplied them. Psychodynamic theory, due largely to Sigmund Freud has had a lasting effect on the school of psychology. Unlike Behaviorism, it is still thought to have significant validity. Freud constructed a personality theory made up of three primary components. They are known as the id, ego, and superego. The most primitive of the three is the id. Its basis is the pleasure principle with its prime outlook on life being only a search for passion and personal satisfaction. On the next level comes the ego. It represents reason and common sense, more commonly known as the reality principle. On the highest level is the superego. It is motivated only by its drive for morality. Consequently it becomes the repressive and guiltful component as it attempts to internalize the morals it strives 2005-02-23T08:43:36-05:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/Comparison-between-Freud-And-Skinner-26323.aspx Sleep Disorders Child Sleep Disorders: Is Your Child at Risk? Recent research has proven that children just are not getting the sleep they need these days. Kids today seem to be doing poorer in school and have less attention spans. Most parents are not aware of a common problem effecting thousands of children in this country: sleep disorders. Parents often fail to follow there children's sleeping patterns which can result in some serious side effects if that child has a sleep disorder. A study done at Tulane University in New Orleans studied about 300 first graders that preformed poorly in school. They found that 18 per cent showed signs of a sleeping problem. The percentage of children with bad grades found to have sleeping problems was six to nine times higher than found in a previous study done over all of the childhood population. (The Toronto Star). Most people believe that sleep disorders only affect adults but in reality 30% of all children have some sort of sleep disorder. (Burcum). Sleep disorders are defined as a group of syndromes characterized by disturbance in the patient's amount of sleep, quality or timing of sleep, or in behaviors or physiological conditions associated with sleep. To qualify for a diagnosis of sleep disorder, the condition must be a persistent problem, cause the patient significant emotional distress, and interfere with his or her social or occupational functioning. (Frey p265). Some sleep disorders can effect children of all ages. The sleep disorder that children are subject to often depends on their age and development. Sleep disorders change most frequent in the middle-school years. Children often experience more anxiety at this time. (Burcum). The source of the certain sleep disorder cannot normally be pin pointed in every case. Many factors come in to play when dealing with the cause of a sleep disruption. Parental characteristics, personality, psychosocial influences, education, parenting skills, stress, trauma, school, culture and personal health can all bring about sleeping disorders in young to middle-aged children. Some parents find that there children sleep to much, while others don't sleep enough. Some fall asleep at the wrong times while others cant ever even get to sleep. There are about 100 different sleep disorders being researched currently. Although sleep is a basic behavior in animals 2005-02-21T04:36:24-05:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/Child-Sleep-Disorders-Is-Your-Child-at-Risk-26296.aspx Social Anxiety Disorder Research Short Essay Social anxiety disorder is also known as social phobia. It is defined as the fear of social situations that involve interaction with other people. It is the fear and anxiety of being judged and evaluated negatively by other people or behaving in a way that might cause embarrassment or ridicule. This leads to feelings of inadequacy, self-consciousness, and depression. The person with social anxiety disorder may believe that all eyes are on him at all times. Social anxiety disorder is the third largest mental health case issue in the world, and it can effect 7% of the population (15 million Americans) at any given time. There are many different perceptions about people with social anxiety. People who do have it are often seen by others as just being shy, aloof, constrained, unfriendly, uneasy, quiet, indifferent, or diffident. The people who are afflicted with social anxiety may be clouded by these perceptions as well, so they may fail to seek treatment. Because the problem is generally unheard of, they may think that they are the only ones who suffer from it. People who do seek treatment are misdiagnosed 90% of the time, often labeled as \"personality disorder\", \"manic depressive\", or \"schizophrenic\", among other things. This is because social anxiety is not well understood by the general public, or medical or health care professionals. They are not even sure of the real cause of it or what it stems from. Those with the disorder usually know that their anxiety, thoughts, and fears are irrational and unfounded. They realize that it is angst and terror that they are experiencing. They know that people around them are not really critically judging them or evaluating them constantly. They understand that everyone is not out to degrade or embarrass them. But despite this logical knowledge and sense, they still continue to feel and believe differently, thus, thoughts and symptoms of anxiety usually persist with no indication of going away. People with social anxiety may usually experience extreme distress in some of these situations: when they are being introduced to other people, being teased or criticized, being the center of attention, meeting important people or authoritative people, being watched while doing something, having to announce something in a public situation, embarrassing easily, or making eye contact. Social anxiety may be selective, though. A person may have an extreme fear of one occasion, 2005-02-03T00:55:42-05:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/Social-Anxiety-Disorder-Research-Short-Essay-26255.aspx THE LEARNING THEORY BEHAVIORISM: BEHAVIORIST GORDON ALLPORT AND BURRHUS SKINNER INTRODUCTION The behavoristic approach has exerted a strong influence on American Psychology. The basic ideas of behaviorism are: human behavior is a product of the Stimulus-Response interaction and that behavior is modifiable. It has triggered scientific experiments and the use of statistical procedures. Most importantly, it has turned the attention of psychology to solving real behavior related problems. The behavorist believe behavior should be explained in terms of environmental stimuli. It is not necessary to go into the postulating of inner mechanisms or traits because it creates additional mysteries that need to be explained. Though with the behavoristic approach its known that certain environmental conditions tend to procedure certain types of behavior, and with this less tedious process. (Stevenson n.p.g) To get a better understanding of this theory I’ve selected two behaviorists, Gordon Allport and B.F. Skinner; well known for their approaches in the study of behaviorism. GORDON ALLPORT ALLPORT’S EARLY YEARS Gordon Allport was born to Montezuma, Indiana, in 1897, the youngest of four brothers. A shy boy, he was teased and lived a fairly isolated childhood. (textbook 191) His father was a country doctor, and this meant that his father’s patients were always in the house. Everyone in his house worked hard. His early life seemed to be pleasant and uneventful. I have looked in many resources and I’ve come to the conclusion that not too many people went into depth about the childhood of Allport. What was known about his is Allport received his PH.D. in Psychology in 1922 from Harvard, following in the foot steps of his brother Floyd, who became an important social psychologists. (Allport 67) Though in all of the research I did, this was always mentioned: When he was 22 he traveled to Vienna. He had arranged to meet with Sigmund Freud. There was at first silence, though no longer be able to take the silence, Gordon blurted out an observation he had made on his way to meet Freud. He mentioned that he had seen a little boy on the bus that was very upset at having to sit where a dirty old man had sat previously. Gordon thought that this child had learned this from his mother, a very neat and apparently a domineering type. Freud, instead of taking it as a simple observation, took it to be an expression of 2005-02-03T00:54:57-05:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/Learning,-from-the-Perspective-of-Behaviorism,-Skinner-26254.aspx [i:79bd4b4f07]Can there be a Grand Unified Theory of Personality?[/i:79bd4b4f07] No single theory of personality can adequately explain the full function of human behaviour. Psychodynamic approaches often come under a lot of criticism as they fail to be explicit about the underlying bases of the theory. Cognitive theories are not very comfortable with explaining emotions and behavioural theories have difficulty explaining the mechanisms of improvements. It has become quite clear in the field of Psychology, and to some Psychologists like Windy Dryden (Individual Therapy) explicitly clear that there is a missing linkand that somewhere amongst the mass of theories on personality, the answer is staring them in the face. These Psychologists often practice a form of Psychology called Eclectism, which takes a little out of each theory and unites it during therapy with a client. You can’t use this sort of therapy as a theory however because all the Eclectic Psychologist is doing is ignoring the fundamental ideological underpinnings of the particular theories he is using and taking the parts relevant to their client in therapy This essay will explore one of the possible combinations of theories on personality and explain how it can be applied in practical therapy. Eysenkes theory of biological bases in behaviour is the base of this essays approach. It provides the rules within which the other two personality theories (Kellys Personal Construct Theory and Maslows Hierarchy of Human needs) can function. Using Eysenkes theory on extravert and introvert behaviour it is possible to determine from birth, very general traits about which a person is willing to work within (aggression, anxiety tolerance and sociability etc) which is where this essay believes Kelly slightly misunderstands this concept and defines it as his Range Corrollary. Really the person is experiencing a fundamental shift from Extravert behaviour or thinking to Introvert or vice versa which causes slight unease and can account for things like shyness etc. One of the major criticisms of Kellys Personal Construct Theory is that he finds it hard to explain why constructs are laid down in the first place and why one would rigourously defend the threat to a core construct. What kick starts the Construct system into defending itself when motivation is clearly and explicitly lacking in his theory? Eyesenkes theory provides an amicable solution. If we could assume that this information was genetically coded in to the cells at birth then this no longer 2005-02-03T00:53:21-05:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/Can-there-be-a-Grand-Unified-Theory-of-Personality-26253.aspx Critically evaluate the cognitive theory of stereotyping Stereotyping is a form of pre judgement that is as prevalent in today's society as it was 2000 years ago. It is a social attitude that has stood the test of time and received much attention by social psychologists and philosophers alike. Many approaches to, or theories of stereotyping have thus been raised. This essay evaluates the cognitive approach that categorisation is an essential cognitive process that inevitably leads to stereotyping. Hamilton (1979) calls this a 'depressing dilemma'. Brown's (1995) definition of stereotyping through prejudice is the 'holding of derogatory social attitudes or cognitive beliefs, the expression of negative affect, or the display of hostile or discriminatory behaviour towards members of a group on account of their membership to that group'. This definition implies that stereotyping is primarily a group process, through the individuals psyche's within that group. A further idea of stereotyping, defined by Allport (1954) as 'thinking ill of others without warrant', is that people 'make their mind up' without any personal experience. This pre judgement about a whole group is then transferred to the stigmatisation of any individuals in that group. It is these ideas that the essay aims to evaluate, through the cognitive process of categorisation and the above definitions that bring about three distinct features of stereotyping, that our cognition can be demonstrated through. The first characteristic of stereotyping is over-generalisation. A number of studies conducted found that different combinations of traits were associated with groups of different ethnic and national origin (Katz and Braly, 1933). However, stereotyping does not imply that all members of a group are judged in these ways, just that a typical member of a group can be categorised in such judgements, that they possess the characteristics of the group. Still, when we talk of a group, we do so by imagining a member of that group. The second feature and characteristic of stereotyping is the exaggeration of the difference between ones own group (the in-group) and the 'other' group (the out-group). This can be traced back to the work of Tajfel during the 1950's - 'the accentuation principle' (Tajfel, 1981). Tajfel's work was specifically on physical stimuli, and concluded that judgements on such stimuli are not made in isolation, but in the context of other factors. Applied socially - a judgement about an out-group relies upon other factors surrounding the judgement in question, as 2005-02-03T00:50:12-05:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/Critical-Evaluation-of-the-Cognitive-Theory-of-Stereotyping-26250.aspx Low Self Esteem Languages, colors, cultures and also the way one behaves may differ from one nation to another. Yet, each and every one of us living on the surface of this planet have several things in common. One of these similarities is that we all have a way of regarding our own self. It is believed that a large amount of individuals feel very good about themselves. Nevertheless, from time to time even the best of us get a dose of negative emotions. Very heartbreaking stories about self dislike were told by many depressed teenagers and older people. What are the causes of this kind of low self esteem and how can one person get solutions to outcome them? Self Esteem is defined as confidence in your own merit as an individual#. Such concepts as self-esteem and self-image have been regarded by some social psychologists as useful, while others have regarded them as unnecessary. There is a considerable amount of research on such topics but it would be very difficult to find the exact definition because volumes have been written about self esteem. Definitions given in self esteem literature run a yard long. But after cutting through all the scientific words, the question of self-esteem really centers down to something quite simple: How do a person feels about hisherself? If the person feels good about himherself, they have a high self-esteem. If they feel bad about himherself, they have a low self esteem. Since low self esteem is a worst problem than the higher one, let’s examine it to find some solution by investigating a number of low self esteem causes and personal cases. Individuals with truly high self esteem feel good about themselves and continue believing in themselves regardless of what others think of them. Some people feel good about themselves only as long as others support them and approve them. The moment another person criticizes them, or withdraws her or his support from them, they not only feel bad about themselves, they may even hate themselves. That would be the first step into low self-esteem. When a person acts like that, life can be hurtful for most of the time and they might find themselves at the mercy of others. When these kind of persons don't have the emotional freedom and independence from the criticism and approval of others, their choice of action is limited. There may be 2005-02-02T09:41:20-05:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/Low-Self-Esteem--26245.aspx Five major theoretical bases for counseling in psychology are biological, learning, cognitive, psychodynamic, and sociocultural. Each one of these perspectives searches for answers about behavior through different techniques and researching a clients childhood or adult life experiences looking for answers to different kinds of questions. Due to the different types and styles of counseling approaches, each counselor forms their own thoughts and explanations. The premise behind the biological perspective in psychology is that all actions, feelings, and thoughts are associated with different events in a person’s life. Biological psychologists examine how the electrical impulses, hormones, and chemicals flowing through the body can affect behavior. Physocologists are concerned with how the aspects of biology effect people’s emotions and their perception of events. Many of the important findings in psychology from the behavioral theory later evolving into the social learning theory or cognitive social learning theory. Behavior therapists used to believe that actions were responses to stimuli that were learned. This concept led to a broadening of psychology. Many groups that were often overlooked by psychologists until behavior therapy became the dominant school of psychology in the U.S. after the 1960\'s. The cognitive perspective of psychology focuses on the thought process. Psychologists from this school argue that it is necessary to know what is going on in the mind to fully understand why a person will do the things that they do. The reason for cognitive psychology is to understand how perceptions and interpretations relate to behavior. Why some people turn to violence when insulted while another person will not. Many critics of the psychodynamic therapy do not believe psychodynamic theories have any bearing on psychology. Based upon the fact that many of the psychoanalysis assumptions could not be verified. Research psychologists were more related to philosophy rather than clinical science. Though not as scientific as the other theories the psychodynamic theory is still associated with psychology. The sociocultural perspective concentrates on an individual’s culture or society rather than the individual. To understand why people show certain behavior traits. Psychologists look at what effects the person's community and how other people affect a person. These five theoretical bases are similar because they all try to determine what causes a person to be how they are. If I were to do counseling, I think I would like to become a behavior therapist. I am fascinated by what makes a person what they are, and why does a person do 2005-02-02T09:39:38-05:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/Theoretical-Basis-for-Counseling-Visit-to-Rehab-House-26244.aspx Echo Personality Disorder is a specific and highly differentiated form of dependency, marked by behaviours of compliance and a need to 'mirror' significant others -parents, spouse, friends, employer. It has been found that those with EPD are highly attracted to relationships with individuals who show marked narcissistic tendencies. This mirroring behaviour was the reason for choosing the name Echo personality disorder, which is based on the Greek myth of Narcissus and Echo. In this story Echo, a forest nymph, falls completely in love with the egocentric youth Narcissus, and when he shows clear signs of rejecting her, she persists in her attatchement to him and will not be moved from her aim. She finally satisfies him with the masochistic task of echoing back to him all that he says. This too is the central feature of EPD behaviour in relationships, where the individual will mirror, echo, and compliment another at the expense of their own self-worth and dignity. Self descriptions by EPD sufferers focus strongly on percieved fears of abandonment, rejection, and loss, and these agonizing feelings are the driving force behind the above-mentioned interpersonal coping style (mirroring others). These individuals protect themselves from abandonment/rejection by being so agreeable to others, via their mirroring capacity, that chances of re-experiencing abandonment agony is brought to a low minimum. Unfortunately this approach amounts to a false existence with little or no true self expression, and eventually leads to poor psychological health. Characteristic experiential history for EPD often involves individuals being parented by caretakers who are themselves self-absorbed or narcissistic. In this environment the child learns that asserting ones true self will be met with a form of (often serial) rejection, to which they respond by substituting compliant behaviour in place of true selfhood. This 'compliant' behaviour can then be witnessed as a stable feature throughout the childs growing-up years, with other school children, and within the family. Depression, smoking, alcoholism, addictive behaviour all occur with very high frequency in this disorder. On a positive note, EPD people are excellent contributors to society, and to family, as they are found to be very perceptive of the needs of others. The highly respected religions of Christianity and Buddhism are based on the principles of altruism and charity, and this is a lifestyle at which the EPD individual can be said to be expert. Good traits such as these cannot simply be written off with 2005-02-02T09:38:31-05:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/Echo-Personality-Disorder-26243.aspx The Effects of Divorce on Children The statistics for divorce in the 1990's suggest that nearly sixty percent of marriages end in divorce. Given this startling figure, the presumption can be made that many children will experience some effects caused by the life-changing event called divorce. What is it exactly about divorce that causes negative consequences for these children? In what ways will these children be effected? Will these effects show outwardly? The unsettling fact is: young children of divorced parents face great psychological challenges due to the environmental conditions and changes associated with divorce (Wolchik and Karoly 45). When we pass the year 2000, we will see two groups of working age adults emerging. One group will have received psychological, social, economic, educational and moral benefits and the other group will have been denied them all. The first group will have grown up with both parents present in the house and the second group will have not had both parents present. Parental conflict appears to have a pronounced effect on the coping efforts of children. The intense anxiety and anger between some parents in the early stages of divorce is real. Often times parents allow their children to get in the middle of fierce verbal fighting between them. Berating the other parent in front of the child is another way of placing the child in an unfair position, which in essence is expecting the child to choose between the parents. Any form of parental conflict, no matter to what degree, lends to a difficult adjustment period for children involved. (Jekielek 1-3). The deterioration in parent-child relationships after divorce is another leading cause in psychological problems for children. With a divorce comes a parenting plan of some kind. A child may experience shared custody between both parents or custody by one parent with visitation by the other parent. Variations of these plans can be included or added at different times in the child's life depending on special circumstances. More often than not, the mother is awarded custody of the children. The absence of the father on a full time level is detrimental to the healthy development of the children. In the case that the father is awarded custody of the children, the opposite applies as well. Studies have shown that a decay in custodial parent-child relationships may frequently occur in the first year or two following divorce (Wolchik and Karoly 2005-02-02T09:38:10-05:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/Effects-of-Divorce-on-Children-26242.aspx Throughout one’s life, one establishes many relationships. Some are built upon, and become strong and unshakable, some are broken and left to dissolve. While some are paved slowly and with love, blossoming to become something wonderful, others are blown apart - the pieces scattered, never to be put back together again. Though these relationships vary, from professional to personal, they are all prone to encountering some form of conflict. John Dewey has designed a problem solving sequence with 6 (six) steps, listed and explained below, to facilitate resolution of these conflicts. Since the way one deals with conflict within the relationship will affect how the relationship progresses, it is vital that one posse all the necessary skills to resolve conflict in a way that brings satisfaction to everyone involved. Dewey’s steps provide a clear outline of exactly what needs to be addressed when dealing with conflict. This allows for effective time management and allows all parties to be on the same track or in synchronization about what has to be done. They also assure a fair and even discussion of the problem and allow all parties to play an active role in the finding of a solution. Problem Solving Sequence: Steps. 1. Define and analyze the problem. Often times, when one is in a conflict situation or in a position of having to deal with a problem, the parties involved are affected by the problem. These emotions, or the stress of either risking loss or profit, could cause the parties to have different views or perceptions of the problem. This step allows both parties to have the same definition of the problem and to be aware of the exact implications of this problem. Example: George, a co-owner of a small coffee shop has noticed that there are fewer customers coming in to his store. He is worried about his profit, and is reluctant to change anything about the store due to the cost. Max, the other owner, is more concerned with the quality of the food they provide, and is willing to make any changes necessary to avoid failure on this project. At the meeting, they define the problem in a clear open-ended question and they limit the problem to time period that is reasonable. How can we improve our shop’s sales within the next three months? 2. Establish criteria for evaluating solutions. The solution can be either a practical 2005-02-02T09:37:10-05:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/Conflict-Resolution-as-Per-Dewey-26241.aspx Comparison of Piaget and Vygotsky Cognition is the process involved in thinking and mental activity, such as attention, memory and problem solving. In this essay on cognitive development I will compare and contrast the theories of Piaget and Vygotsky, who were both influential in forming a more scientific approach to analysing the cognitive development process of the child active construction of knowledge. (Flanagan 1996 P.72). I will then go onto evaluate the usefulness of these theories in understanding a child's development. Both Piaget and Vygotsky agreed that children's cognitive development took place in stages. (Jarvis, Chandler 2001 P.149). However they were distinguished by different styles of thinking. Piaget was the first t reveal that children reason and think differently at different periods in their lives. He believed that all children progress through four different and very distinct stages of cognitive development. This theory is known as Piaget’s Stage Theory because it deals with four stages of development, which are sensorimotor, preoperational, concrete operational and formal operational. (Ginsburg, Opper 1979 P. 26). In the first stage sensorimotor, which occurs from birth to the age of two is the time in an infant’s life when the child basically deals with what is presented to him. They learn about physical objects and are concerned with motor skills and the consequences of some of their actions. (Thomson, Meggit 1997 P.107). During this stage children will learn the concept of object permanence. This is where an object will continue to exist even if it is out of sight. (Ginsburg, Opper 1979 P.48) The preoperational stage last from two to seven years. In this stage it becomes possible to carry on a conversation with a child and they also learn to count and use the concept of numbers. This stage is divided into the preoperational phase and the intuitive phase. Children in the preoperational phase are preoccupied with verbal skills and try to make sense of the world but have a much less sophisticated mode of thought than adults. In the intuitive phase the child moves away from drawing conclusions based upon concrete experiences with objects. One problem, which identifies children in this stage, is the inability to cognitively conserve relevant spatial information. This is when, when a material is manipulated and no longer matches the cognitive image that a child has made, that child believes the amount of material has been altered instead of just its 2005-02-02T09:36:23-05:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/Compare-and-Contrast-the-Theories-of-Piaget-and-Vygotsky-26240.aspx Effect of Stress on Decision Making Stress must be present to ensure our very being. One may wonder about the validity of this statement, but it is quite true. Stress plays a vital role in the way we make decisions (Massa et al, 2002, pg 1). “Problem solving and decision making in demanding real-world situations can be susceptible to acute stress effects which manifest in a variety of ways depending on the type of decision. The negative effects of an overload of acute stress include attentional tunneling, working memory loss, and restrictions in long term memory retrieval, with simple strategies being favoured over more complicated ones. The underlying assumption is that stress can lead to errors, poor performance and bad decisions. However, acute stress does not necessarily always have a detrimental effect on decision making, rather stress may affect the way information is processed. Some of those changes in strategy in response to stress are in fact adaptive. They reduce and select the information being attended to and processed, in response to high time pressure and reduced cognitive capacity” (Flin, 2004, pg 42). Flin has said so much about stress and decision making in this little space. To have a better understanding, we are going to elaborate in this essay and analyze the evidence that there is an effect of stress upon thinking and decision making ability. Stress can be defined in many different ways, but in relation to decision making, stress may be best defined from a scientific view describing the thought process of the brain. When the sensory organs perceive information, they send it to the thalamus of the brain, which deals with sensory perceptions. The information is then transmitted to the cerebral cortex where the process of conscious thinking and decision making takes place. In starting the process of conscious thinking, the cerebral cortex processes large amounts of information and judges what information can be dealt with automatically without our conscious awareness and what information must be consciously assessed. At this point emotions, feelings, character traits, and behavior are not part of the decision making process. Thus, the limbic system, which is directly responsible for these emotions and feelings, is activated by the cerebral cortex. Following the technicality of the stimulus, the stress response begins. The stress reaction is what affects our bodies and minds from a physical health standpoint. Thus, stress can 2005-02-02T08:39:21-05:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/Effect-of-Stress-on-Decision-Making-26238.aspx PSYCHOLOGICAL TREATMENT FOR DEPRESSED STUDENTS Psychological Treatment for Depressed Students Depression in school-age children may be one of the most overlooked and under treated psychological disorders of childhood, presenting a serious mental health problem. Depression in children has become an important issue in research due to its many emotional forms, and its relationship to self-destructive behaviors. Depressive disorders are of particular importance to school psychologists, who are often placed in the best position to identify, refer, and treat depressed children. Procedures need to be developed to identify depression in students to avoid allowing those children struggling with depression to go undetected. Depression is one of the most treatable forms of disorders, with an 80-90% chance of improvement if individuals receive treatment (Dubuque, 1998). On the other hand, if untreated, serious cases of depression in childhood can be severe, long, and interfere with all aspects of development, relationships, school progress, and family life (Janzen, & Saklofske, 1991). The existence of depression in school-age children was nearly unrecognized until the 1990’s. In the past, depression was thought of as a problem that only adults struggled with, and if children did experience it, they experienced depression entirely different than adults did. Psychologists of the psychoanalytic orientation felt that children were unable to become depressed because their superegos were inadequately developed (Fuller, 1992). More recently, Clarizio and Payette (1990) found that depressed school-age children and depressed adults share the same basic symptoms. In fact, only a few minor differences between childhood and adult depression have been found, including the assumption that with childhood depression, irritable mood may serve as a substitute for the depressed mood criterion (Waterman & Ryan, 1993). Depression in students has become difficult to treat due to a lack of referrals for treatment, “parental denial, and insufficient symptom identification training” (Ramsey, 1994). In addition, recognizing and diagnosing childhood depression is not a simple task. According to Janzen and Saklofske (1991), depression can develop either suddenly, or over a long period of time, “it may be a brief or long term episode, and may be associated with other disorders such as anxiety”. The presence of a couple of symptoms of depression is not enough to provide a diagnosis. A group of symptoms that co-occur, and accumulate over time should be considered more serious. Depression is classified by severity, duration, and type according to the DSM-IV-TR, published by the American Psychological Association (2000). According to Callahan 2005-02-02T03:55:33-05:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/Psychological-Treatment-for-Depressed-Students-26215.aspx Why IQ Tests Don't Measure Intelligence The task of trying to quantify a person's intelligence has been a goal of psychologists since before the beginning of this century. The Binet-Simon scales were first proposed in 1905 in Paris, France and various sorts of tests have been evolving ever since. One of the important questions that always comes up regarding these tools is what are the tests really measuring? Are they measuring a person's intelligence? Their ability to perform well on standardized tests? Or just some arbitrary quantity of the person's IQ? When examining the situations around which these tests are given and the content of the tests themselves, it becomes apparent that however useful the tests may be for standardizing a group's intellectual ability, they are not a good indicator of intelligence. To issue a truly standardized test, the testing environment should be the same for everyone involved. If anything has been learned from the psychology of perception, it is clear that a person's environment has a great deal to do with their cognitive abilities. Is the light flickering? Is the paint on the walls an unsettling shade? Is the temperature too hot or too cold? Is the chair uncomfortable? Or in the worst case, do they have an illness that day? To test a person's mind, it is necessary to utilize their body in the process. If everyone's body is placed in different conditions during the testing, how is it expected to get standardized results across all the subjects? Because of this assumption that everyone will perform equally independent of their environment, intelligence test scores are skewed and cannot be viewed as standardized, and definitely not as an example of a person's intelligence. It is obvious that a person's intelligence stems from a variety of traits. A few of these that are often tested are reading comprehension, vocabulary, and spatial relations. But this is not all that goes into it. What about physical intelligence, conversational intelligence, social intelligence, survival intelligence, and the slew of others that go into everyday life? Why are these important traits not figured into intelligence tests? Granted, normal standardized tests certainly get predictable results where academics are concerned, but they should not be considered good indicators of general intelligence because of the glaring omissions they make in the testing process. To really gauge a person's intelligence, it would be necessary to put them through a rigorous 2005-02-02T03:53:43-05:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/Why-IQ-Tests-Don-t-Measure-Intelligence-26214.aspx The Early Detection and Treatments of Adolescent Depression and Suicide Only in the past two decades has depression in adolescents been taken seriously. Depression is an illness that involves the body, mood and thoughts. It affects the way a person eats and sleeps, the way one feels about oneself, and the way one thinks about things. Therefore it comes to no surprise to discover that adolescent depression is strongly linked to teen suicide. Adolescent suicide is now responsible for more deaths in youth’s aged 15 to 19 than cardiovascular disease or cancer (Blackman, 1995). Despite this alarming increased suicide rate, depression in this age group is greatly under diagnosed and can lead to serious difficulties in school, work, and personal adjustment, which may continue into adulthood. How prevalent are mood disorders and when should an adolescent with changes in mood be considered clinically depressed? Brown (1996) has said the reason why depression is often overlooked in adolescents is because it is a time of emotional turmoil, mood swings, gloomy thoughts, and heightened sensitivity. Therefore, the adolescent’s first line of defense is his or hers parents. It is up to those individuals who interact with the adolescent on a daily basis (parents, teachers, etc.) to be sensitive to the changes in the adolescent. Unlike adult depression, symptoms of youth depression are often masked. Instead of expressing sadness, teenagers may express boredom and irritability, or may choose to engage in risky behaviors (Oster & Montgomery, 1996). Key indicators of adolescent depression include a drastic change in eating and sleeping patterns, significant loss of interest in previous activity interests, constant boredom, disruptive behavior, peer problems, increased irritability and aggression (Brown, 1996). What causes a teen to become depressed? For many teens, symptoms of depression are directly related to low self-esteem stemming from increased emphasis on peer popularity. For other teens, depression arises from poor family relations, which could include decreased family support and perceived rejection by parents. Oster and Montgomery (1996), stated that “when parents are struggling over marital or career problems, or are ill themselves, teens may feel the tension and try to distract their parents.” This distraction could include increased disruptive behavior, self-inflicted isolation and even verbal threats of suicide. Many times parents are so wrapped up with their own conflicts and busy lives that they fail to see the changes in their teens, or they simply refuse to admit their teen 2005-02-02T03:49:41-05:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/Detection-and-Treatments-of-Adolescent-Depression,-Suicide-26212.aspx Anger and Aggression Everyone has felt anger or aggression many times in there life. It happens all of the time. We all face the same challenge of trying to control our temper. It may be easier for some people than it is for others. Many studies show that it is healthy for a person to let out their anger once in a while. They believe that it will help in your relationship with others and that it will increase your self-esteem. They also believe that holding anger in is bad and unhealthy for your body. If you let the anger build up it could go from just being a verbal argument to a point in which someone or something is hurt or destroyed. To control your anger you should release your aggression in a way that is not harmful to others or yourself. People that look into a problem more closely can control their anger better. These people get all of the facts and make a proactive decision. Also by looking into the problem your may find out that it wasn't as bad as you first thought. Looking into the problem will also help you look at the consequences of the action you are going to take. Researchers also believe that tv and movies have an impact on the ways we release our aggression. They believe that in some way we are all influenced in some way by movies and tv shows that we watch. If we can learn to control our anger we will see that our life, and everyone else's life is a lot safer and more peaceful. Some people may ask, "What causes a person to feel angry?" There are two answers to the question. The first is that you may feel angry with yourself or something that you may have done. The second is that you may be angry at another person or object. Some people may refer to feeling angry with yourself as internal anger and anger towards another person as external anger. An example of internal anger is that you did not do as good as you wanted to do on your test. An example of external anger is getting into an argument with a friend. There are different ways of dealing with your anger. The best way is to go right to the person that you are feeling angry with and talk to them 2005-02-02T03:48:04-05:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/Anger-and-Aggression--26211.aspx Abraham Maslow and the Heirarchy of Human Needs Abraham Harold Maslow was born on April 1, 1908 in Brooklyn, New York. He was the oldest of seven children born to his parents, who were uneducated Jewish immigrants from Russia. His parents, wanting the best for their children in the “new world”, pushed him hard in his academic studies. He was smart but shy, and remembered his childhood as being lonely and rather unhappy. He sought refuge in his books and studies. His father hoped he would study as a lawyer, and Maslow enrolled in the City College of New York. After three semesters at CCNY, he transferred to Cornell and then back to CCNY again. He married his first cousin Bertha, against his parents wishes and moved to Wisconsin, where he would attend the University of Wisconsin for graduate school. Here he met his chief mentor Professor Harry Harlow, and became interested in psychology, and his schoolwork began to improve dramatically. He pursued a new line of research, investigating primate dominance behavior and sexuality. He recieved his BA in 1930, his MA in 1931, and his PhD in 1934, all in the field of psychology, all from the University of Wisconson. Ayear after he graduated he returned to New York to work with E.L. Thorndike at Colombia, where he studied similar topics. From 1937 to 1951, Maslow worked full-time on staff at Brooklyn College. In NY he found two more mentors, anthropologist Ruth Benedict and Gestalt psychologist Max Wertheimer, whom he he admired both professionally and personally. These two people were so accomplished in what they did and such “wonderful human beings”, that Maslow began taking notes about them and their behavior. This would be the foundation for his lifelong research and thinking about mental health and human potential. He wrote extensively on the subject, taking ideas from other psychologists and adding significantly to them, especially the concepts of a hierarchy of human needs, metaneeds, self-actualizing persons, and peak experiences. Maslow became the leader of the humanistic school of psychology that emerged in the 1950\'s and 1960\'s, which he referred to as the “third force”, beyond Freudian theory and behaviorism. Also during this period of his life, he came into contact with the many European intellectuals that were immigrating to the United States, Brooklyn in particular, people like Adler, Fromm, Horney, as as well as several Gestalt and Freudian psychologists. In 2005-01-19T08:27:23-05:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/Abraham-Maslow-and-the-Hierarchy-of-Human-Needs-26162.aspx Stress (psychology) I INTRODUCTION Stress (psychology), an unpleasant state of emotional and physiological arousal that people experience in situations that they perceive as dangerous or threatening to their well-being. The word stress means different things to different people. Some people define stress as events or situations that cause them to feel tension, pressure, or negative emotions such as anxiety and anger. Others view stress as the response to these situations. This response includes physiological changes-such as increased heart rate and muscle tension-as well as emotional and behavioral changes. However, most psychologists regard stress as a process involving a person's interpretation and response to a threatening event. Stress is a common experience. We may feel stress when we are very busy, have important deadlines to meet, or have too little time to finish all of our tasks. Often people experience stress because of problems at work or in social relationships, such as a poor evaluation by a supervisor or an argument with a friend. Some people may be particularly vulnerable to stress in situations involving the threat of failure or personal humiliation. Others have extreme fears of objects or things associated with physical threats-such as snakes, illness, storms, or flying in an airplane-and become stressed when they encounter or think about these perceived threats. Major life events, such as the death of a loved one, can cause severe stress. Stress can have both positive and negative effects. Stress is a normal, adaptive reaction to threat. It signals danger and prepares us to take defensive action. Fear of things that pose realistic threats motivates us to deal with them or avoid them. Stress also motivates us to achieve and fuels creativity. Although stress may hinder performance on difficult tasks, moderate stress seems to improve motivation and performance on less complex tasks. In personal relationships, stress often leads to less cooperation and more aggression. If not managed appropriately, stress can lead to serious problems. Exposure to chronic stress can contribute to both physical illnesses, such as heart disease, and mental illnesses, such as anxiety disorders. The field of health psychology focuses in part on how stress affects bodily functioning and on how people can use stress management techniques to prevent or minimize disease. II SOURCES OF STRESS The circumstances that cause stress are called stressors. Stressors vary in severity and duration. For example, the responsibility of caring for a sick parent may be an ongoing source 2005-01-06T07:56:05-05:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/Research-Paper-on-Stress-26136.aspx Behavioral And Cognitive Approaches In The Management Of Anxiety [i:9e44f2d528]Compare and Contrast Behavioural and Cognitive Approaches in the Management of Anxiety[/i:9e44f2d528] The Behavioural Model sees the cause of abnormality as the learning of maladaptive habits. It aims to discover, by laboratory experiment, what aspect of the environment produced this learning, and it sees successful therapy as learning new and more adaptive ways of behaving. There are two kinds of basic learning processes that exist: Operant and Pavlovian conditioning. These have generated a set of behavioural therapies. Pavlovian or Classical therapies begin with the assumption that emotional habits have been acquired by the contingency between a conditioned stimulus and an unconditional stimulus. The formerly neutral conditioned stimulus now produces a conditioned response, which is the acquired emotion. Two Pavlovian therapies, Systematic Desensitisation and Flooding, extinguish some maladaptive emotional habits quite successfully. Systematic Desensitisation is a behaviour therapy primarily used to treat phobias and specific anxieties. The phobic is first given training in deep muscle relaxation and is progressively exposed to increasing anxiety-evoking situations (real or imagined). Because relaxation and fear are mutually exclusive, stimuli that formerly induced panic are now greeted calmly. A classic demonstration of this therapy was carried out by Jones (1924). She successfully treated a young boy's fear of rabbits by having him eating in the presence of a rabbit, while gradually bringing the rabbit closer to him over a number of occasions. The encourage of a pleasant response such as eating is incompatible with fear. In Flooding the phobic is exposed to situations or objects most feared for an extended length of time without an opportunity to escape. In one study, agoraphobics went through several sessions in which they had to go out into the street and walk alone until they could no longer manage. A few such sessions led to a marked improvement as judged by both client and therapist (Emmelkamp and Wessels ,1975). In flooding, the treatment is carried out in vivo, that is, in real life. But, real-life exposure to threatening stimuli is often impossible or impractical. It's not all that easy to bring snakes and dogs into a therapist's office to do flooding therapy. Under the circumstances, the next best thing is in vitro, in a simulation, and refers to the use of imagery. One example is implosion therapy, and the patient must imagine the most terrifying situation he could 2005-01-06T07:49:45-05:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/Behavioral-and-Cognitive-Approaches-In-Anxiety-Management-26134.aspx Schizophrenia Schizophrenia is a serious brain disorder. It is a disease that makes it difficult for a person to tell the difference between real and unreal experiences, to think logically, to have normal emotional responses to other, and to behave normally in social situations. People with schizophrenia may also have difficulty in remembering, talking, and behaving appropriately. Schizophrenia is one of the most common mental illnesses. About 1% of the world population has schizophrenia. In the United States, there are about 2.5 million people with the disease. Schizophrenia is the cause of more hospitalizations than almost any other illness. Schizophrenia most commonly begins between the ages of 15 and 25. Although it strikes men and women equally, the symptoms may appear later in women than in men. Very rarely, the symptoms of schizophrenia can appear before the age of 12. Childhood schizophrenia has a more chronic disease course and involves poor early language development. People with schizophrenia can have a variety of symptoms. Sometimes, these symptoms come on suddenly. Usually, though, the illness develops slowly over months or even years. At first, the symptoms may not be noticed or may be confused with those of other conditions. For example, people with schizophrenia may feel tense, be unable to concentrate, or have trouble sleeping. They often become increasingly isolated and withdrawn as their grip on reality loosens. They do not make or keep friends. They may stop caring about the way they look. Dropping out of school or doing badly at work are other early signs of schizophrenia. As the illness progresses, symptoms of psychosis develop. The person starts to act strangely and talk nonsensically. People with schizophrenia may develop paranoid delusions. Examples of this would be that they might see, feel, smell, or hear things that are not really there. They may have physical symptoms, like frowning or unusual movements, and may stand or sit in strange positions. Some people become almost motionless. Others move around constantly. The severity of symptoms will vary from one person to another. The symptoms also tend to worsen and improve. When the symptoms are improved, the person may appear to behave relatively normally, but usually there will be repeated episodes of the illness that will cause symptoms to reappear. Schizophrenia is a complex and puzzling illness. Even the experts are not sure exactly what causes it. Some doctors think that the brain may not be able to 2004-12-29T06:31:20-05:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/What-is-Schizophrenia-26086.aspx Schizophrenia is a class of disorders characterized by fundamental disturbances in thought processes, emotion, or behavior. It is also known as a "split mind"; the person is in a world that has nothing to do with everyday experiences. One to one and a half percent of the U.S. population will be diagnosed with it sometime over the course of their lives. Schizophrenia has a pattern of unique and predictable symptoms. There are two main types of symptoms: positive and negative symptoms. The positive symptoms are delusions or hallucinations; negative symptoms are deficits in behavior or an inability to express emotion. But what exactly are these symptoms and are they easy to detect? The more obvious types of symptoms are the positive. One characteristic that is often experienced is delusions, which are known as thoughts with meanings that are unrealistic. For example, people with this disorder tend to believe that they are someone else in disguise such as Elvis or Jesus. Another type of delusion is the delusion of grandeur, which is when an individual believes that they are more important than they actually are. A less common but very real type of delusion is a delusion of persecution, which is when an individual is convinced that others are plotting against him. But even more severe is perceptions known as hallucinations. Hallucinations are perceptions that can not possibly be real because there is nothing external to support them; however, to the person affected, they can be heard, seen, or even felt. Some individuals may see objects change shape or size, which is not very unusual for someone with schizophrenia. On some occasions, individuals claim to hear voices in their heads, telling them to do or say certain things. These voices appear to be so real, that in some instances individuals where known to have committed suicide because that's what the voice told them to do. Less obvious than the positive symptoms but equally serious are the negative symptoms. It is very common for a person to show flat affect, which means they show little or no emotional reaction. If someone shows a person with this disorder an extremely funny movie or a very sad picture, they are unlikely to even smile or shed a tear. People with schizophrenia also refuse to participate in basic everyday 2004-12-23T05:25:27-05:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/Schizophrenia-Essay-26021.aspx Impact Of Televised Violence · John P. Murray, Ph.D · Professor and Director · School of Family Studies and Human Services · Kansas State University Questions about the effects of television violence have existed since the earliest days of this medium. Indeed, the first expression of formal concern can be found in Congressional hearings in the early 1950s. For example, the United States Senate Committee on the Judiciary, Subcommittee to Investigate Juvenile Delinquency held a series of hearings during 1954-55 on the impact of television programs on juvenile crime. These hearings set the stage for continuing congressional investigations by this committee and others in the House and Senate from the 1950s to the present. These early congressional inquiries were focused on what we did not know about television and violence because social scientists were slow to respond to concerns about this medium of popular entertainment. Although there was a body of research on movies and comic books, these were quite different forms of media and different effects might be expected. Still, prominent social scientists such as developmental psychologist Eleanor Maccoby and sociologist Paul Lazarsfeld testified at the 1954-55 hearings that, although more research was needed, there were important reasons for concern about televised violence (Lazarsfeld, 1955; Maccoby, 1954; United States Congress, Senate Committee on the Judiciary, 1955a; 1955b; 1965a; 1965b; 1966). In addition to the congressional hearings begun in the 1950s (which have continued through 1994), there are landmark reports that include: National Commission on the Causes and Prevention of Violence (Baker & Ball, 1969); Surgeon General's Scientific Advisory Committee on Television and Social Behavior (1972); the report on children and television drama by the Group for the Advancement of Psychiatry (1982); National Institute of Mental Health, Television and Behavior Report (NIMH, 1982; Pearl, Bouthilet, & Lazar, 1982); National Research Council (1993), violence report; and reports from the American Psychological Association's "Task Force on Television and Society" (Huston, et al., 1992) and "Commission on Violence and Youth" (American Psychological Association, 1992; Donnerstein, Slaby, & Eron, 1992). All of these reports confirm the harmful effects of media violence on the behavior of children, youth, and adults who view such programming. And yet, despite decades of research, there is a perception that the research evidence on TV violence is unclear or contradictory. This perception is incorrect and this review will address the following issues: What do we know about 2004-12-22T20:55:11-05:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/Impact-Of-Televised-Violence-25969.aspx Male and Females: Levels of Relationships and Different Forms A survey was conducted to help understand the level of relationships between male and females. The three levels of human relationships included social, personal, and intimate. Of the men and woman surveyed the ages ranged from 18 years of age to 62 years of age. The questions asked the number of the three types of relationships and what seemed to be the most involved, enjoyed, and most important. As a group, we tried to determine if men or woman had more relationships than the other sex in any type of relationship. On a level of social relationships, a social relationship is people that you know or associate with. For example: co-workers, people you do business with all the time, or distance family members, the answers could not be studied due to the extreme high and low numbers between the two groups. It is known that humans deal with too many people on a daily basis to accurately count social relationships. We did not count this into our survey and later discarded the question. Personal relationships seemed to be the most popular among men and woman. A personal relationship is considered someone you have a close friendship with but no intimacy. A best friend or immediate family member may be considered a personal relationship. It was very clear in the surveys that woman had a larger number of personal relationships than the men. Their numbers almost doubled what the men surveyed. Intimate relationships surveyed very equally between the men and woman. An intimate relationship is being very close to an individual, having physical attraction for one another, having physical touch, strong emotions, and physically close to each other. The men seemed to pull ahead with the number of intimate relationships. Most of the surveys were equal between the two, but half of them had some high numbers. Men scored a higher number on the intimate relationships, they believed to be more involved with personal relationships. The same with the woman, except they thought they were more involved with intimate when they scored a higher number on the personal relationships. This shows an inverse relationship between the two groups. When the survey asked the two groups what relationship do they enjoy the best, the answers completely backed up the earlier portion 2004-12-21T22:47:47-05:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/Male-and-Females-Relationships-25952.aspx Discovery Of Being It seems as though every Sociologist creates his or her own definition of Anxiety. Each definition of Anxiety being ghastly different, however, tying back to three common situations: Fear, Encounters with primary groups, secondary groups, and the public, and Anxiety towards Self-Growth. In analyzing Rollo May's "The Discovery of Being," we find that May incorporates many different definitions of these situations from other Sociologists, as well as ties in many of his own thoughts and ideas. Also at times, May disregards strongly other Sociologist's views on these situations, creating an interesting and unique view of society and Psychology. In this analysis of "The Discovery of Being," we will examine May's particular definitions and thoughts on Anxiety and Being, Anxiety and Encounter, and Anxiety and Self-Growth. Early in the book, May touches on his views of Anxiety, he discusses Anxiety as being something that does not arise from a fear of "lack of libidinal satisfactions or security," but rather out of fear of our own powers, and any pertaining conflicts. He discusses this as a present day problem, which has been significantly influenced by society and present societal goals. Libidinal satisfactions are so easily encountered in our day that it becomes hard to avoid them. The prevalent Anxiety is found upon self-reflection and our own realizations of what we actually can do, but for some reason neglect to do so. Our constant outlook to go further in society than our neighbor is tied to our Anxiety of Being and Non-Being. May looks closely at the concept of Being, and notes at one point that "Being" is a participle, also meaning in the process of "being something." An individual's Being is constantly changing throughout life, never reaching a set point. More specifically, May defines Being as an individual's pattern of potentialities. Anxiety arises when these potentialities grow harder to obtain or hidden from clear view. In modern society, man no longer holds his Sense of Being, but is looked at as a mechanism for others to succeed or save time or enjoy their libidinal satisfactions. "A man knows himself not as a man or self, but as a token seller in the subway, a grocer, a professor, a vice-president of AT&T, or by whatever his economic function may be." The point where Anxiety plays into Being is moreover in the state referred to as non-being. Non-being traditionally would be looked 2004-12-21T06:19:09-05:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/Essay-on-Anxiety-as-Discussed-by-Rollo-May-25927.aspx Explain the key concepts of the humanistic/phenomenological perspective. To what extent are these concepts derived from other perspectives and other social sciences? The humanistic perspective was founded by Abraham Maslow and Carl Rogers. The humanistic psychologists believe in the growth potential of healthy individuals and believe that people must strive for self-determination and self-realization. Self actualization refers the process of fulfilling full potential. Maslow’s ideas were developed from studying healthy and creative people and were based on people who were rich and successful such as Abraham Lincoln, Eleanor Roosevelt, and Mother Teresa. Maslow said that these people were self aware and accepting and were not hurt by other’s opinions. Maslow said that “Any theory of motivation that is worth of attention must deal with the highest capacities of the healthy and strong person as well as with the defensive maneuvers of crippled spirits.” These adults, according to Maslow, were self-actualized. The people most likely to achieve happy lives and this state are “privately affectionate to those of their elders who deserve it,” and “secretly uneasy about the cruelty, meanness, and mob spirit so often found in young people.” Car Rogers concurred with Maslow on many of his ideas and felt that everyone was ready for growth and fulfillment at their birth. He proposed that an environment that encouraged this growth had to be genuine, accepting, and empathetic. The environment had to allow people to disclose their true feelings, it had to give them unconditional positive regard, and nonjudgmental. Rogers felt that this type of relationship should exist between parent and child, teacher and student, etc. Both Maslow and Rogers also believed that a key element to personality was the self-concept. They suggest that how people assess themselves is most important to successful happy lives. Another humanistic psychologist, Markus said people could have concepts of their possible selves as well. The possible selves might be dreams of the future, such as the rich self, the thin self, or the loved self. All the humanistic psychologists believe a high self esteem is important to a happy and fulfilled life. Also, it has been shown in studies by Jennifer Crocker and Brenda Major that culture does not hamper self esteem – so anyone should be able to live a happy life. They say this is because successful people, regardless of their culture, value the things at which they excel, attribute problems to prejudice, and compare themselves to those 2004-12-20T04:11:16-05:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/Humanistic-Phenomenological-Perspective-in-Psychology-25865.aspx Use the behavioral perspective to assess the extent to which differences in culture are related to differences in behavior. The behavioral perspective, pioneered by Ivan Pavlov and B.F. Skinner, contends that reinforcers, both positive and negative, determine the actions of an animal or individual. Since cultural values at least partly define what is perceived as a reward and to have value, culture must have a large effect on behavior, and, of course, its differences. Pavlov, famous for his experiments with dogs, found that dogs could be “classically conditioned” to salivate at the sound of a bell. An unconditioned response, their salivation to food, was paired with an unconditioned stimulus, a bell, just before food was given, and thus it was made a conditioned response to the bell. Skinner furthered these experiments and found that animals could be “operantly conditioned” or conditioned to act on their environment to attain a positive or negative reinforcer. A positive reinforcer is something that gives pleasure, while a negative reinforcer removes pain or discomfort. As mentioned previously, culture may help define reinforcers, such as encouragement or the removal of anxiety in a group of strangers. In Western Europe and North America, parents, according to cultural values, condition children to be independent and more outgoing than in Asian societies that value social harmony and loyalty. While a child who left his family in America to create a thriving business would be encouraged and revered, a child who left his family in China to survive on his own might receive a punishment of sorts in the way he was socially treated for abandoning his home. Western societies also often encourage the “get rich” mentality while Asian societies encourage hard work and determination. This has resulted in the spectacular success of the lottery, game shows, and the like. Athletic ability too, greatly encouraged and rewarded, has influenced many students to pursue football or basketball in hopes of gaining such large salaries and fame in place of educational pursuits. Further more, as the behaviorist perspective contends, punishment may stifle certain behaviors, but they may also come out behind the back of the imposing authority figure. Therefore, what types of punishment are culturally acceptable (i.e. death penalty is used in the U.S., but shunned many other places in the world) and how they are imposed will affect actions. While the behaviorist perspective is criticized for ignoring the thinking or cognition involved in behavior, 2004-12-20T04:10:32-05:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/Behavioral-Perspective-on-Cultural-Differences-25864.aspx Describe and evaluate the contributions of cognitive psychology to the understanding of one cognitive process you have studied. Cognitive psychology has greatly contributed to the study of learning. The cognitive perspective posed the theory that learning is more than just reactions based on consequences and that it does indeed involve thinking 2004-12-20T04:09:15-05:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/Evaluation-of-Cognitive-Psychology-25863.aspx Roots of Revolution The Mexican revolution of 1910 was a pivotal time in Mexican history. This conflict and its effects were paramount to all citizens in Mexico, both proletariat and bourgeoisie alike. Two important provisions in the Constitution, Articles 27 and 123, are the economic and social manifestations of these political forces. Article 27 outlined a program of "expropriation in the public interest," barring foreign ownership of many lands or subsoil resources (Weyl 56). It also mandated measures to ensure equitable distribution of land and aid growth of small and middle-sized farms in favor of the latifundia system previously in operation. Article 123 was, known as the "Magna Carta of labor" provided many rights for wage earners which were previously not guaranteed (Hart 331). The article provided for an eight hour day for workers and protected their rights to strike against the employer, while making employer lockouts much more difficult (Bazant 149-151). The subject, intent, and focus of both Article 27 and Article 123 of the Mexican Constitution of 1917 are ostensibly in response to the peasants involvement and response to social conditions. However, the motive behind these provisions is rather unclear. Many historians, such as professor Jan Bazant, argue that the goal of these land and labor reform provisions was to strengthen the villages, making them self-sufficient, and not reliant on the government or foreign investors for survival. This sort of nationalism, directed by a policy of "real politick," reflected the desires and biases of the politically repressed bourgeoisie. Many also take this argument further and suggest that the Constitution was written with the interest of the nation in mind, and it "owed something to the socialist doctrine" (Parkes 361). The sole cause of these philosophical and idealistic changes in Mexican domestic policy is not simply the good-natured ideals held by the policy makers in the Mexican Government. If this was so, the Constitution of 1857 would have been sufficient and many grievances of the peasantry would have not occurred. History professors Hector Camin and Lorenzo Meyer argue that the Revolution, followed by the Constitution, was the "only way out" for the millions of oppressed peasants who had no voice otherwise. It is the creation of the Revolution which helped apply force to the legislature and enact as well as enforce these policies (Camin and Meyer 112). The pressure forced on the government by revolutionaries such as Emiliano Zapata, they argue, was 2004-11-27T20:47:33-05:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/Mexican-Revolution-IB-Extended-Essay-25750.aspx International Baccalaureate Extended Essay Abstract This paper discusses the social perceptions of suicide in the United States. The discussion includes not only what the society perceives of a suicide incident, but what the suicide victim perceives of his society. The content concerning the factors which foster the acceptance of suicide in the United States today includes discussion about former societies and their opinion of suicide and cultural differences in suicide acceptance. Psychological studies testing variations of age. sex. circumstances, etc. are also discussed in support of the information provided. The final point of discussion involves that which the suicide attempter perceives about the society around him and his reasons for committing, or attempting to commit, suicide. After reading this paper one will find that there are several circumstances under which most Americans will feel a suicide is justified or acceptable, yet acceptance of suicide at this point remains highly circumstantial and is by no means wholly accepted nor wholly rejected. What makes suicide acceptable? As humans, we form social perceptions as a result of several factors. According to the social learning theory, people learn through imitation of peers and companions; thus, they form opinions based on the beliefs of those around them. Without a doubt, the social learning theory applies to the discussion of suicide. Current acceptance of suicide in the United States originates from the many different cultures and societies which make up the United States today. The conventional notions relating to suicide do more than just explain the American viewpoint; such information can be extremely revealing about the American social structure. Acceptability of suicide, however, is not fully dependent on those who view it; the suicide victim also forms justifications for his suicide based on that which society presents to him. To obtain information about former societies and their cultures, historians rely on items such as recovered documents and artifacts; however, the idea of analyzing suicides as means of divulging information about a society is not a new concept. Over one hundred years ago, Emile Durkheim became one of the first men to study suicide. As a result, he developed a theory which links suicides to society. According to Durkheim's theory, a suicide victim's reasons committing the act reflect that which society considers acceptable or decent. Even today, social perspectives about an issue as controversial as suicide reflect that which is considered "acceptable" behavior. By considering the circumstances under which suicide 2004-11-27T18:57:03-05:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/What-makes-suicide-acceptable-25744.aspx Brave New World: How Children are Conditioned The society in Brave New World does very gruesome things to condition their infants to not only accept their (the infants) status in society, but love their status also. After the egg has become an embryo, the Bokanovsky’s Process of separating the embryo into eight to ninety-six of the exact same embryo. This process of course will affect the mental ability of the adult when the embryo develops. The Bokanovsky’s Process of division was only used for Gammas, Epsilons, and Deltas; the Alphas and Betas mental ability had to be high. In the stage where, the embryos become fetuses and 2004-11-21T21:44:10-05:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/Brave-New-World-How-Chidren-are-Conditioned-25741.aspx Eating disorders are sweeping this country and are rampant on junior high, high school, and college campuses. These disorders are often referred to as the Deadly Diet, but are often known by their more popular names: anorexia or bulimia. They affect more than 20% of females between the age of thirteen and forty. It is very rare for a young female not to know of someone with an eating disorder. Statistics show that at least one in five young women have a serious problem with eating and weight (Bruch, 25). The Deadly Diet appears to be a mostly female problem. Eating disorders are most common in the middle to upper middle class families. Currently, the incidence is much lower in females from the "blue collar" families. The Deadly Diet can begin anywhere from the ages of ten to thirty. The peak age for the beginning of the Deadly Diet in females is eleven to fifteen; the peak for males is between fifteen and eighteen (Bauer, 89). Most of the information on the Deadly Diet says that it is a problem of teenage girls, but as clinics have found, most of the people who come to get therapy are in their twenties and thirties. This may be because younger people are less likely to seek professional help. Most often it is the parent who brings the patient for help. Adults who have left home and had to deal with managing their lives usually tend to realize more clearly the need to seek help and make changes. Everywhere one looks today, one will notice that our culture places a very high value on women being thin. Many will argue that today's fashion models have "filled out" compared to the times past; however the evidence of this is really hard to see. Our society admires men for what they accomplish and what they achieve. Women are usually evaluated by and accepted for how they look, regardless of what they do. A woman can be incredibly successful and still find that her beauty or lack of it will have more to do with her acceptance than what she is able to accomplish. "From the time they are tiny children, most females are taught that beauty is the supreme objective in life" (Claude-Pierre, p18). The peer pressure for 2004-07-05T19:56:51-04:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/Eating-Disorders-Research-Paper-25361.aspx Sigmund Freud Biography Sigmund Freud was born on May 6, 1856, in the small Moravian town of Freiberg." His father was a merchant, and his mother was his father's third wife. Freud and his family moved to the city of Vienna when he was almost four. This was the initial stage of the Hapsburg Empire's liberal era. A lot of religious restrictions and unfair taxes targeted on the Jewish community were repealed. This created a feeling hope that affected the new generation of Jews, including Freud. Freud was a brilliant student and always placed at the top of his class. In 1873, Freud entered the University of Vienna to initially study law. However, as Freud would put it later, his "greed for knowledge" made him change his major to medicine. Although Freud was more interested in studying the philosophical-scientific aspects of the mind. He especially became interested in neurology and physiology and finally graduated in 1881. Freud's research was based on close observations and scientific skepticism. However, this skeptical quality was not appreciated by all of his mentors. One mentor especially, Ernst Brucke, did not like Freud's ideas at all. He even advised Freud to take a lowly position at the Vienna General Hospital. Freud took this position, but his decision was influenced by certain personal events that would change his life. Freud was secretly engaged to Martha Bernays (one of his sister's friends), but he did not have enough money to provide a respectable middle class household that his fiancée thought was necessary. In 1886, Freud finally was able to marry and the next nine years he and Martha had six children together. His youngest daughter Anna would later become Freud's disciple, assistant, and a very good psychoanalyst in her own right. Before his marriage, Freud had worked in Paris with a famous neurologist named Jean-Martin Charcot. Charcot claimed that he could cure mental disorders using hypnosis. This radical idea deeply influenced Freud and his quest to solve the mysteries of the mind. In 1887, Freud met Wilhelm Fliess (a nose and throat specialist) in Berlin. Fliess was a person who did not get shocked by any ideas. This kind of listener was exactly what Freud needed. For the next ten years, Freud and Fliess exchanged ideas and confidential information. It was during this time that Freud was practicing psychoanalysis, especially on female patients with hysteria. In 1895, Freud and his 2004-06-10T05:45:08-04:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/Sigmund-Freud-ID-Ego-Superego-Biography-25125.aspx Borderline Personality Disorder Borderline personality disorder "is defined in the DSM IV, a manual used by psychiatrists to diagnose all mental disorders, as an AXIS II disorder which has symptoms of impulsively and emotional dysregulation" (Livesley 146). A person with BPD have feelings of abandonment and emptiness, and have "frantic efforts to avoid abandonment, going to extremes to keep someone from leaving" (Burger 300). He or she is emotionally unstable and forms intense but unstable interpersonal relationships. They show impulsive behavior, such as spending money, sex, eating and substance abuse. Borderlines engage in self-manipulating behaviors and recurrent suicide attempts and thoughts. "Their behavior can be seen as maladaptive methods of coping with constant emotional pain" (Livesley 144). "Personality includes those aspects of a person's thinking, moods and behavior which affect his or her relationship with others" (Livesley 98). Differences in personality style (traits) add color and variety to relationships but may become too extreme, inflexible or maladaptive, significantly impairing a person's ability to function. When a person is not able to deal with people or problems of the environment, he or she is said to have a Personality Disorder (Livesley 99). "Originally the term borderline was used to refer to individuals whose adjustment was on the borderline between normal and psychotic" (Holmes 393). Today borderline personality disorder is primarily marked by instability, showing different symptoms at different times. Most of the symptoms revolve around problems of mood, mild disturbance in thought processes, and impulsive self-injurious behavior (Holmes 393). All of this prevents the borderline to have interpersonal relationships. Individuals with the borderline personality disorder tend to have intense relationships that are very unstable. "Frequent interpersonal conflict, unstable, stormy relationships are characteristics of a borderline; Relationships usually have "love and hate characteristics" (Durand 334). Individuals with this disorder do not simply drift in and out of friendships, but instead show abrupt, frequent and dramatic changes between "intense love and equally intense hate" (Durand 334) in any one relationship. The fluctuations in their mood, involved with their anger; involved with their thought disturbances, and mixed with their paranoid thoughts about betrayal and abandonment by others; as well as their impulsiveness make it difficult to maintain relationships with others. Borderlines have problems with their mood. Their mood is not manic, but alternates between normal and flat to moderate or severe depression (Livesley 150). These individuals also go through periods of intense anger that can interfere 2004-06-10T02:20:39-04:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/Borderline-Personality-Disorder-BPD-25077.aspx