https://www.echeat.com/ References Cited/Bibliography: 1. Almeda, Fernando A. “Surigao Across the years.”Heritage Publishing House, Quezon City, Philippines.1993. 2. Azarcon, Gelbert “Ancestral Domain Sustainable Development and (ADSDPP) of Indigenous Peoples of San Miguel). San Miguel, Surigao del Sur Philippines, 2009. 3 Beyer, Otley H., “The Negritoes and the Aboriginal Peoples of the Philippines “, Manila, Philippines, 1917. 4. Burton, Linda .”Manobo Religion and Rituals “, Kinaadaman, Vol.111, No.1, Xavier University, Cagayan de Oro City, Philippines, 1985. 5. Caynap, Dianalyn S. et.al. “Tud-om of the San Miguel Mnobos”BA English Language Thesis. Surigao del Sur State University, Tandag City, Philippines, 2009. 6. Cole, Fay –Cooper. The Wild Tribes of Davao District, Mindanao. Field Museum of Natural History Publication # 170. Anthropological Series XII, 1913. 7. Eleazar, Eulogio V. “Cantilan in 1571-1899: A History of a Town in Surigao del Sur” Cantilan, Surigao Del Sur, Philippines, 1985. 8. Garvan, John M. “The Manobos of Mindanao “.Memoirs of the National Academy Government Printing Office, Washington USA, 1931. 9. Garvan, John M. “Lifestyles of the Manobo’s in the Mountain Ranges.” Government Washington, Printing Office, USA, 1937. 10. Garvan, John M. “Survey of Material Culture of Eastern Agusan “. Government Printing Office, Washington, USA, 1927. 11. Garvan, John M., “The Negritoes of the Philippines. Herman Hochegger Horn Wren: Verlang Ferdinand. Austria, 1964 12. Garbarino, Merwyn S. “Native American Heritage “. Waveland Press, Inc. PO.Box 400 Prospect Heights, Illinois, USA. , 1985 13. Gelacio, Teofilo E. “The Manobos of Agusan Valley and Diwata Range “. San Francisco Agusan Del Sur, Philippines. (n.d.). No date. International Journal of Education and Research Vol. 1 No. 12 December 2013 15 14. Indigenous Peoples of Act of 1997 (RA 8371). , National Commission on Indigenous Peoples (NCIP) Manila, Philippines, 1997. 15. Lao, Mardonio, M.” The Lumads of Bukidnon “. Kinaadman Journal Vo. XVIII, Xavier University, Cagayan de Oro City, Philippines. 1996. 16. Maceda, Marcelino N.” The Christians and Non –Muslim Cultural Communities of Mindanao. Compilation Manuscript, Bukidnon Province, Philippines, 1978. 17. Maceda, Marcelino N., “The Culture of the Mamanuas of Northeastern Mindanao as Compared With that of other Negritoes of South East Asia, University of San Carlos Publications, Cebu City, Philippines, 1975. 18. Maceda, Marcelino N., “Manobo Society: Selected Patterns and Possible Change”. San Carlos Publications Series E: Miscellaneous Contributions in the Humanities “. USC Cebu City Philippines, 1968. 19. Maceda, Marcelino N., A Survey of the Socio-Economic, Religious Educational Conditions of The Mamanuas of Northeast Mindanao”. Thesis (MA) University of San Carlos, Cebu City, Philippines, 1964. 20. Rahmann, Rudolf, SVD.”The Negritoes in the Context of Research of Food Gatherers During This Century. Philippine Quarterly of Culture and Society 3(4) Cebu City, Philippines. 21. Rahman Rodulf, SVD “The Negritoes of the 2017-04-24T12:30:46.027-04:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/The-Manobolandia-45315.aspx An Anthropological Analysis of Child Prostitution in Northeastern Thailand Among the Asian country of Thailand, there exists a region unlike the rest of the nation. This northeastern part of the country, known as the Isan culture, bares significant differentiation in many ways, sadly because it is the most impoverished and far behind in development when compared to the rest of the country. It is situated next to the neighboring country of Laos so many aspects of its culture are borrowed and incorporated into it. Among these adapted elements is their appreciation for spicy cuisine, their dress and festivities as well as the Buddhist ideals shared by much of Asian cultures. Languages vary among some of the small tribal populations in the region although an adaptation of the Lao language is the most prominent throughout the rest of the public. However standard Thai is spoken and understood by essentially everyone much like English is the default language in the United States. Unfortunately, this region faces several harsh factors that inhibit it from reaching the development levels achieved by the rest of Thailand, the first being its economy. With slight above twenty percent of the region’s economy devoted to agriculture, natural factors are preventing the growth of the economy. Droughts, flooding, make up the harsh environment that makes agriculture non-profitable. Continual overuse of soil has rendered soil virtually unusable and as a result, the economy has hit rock bottom. Progress has slowly begun with the economy shifting from an agricultural emphasis to a more favorable and sustainable service and trade style, but the road that catches the Isan up with the rest of Thailand remains long. The region’s unstable economy has in turn had its fair share of negative impact on the day to day lives of people of the Isan culture. A lack of money and resources affects the entire superstructure of this culture and prevent it from advancing so severely, that it actually almost borders around the point of regression. Underfunding has led to some the highest levels of illiteracy in all of Thailand as well as some of the smallest doctor per capita ratios. Much of the workforce has since had to move to central Thailand in search of better more stable employment. With much of the labor force working and spending outside of the parameters of the culture, the economy only suffers even more. The Isan are roughly a ninety 2013-12-11T21:09:27.97-05:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/Child-Prostitution-Among-the-Isan-People-of-Northeastern-Thailand-34993.aspx An Anthropological Analysis of Child Prostitution in Northeastern Thailand Among the Asian country of Thailand, there exists a region unlike the rest of the nation. This northeastern part of the country, known as the Isan culture, bares significant differentiation in many ways, sadly because it is the most impoverished and far behind in development when compared to the rest of the country. It is situated next to the neighboring country of Laos so many aspects of its culture are borrowed and incorporated into it. Among these adapted elements is their appreciation for spicy cuisine, their dress and festivities as well as the Buddhist ideals shared by much of Asian cultures. Languages vary among some of the small tribal populations in the region although an adaptation of the Lao language is the most prominent throughout the rest of the public. However standard Thai is spoken and understood by essentially everyone much like English is the default language in the United States. Unfortunately, this region faces several harsh factors that inhibit it from reaching the development levels achieved by the rest of Thailand, the first being its economy. With slight above twenty percent of the region’s economy devoted to agriculture, natural factors are preventing the growth of the economy. Droughts, flooding, make up the harsh environment that makes agriculture non-profitable. Continual overuse of soil has rendered soil virtually unusable and as a result, the economy has hit rock bottom. Progress has slowly begun with the economy shifting from an agricultural emphasis to a more favorable and sustainable service and trade style, but the road that catches the Isan up with the rest of Thailand remains long. The region’s unstable economy has in turn had its fair share of negative impact on the day to day lives of people of the Isan culture. A lack of money and resources affects the entire superstructure of this culture and prevent it from advancing so severely, that it actually almost borders around the point of regression. Underfunding has led to some the highest levels of illiteracy in all of Thailand as well as some of the smallest doctor per capita ratios. Much of the workforce has since had to move to central Thailand in search of better more stable employment. With much of the labor force working and spending outside of the parameters of the culture, the economy only suffers even more. The Isan are roughly a ninety 2013-12-04T21:15:43.747-05:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/Anthropological-Analysis-of-Child-Prostitution-Among-the-Isan-People-of-Northeastern-Thailand-34990.aspx The International Communication Association is a professional society composed of communication researchers, practitioners, and teachers from several countries. The ICA Communication Audit was developed under the auspices of its Organizational Communication Division, from 1971-1978 The ICA Communication Audit was designed to provide organizations with reliable, factual data about their internal communication, and to do so in a way that permitted comparability with similar organizations. Its strength lies in the expertise, effort, time, and care that have gone into the creation and validation of its instruments and procedures. A set of five standardized instruments and procedures were developed (questionnaire survey, interview, communication experience, diary, and network analysis). The ICA Communication Audit uses both computerized analysis and feedback procedures. The ICA Communication Audit instruments and procedures were made available for widespread use on a not-for-profit basis, to support and encourage research into organizational communication. The ICA developed and maintained a normed data bank to enable comparisons among organizations’ communication systems. The primary purpose of this resolution was to eliminate the ICA’s role in “credentialing” auditors, so that the ICA could not be held legally responsible if a dissatisfied client chose to file legal action against a communication auditor. The ICA Communication Audit procedures and instruments remain in use, sometimes in modified forms, through today. The ICA Communication Audit data bank is still administered by Gerald M. Goldhaber, Department of Communication, State University of New York at Buffalo. The Eight Factors of the CSQ COMMUNICATION CLIMATE Communication Climate reflects communication in both the organizational and personal levels. On one hand, it includes items such as the extent to which communication in the organization motivates and stimulates workers to meet organizational goals and the extent to which it makes them identify with the organization. On the other hand, it includes estimates of whether or not people’s attitudes toward communicating are healthy in the organization SUPERVISORY COMMUNICATION Supervisory Communication includes both upward and downward aspects of communicating with superiors. Three of the principle items include the extent to which a superior is open to ideas, the extent to which the supervisor listens and pays attention, and the extent to which guidance is offered in solving job-related problems. ORGANIZATIONAL INTEGRATION Organizational Integration revolves around the degree to which individuals receive information about the immediate work environment. Items include the degree of 2008-03-16T04:05:13-04:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/ICA-Audit-33540.aspx Anthropology of Neandrethals Personally, I think that I am a Neanderthal. Of course, we all know that that is almost impossible. However, what if there is just the smallest possibility? Neanderthal man supposedly became extinct almost 30,000 years ago, yet the possibility exist that Neanderthal man may be living among us. The anthropological record is full of similar being with parallel lines of evolution. In many respects, the ancestors of man have, at one point, lived with at least one other evolutionary member. Having that in mind, why would it not be possibly for Neanderthals to still co-habitat with modern man at this age in time? One morning almost 300,000 years ago, the sun arose to a new epic in earth’s history. The hominids that we would learn to call Neanderthal began to take steeps on the world. At first, just the sight of these strong robust beings must have struck fear into the heart of those that they preyed upon. Usually not standing over five feet 5 inches at 185 pounds (Encarta 1). These hominoids were physically powerful and with the current archeological evidence powerful in mind. Having a brain somewhat larger than modern humans do, many researchers are theorizing that Neanderthals had a complex social structure. Yet, with their strong body and mind they some how fell of the face of the earth. Alternatively, could it be that they simply adapted to a new environment, improvised ways to live in that new environment and eventually over came adversity. The bodies of Neanderthals were perfectly adapted the Upper Pleistocene. In an era where ice ruled, the world size really mattered. Being short in stature insured that Neanderthals were able to stay quite comfortably warm. Along with their extremely strong physic, they became perfectly adapted to the world they lived in. They were able to hunt some of the largest mammals that the world had to offer. That is were it is believed that the Neanderthal social structure may have evolved. In a world where prey animals such as the Irish elk stood 7 feet tall at the shoulder with antlers that stretched for 12 feet, Neanderthals must have had to hunt in groups. It is possible that the groups may have been composed of family groups, yet it is thought that they eventually formed small tribes. As the old saying goes “There is safety in 2007-04-18T18:21:27-04:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/Anthropology-of-Neandrethals-33001.aspx Native American Story I Heard The Owl Call My Name The spiritual, religious and cultural beliefs the Native Americans of Kingcome village possess are strong and tightly bound. They are connected physically and mentally to everything that surrounds them. The land, nature and people are a fundamental part of who they are. Yet the opportunities waiting for them in white society provide hope for a different life of freedom, independence, education and wealth. In Margaret Craven’s epic novel I Heard The Owl Call My Name, both characters, Gordon and Keetah face the problem of living in two completely different and contrasting worlds, the ‘Indian’ world and the ‘White’ world. In the novel the importance of land, nature and people form the basis of the Kwakwala tribes’ Indian culture and religious belief system. “The Indian knows his village and feels for his village as no white man for his country, his town, or even for his own bit of land” (Craven, 1976: 12) The idea of living in ‘both worlds’ causes inner and external turmoil for both Gordon and Keetah. Both know and feel for their village, yet have different hopes and aspirations as to what their futures may hold. They worry about fulfilling their own personal desires whilst at the same time trying to please the disapproving tribal elders, who believe that young Indians are lured into white society through temptations of education and a ‘better’ life. “ When the young leave, the world takes them, and damages them. They no longer listen when the elders speak. They go, and soon the village will go also. (Craven, 1976: 50) To the elders white society ‘damages’ young Indians, stripping them of their respect and understanding of Indian culture and influences them to practise what they see as the ‘negative’ ways of the whites’. It is through the so called ‘advantages’ present in white society that the elders believe will cause the inevitable downfall of their tribe, the disintegration of their way of life and their religious belief system. Gordon’s decision to leave the village and live permanently in white society is one of much deliberation. Although physically and mentally connected to the people of the village and its surroundings, he “feels himself trapped” (Craven, 1976: 23) in the Indian world. Gordon’s connections to the village are neither strong nor binding, as he yearns to return 2007-01-11T04:32:01-05:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/Native-American-Story-I-Heard-The-Owl-Call-My-Name-32345.aspx Arranged Marriage in Societies In this study, I studied the topic of arranged marriages. Some of the areas that I covered were the history of arranged marriages, the future of them, what is in involved in the process as well as how people feel about them in today’s society. I followed 3 methods of research. The first was reading through books and journals as well as searching on the Internet for other people’s theories and background information on this topic. The second method was conducting a survey that led me to see how normal people in today’s society felt towards arranged marriages. And the last method was interviewing a couple who had married back 25 years ago in the form of an arranged marriage and we discussed how they felt about it and whether or not they would impose that upon their children. In today’s society, arranged marriages amongst South Asians is not as common as it once was. In this literature, we will explore the different aspects or arranged marriages mainly in the South Asian culture but also in other cultures as well. This review also makes reference to the other cultures that participate in this custom, as well as how society has portrayed it then and now. The Process As far as India is concerned, arranged marriages have been taking place since the beginning of time. It was very simple. The man needed a wife, the young woman a husband. Interested friends and relatives created opportunities for them to meet (MacMillan, 1988). Back even before the 1800’s, it was highly unlikely that the women be aloud to meet or even speak to who had been chosen for her. When one’s parents felt that it was time for their child to be married, they would spread the word around their village. Suitable matches would be found. By suitable, one means of the same cast, wealth and social standing. This is extremely important because the arranged marriage tends to be a union of two families of strong moral and cultural values it provides checks and balances against areas that may splinter it, such as infidelity (Mathur, 2001) In every village, there is at least one female whose profession is to do the introducing and her whole career is finding mates for single males and females. 2006-12-18T18:14:41-05:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/Arranged-Marriage-in-Societies-32013.aspx Charles Robert Darwin The controversial argument between what man has grown up believing and the facts of science would set a landmark in the modern scientific community today. This landmark would be set in history by the English naturalist Charles Robert Darwin and his theory of man’s evolving genes in natural selection. Charles Robert Darwin was born on February 12, 1809 in Shrewsbury, Shropshire, England. He was the fifth child and second son of Robert Darwin and Susannah Wedgwood . Charles Darwin’s father, Dr. Robert Darwin, was a well respected figure in Shrewsbury by both rich and poor. Dr. Robert Darwin was also a member of well-read people with strong Whig leanings. A Whig is a person that belonged to the Wig Party that championed for parliamentary reform . As a young child Charles, in his mind, was not a normal child for he was fond of doing very strange things. Some of these weird things were like the time when he beat a puppy just for the feeling of power. Another one of the strange things that Charles as a child did was that he would collect eggs but only take one egg from a bird nest at a time. The education that Charles received as a child was at first from his sister before going to day school. Unsucceful at school he was removed two years before completion. That summer he spent his time accompanying a doctor on his rounds. Later that year he went with his brother to Edinburgh University. Edinburgh University is England’s best University for medicine. The Darwins had been studying medicine there for three generations. This knowledge of medicine would come to great use when dissecting specimens. Charles Darwin had heard many times during his childhood from his father that, “people with powerful minds generally had memories that extended far back into there very early period of life” . Thus this statement that Charles heard from his father led him to believe he had a very powerful mind. This one statement is one of the many things that started Charles to become a great scientist. 2006-11-14T03:31:25-05:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/Charles-Darwin--31732.aspx What Life is Like Living on a Farm Three problems that occur when living on a farm are taking care of the farm animals, tolerating the wild animals, and keeping everything in order. Although these problems don’t seem very big, they are huge chores and are often way too much for one person to handle by him or herself. Usually, just as everything appears to be in order and all hard work has paid off, something breaks or a water line burst and chaos, once again, takes control of my life. Taking care of the farm animals is my biggest and most important problem. Carrying feed and grain to the horses may sound very simple, but if an animal does not eat, he may be sick or overgrazed. Horses are very moody toward each other, and an older and stronger male will sometimes fight the other colts and mares away from feeding. If something like this happens, I have to isolate the horses and carry each one of them a certain amount of feed. Later, I have to return and open the stalls to let them out to water. Once a week the horses are washed and groomed, and I ride them at least twice a week to make sure that they are staying fit and in good health. Although the horses are given the most attention and require the most care- taking, I also take care of other farm animals. I throw range pellets to the cattle, which have to be counted on a regular basis, and I feed the chickens and dogs, which have to have water carried to them by hand every day. Along with having to care for the animals on the farm, I am often forced to tolerate wild animals that decide to come along and do whatever they please to the animals on the farm or to the land. Snakes lie around the pond, keeping the livestock from drinking. They will eventually move, but if one holds its ground and strikes, it will cause serious damage and often kill an animal. Black bears love to roll barbed-wire fences into huge balls and play with them, leaving an open space in the fence that has to be replaced. Opossums come into the yard at night just to make the dogs bark and keep everyone in the 2006-08-31T18:14:57-04:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/What-Life-is-Like-Living-on-a-Farm-31411.aspx The Hopi Indians and their Religion In the southwestern United States, above northern Arizona, are three mesas. The mesas create the home for the Hopi Indians. The Hopi have a deeply religious, isolated, tribal culture with a unique history. The Hopi stress group cooperation. The tribe is organized around a clan system. In a clan system, all the members consider themselves relatives. The clans form a social glue that has held the Hopi villages together. Clan membership provides a singular Hopi identity. The Hopi have a highly developed belief system which contains many gods and spirits. Ceremonies, rituals, dances, songs, and prayers are celebrated in year-round. The Hopi believed they were led to the arid southwestern region of America by their creator, because he knew they had the power to evoke rain with power and prayer. Consequently, the Hopi are connected to their land, its agricultural cycles and the constant quest for rainfall, in a religious way. The religious center of the community is the kiva, which is an underground room with a ladder protruding above the roof. The kiva is very important for several reasons. From the kiva, a connection is made with the center of the earth. Also, the kiva is symbolic for the emergence to this world. The room would represent the underworld and the ladder would represent the way to the upper world. In fact, a room is kept in the house to store ceremonial objects. A sacred ear of corn protects the room and symbolizes the ancestry of the family members. Kachinas are also a focal point of the religion. For a Hopi, they signify spirits of ancestors, dieties of the natural world, or intermediaries between man and gods. The Hopi believe that they are the earth's caretakers, and with the successful performance of their ceremonial cycle, the world will remain in balance, the gods will be happy and rain will come. Because they think of their crops as gifts, the Hopi Indians live in harmony with the environment. Art is also used for ritualistic purposes. Men's loincloths were painted and decorated with tassels to symbolize falling rain. Men also wore elaborate costumes that include special headdresses, masks, and body paints during ritual ceremonies and dances. The Hopi follow a seasonal sense of time. Depending on the season, different preparations were used for collecting the rain. Droughts required the Hopis 2006-07-22T13:04:56-04:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/The-Hopi-Indians-and-their-Religion-30454.aspx Definition of an American It is not too complicated to understand what an American is. It seems to have more depth to it than one would think, but it is actually not that hard to understand. In Mary Rowlandson her family was killed and she only had her little baby left. People ran in her house and did this. Her house was put on fire and she was taken hostage. American Indians did this. Now, just because they are American and in America this is not the only thing that makes them American. They carried firearms, anger, sadness, hate, love, confusion, uncertainty, and courage. There is also so much more to them. People do things in life sometimes, when they don’t want to or when it is just necessary for their survival. In America, that’s what is going on. Since the beginning of time, Americans have always wanted to be the best at anything. Americans want power, fame and money. Whatever they must do to flourish and flourish richly, they will do. In having power, an American will be ruthless, because they feel they have to. It is what society has shown over time. They keep their faith in God, but sometimes we (Americans) lose that faith when our prayers of hardship don’t happen. Even though we know we shouldn’t, sometimes it just gets too hard. But, Americans also care very much about others. When things get a little hard out there, like with Mary Rowlandson, you just want to give up on life. As Americans, we seem to think we have it hard, at least some do. When in fact, we live in the greatest country in the world. I think knowing that separates us from any other country on earth. Americans get an ego. I think that the ego is something that is just instilled in us. We reach a certain age and begin to realize what the world is about. This changes us. Society shapes us in a way that we almost have no control over. Being an American is a beautiful thing. It really does seem a lot harder than it is. Americans want to be accepted, by family, friends, teachers and so on. Americans want 2006-07-18T19:11:24-04:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/Definition-of-an-American-30370.aspx Discussing Waterlily, Marriage, and Dakota Life In modern Euro-American culture, if a man were to simply mention the idea of buying a wife he would face certain ridicule and would be considered sexist. Wife buying is not a ‘pc’ option in today’s society as it stands in direct opposition to the mainstream idea of women’s liberation and independence. That is not to say that it doesn’t happen (remember the show “Who wants marry a Millionaire?”) it is just to say that it is not overtly accepted. Waterlily, by Ella Cara Deloria, details the religious and cultural rituals of a Dakota woman in the nineteenth century. In the novel the protagonist, Waterlily, faces the prospect of being ‘purchased’ for marriage. If one applies the mainstream world-view to this situation, it suggests that the Dakota culture may have been oppressive to women. However, although often forgotten, the mainstream Euro-American world-view is not the only one that exists. “The ultimate aim of Dakota life, stripped of accessories, was quite simple; one must obey kinship rules; one must be a good relative. No Dakota who has participated in that life will dispute that. In the last analysis every other consideration was secondary – property, personal ambition, glory, good times, life itself. Without that aim and the constant struggle to attain it, the people would no longer be Dakotas in truth. They would no longer even be human. To be a good Dakota, then was to be humanized, civilized. And to be civilized was to keep the rules imposed by kinship for achieving civility, good manners, and a sense of responsibility toward every individual dealt with. Thus only was it possible to live communally with success; that is to say, with a minimum of friction and a maximum of good will” (Deloria, Waterlily x) In the case of Waterlily’s marriage, of which she agreed to be purchased, the Dakota world-view sees her decision as very honorable. Her choice demonstrated that “her people had taught her the most important of lessons, the one regarding her duties toward her relatives.” (Waterlily 163) In order for the mainstream to understand how her decision can be considered honorable, it is necessary to better understand the role of the woman in Dakota life. As shown by Deloria’s female characters, the way a Dakota woman achieves honor 2006-07-18T19:10:09-04:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/Discussing-Waterlily,-Marriage,-and-Dakota-Life-30369.aspx Essay from Anthropology Examination Archaeology is a similar job to anthropology. Both study the various different cultures through out the world. The major difference is where their information is gathered from. Anthropologist get most of their info from living people and their skeletal remains. Where as an archaeologist finds the artifacts left behind. They gather these artifacts by excavation and are able to tell us a lot about our ancestors. Certain artifacts or sites can tell us all sorts of things such as the type of government, human behavior, how the culture ran itself, social organization, and especially the contact between other groups around the world. All this does not come without its problems. Dig sites (a term used to signify an excavation site) are being destroyed in many ways. Environmental issues, political change, everyday expansion of the human race, thieves searching for buried treasure, and poor excavation are just a few problems that affect an archaeologist job. The Paleolithic era is divided into three periods. The Lower, Middle, and Upper. Much of our advancement from “cavemen” to modern humans happened in the Upper Paleolithic. This portion of time is then separated into 5 groups based on the technology and tools. They are Chatelperronian, Aurignacian, Gravettian, Solutrean, and Magdalenian. Some of the new ideals and beliefs that came out of the Paleolithic time concerned nature. Nature was seen as a wild threat and home of the barbarians and beast. We went from our equality with nature to the Greco-Roman era to the Judeo Christian days and now into science. Some more changes were everyday tools. Such as spears. A simple point would let a fish slide off after stabbing it or the spear would fall out of a running deer. A spear designed with notches similar to today’s fish hooks. The materials that tools were made of also was enhanced. Instead of only stones or wood man began to use bone , ivory, and other natural resources to make a more complex tool box. People also started to move things farther. Migration spread technology faster and established better shelters and hunting techniques. Hunting and gathering use to be the best way to find food. Gathering meant traveling around and collecting roots, berries, grains, etc.. Hunting meant exactly what it is, but it was performed differently. Often hunting was done in groups and with primitive weapons. 2006-07-17T13:01:24-04:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/Essay-from-Anthropology-Examination-30289.aspx The Life of the Inuit People Thousands of years ago, during the last ice age, mile-thick glaciers covered a vast portion of North America, and the Asian continent was joined to North America by a land bridge. The Arctic areas of Alaska, Beringia, and Siberia were free of ice. Vast herds of caribou, muskoxen, and bison migrated to these plains. Following them were the nomadic Asian ancestors of today's Inuit and Indians. The doorway to Asia closed about three or four thousand years later as the glaciers receded and melted. These people: the Inuit (meaning the people), adapted to their harsh tundra environment and developed a culture that remained untainted for a long time. The Inuit people relied solely on hunting for their existence. With summers barely lasting two months, agriculture was non-existent. Animals such as caribou and seal were vital. Groups of hunters would stalk and kill many caribou with fragile bows made of driftwood, and their bounty was split evenly amongst the tribe. Bone spears were fashioned to hunt seals which provided food, oil, clothes, and tents. The seal skins were also used to construct kayaks and other boats that the Inuit would use to travel and to hunt whales. One advantage of the sterile cold of the arctic was that it kept these people free of disease (until they met the white man.) Inuit tribes consisted of two to ten loosely joined families. There was no one central leader in the group: all decisions were made by the community as a whole. Nor was there any definite set of laws; the Inuit, though usually cheery and optimistic, were prone to uncontrolled bursts of rage. Murder was common amongst them and it went unpunished unless an individual's murders occured too often. At that point, that person was deemed unstable, and the community appointed a man to terminate him/her. In their society, the duties of men and women were strictly separated. The males would hunt, fish and construct the tools used by the family. Women, however, were responsible for cleaning the animal skins, cooking, sewing the clothes ( a woman's sewing ability was equally as attractive to a man as her beauty was), and raising the children. Male children were preferred because they could care for their parents in their old age; female children when often strangled soon after birth. Although today Christianity has breached some 2006-06-27T02:53:28-04:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/The-Life-of-the-Inuit-People-29875.aspx Becoming an International Student in the United States United States is a well-known country for its educational facilities. Therefore, numerous students from all over the world wish to continue their studies in United States. However, it is not possible for everyone to become an international student in the United States because it requires a huge financial support, an intellectual mind, and strength to live without beloved family members. A person who is able to put up with these factors can become a successful international student. In order to become an international student in the United States, one has to go through three major steps: to find admission in preferred school, to obtain visa and to travel, and to keep him/herself in status after arrival. Attaining admission is the first step for becoming international student. Institutes in United States issue an admission, also known as I-20 form that depends upon visa endorsement, to prospective students. One has to select the institute of his or her choice. Various institutes require prospective international students to take some mandatory tests such as TOEFL and SAT. The range of minimum required scores on those tests, however, vary from institute to institute. When the institute satisfies with a prospective student’s abilities, an admission is given to him or her. After he or she receives admission, a prospective student has to apply for visa that is the second step. Once the admission is acquired, a prospective international student needs to obtain United States’ visa so that he or she can travel. American visa authorities ask proofs of financial support for student visa. A prospective student is supposed to show those proofs. If authority gives the visa to prospective student, he or she has to be prepared to travel to the new world, the United States. The most difficult situation for international students in all this process is to leave family back in home. But it is something that always happen when someone desires to study overseas. So the Second step is to get visa and to reach the United States. The third step is a long-term phase. When an International student arrives in United States, he or she has to remain in status. In order to be in status, an international student is supposed to be enrolled as full-time student in every semester until the end of studies. If a student does not enroll 2006-06-20T17:09:48-04:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/Becoming-an-International-Student-in-the-United-States-29712.aspx Cambodian Subculture in Long Beach, California Understanding how culture affects our lives helps us develop a sociological imagination (Kendal, 39). In 1954 the U.S. Agency for International development created a program to educate Cambodian nationals at American universities. Many of the 187 students who came settled in Long Beach and enrolled at California State University of Long Beach. The USAID program was latter discontinued due to the Vietnam War (Press-Telegram, 3). Cambodian history is filled with many horror stories and much pain. In April 1975, a French teacher Pol Pot, and his communist soldiers began systematically destroying Cambodia and its government. With the help of the North Vietnamese Pol Pot and his soldiers, which later became known as the Khmer Rouge, set out on a horrific journey to “ purify the Khmer race and create a classless society (Press-Telegram,3). The migration of Cambodians into the U.S. began in 1979. Everyday in Long Beach, Cambodian families mix culture as they would a plateful of lemongrass, chicken, and rice (press-telegram, 5). Cambodian parents face a seemingly never-ending battle of traditional rules and culture correct behavior with their children. Westernized Cambodian- American children have become more abundant as years go by. Today, many say, that the most important issue facing Cambodian families is generation gaps. Traditional parents and Americanized children, more often than not, disagree daily with appropriate dress code, music, behavior, and education. Many of Cambodians who escaped from Cambodia now find themselves in a land of few similarities. Many of these parents in Long Beach are happy to raise their families in a land free of war and dictatorship. However, freedom comes cuts both ways, says Jams Pok, a Cambodian pastor of the Seventh-day Adventist Church in Long Beach. Sometimes, it means children feel free to disregard, destroy and ignore elders- behavior that would not be tolerated in Cambodian, he says (press-telegram,5). Some parents believe that when children are exposed to American values, it becomes problematic for parents to keep Cambodian traditions within children. Take into consideration cultural rules and regulation traditional parent try to instill within their children. Cultural rules and regulations of Cambodians can be categorized into three parts: correct behavior of young males, correct behavior of young females, and correct behavior toward elders. Many Cambodia families in Long Beach say that girls are more difficult to raise than boys (smith, 47). Cambodian parents believe that through sexual 2006-06-20T15:29:18-04:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/Cambodian-Subculture-in-Long-Beach,-California-29690.aspx Ethnography of the Kwakitul Aboriginal Indians A quiet, graceful testimonial to a vanishing way of life, I Heard the Owl Call My Name was Margaret Craven's first book, written when she was sixty-nine. It tells of a young vicar named Mark, sent to a remote Kwakiutl village not knowing he has less than three years to live. In the village, Mark comes to understand the Kwakiutl Indians around him and sees how their traditions are being destroyed through the influence of white men. He watches the "English woman anthropologist" who comes to study the natives and insists upon calling the villagers "Quackadoodles;" he experiences the impact when the government declares it legal for Indians to buy liquor and when traders cheat the villagers out of 2006-05-31T18:53:01-04:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/Ethnography-of-the-Kwakitul-Aboriginal-Indians-28934.aspx Aging and Intelligence Introduction There are many myths regarding seniors and their intelligence. Supposedly, the old can't do their work as well as the young, and neither can they learn new things (Kart & Kinney, 2001). There are many facts that point to the idea of gerontophobia; "a fear of and negative attitude toward the aged" (Kart & Kinney, 2001). There are general disapproval of the old and job discrimination as a result ("Social", 1984). It is essential, especially at this point where the population of the elderly (65+ of age) is hitting a peak of over 35 million and growing rapidly (Kart & Kinney, 2001), to quickly debunk these myths and start facing the facts of aging and intelligence. Intelligence As more and more people became aware that the generally observed intellectual debilitation with age was not inevitable, gerontologists have been trying to designate a clear definition to the word "intelligence" so as to be able to clearly measure and study intelligence in association with aging. Spearman's G factor, Thurston's PMA, and Cattel's fluid mechanics vs. crystallized pragmatics theories are three prominent theories which have shaped the field of gerontology and aging. Spearman's G factor Spearman's discovery of the "g factor," now somewhat obsolete, was the basis for any study of intelligence in the early 1900's. Spearman, through numerous tests and gathering empirical data, observed a correlation between each person's various test results which seemed to be able to determine the intellectual level of the person: he dubbed the reason for the correlation, an unknown factor, the "g factor" (Jansen, 1999). Spearman credited every human's intelligence with his/her unique g factor. However, as later experiments proved more than one factor was responsible for a person's intelligence, he proposed the idea of "groupfactors", where factors other then g were attributed to intelligence (Jansen, 1999). Spearman's theory on intelligence was based mostly on the biological and physical structure of the "human engine"; the brain. He hoped for a discovery which would link his g factor to specific physical properties of the brain (Jansen, 1999), which would then enable him to explain the apparent intellectual debilitation in the elderly with concrete factors such as "brain size, brain evoked potentials, nerve conduction velocity, and the brain's glucose metabolic rate during cognitive activity" (Jansen, 1999). Thurston's Primary Mental AbilitiesInnumerable numbers of scientific research on intelligence was performed with Spearman's g factor as the basis. In 1938, Thurston, unwilling 2005-04-26T17:59:28-04:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/Aging-and-Intelligence-26573.aspx Anthropology 2- EXTRA CREDIT ASSIGNMENT STATION 1: Fossil 1 displays characteristics of Australopithecus aethiopicus of West Lake Turkana, Kenya. This skull shows the obvious characteristics of a very sharp sagittal crest along the top of the skull, a very wide skull in the cheek area, and an extremely prognathic lower skull and jaw area. The cranial capacity also appears to be smaller, suggesting that it is of the earlier hominids. Fossil 2 shows eyebrow ridges and a slight sagittal crest consistent with Homo erectus. The most defining characteristic, however, is the presence of nuchal torus, a projection of bone at the back of the skull where muscles are attached to hold the head up, suggesting a consistently bipedal creature. Fossil 3 is a small skull showing no sagittal crest or nuchal torus. There are eyebrow ridges apparent and the face is slightly prognathic. The skull most closely resembles the skull like that of the Taung child (Jurmain 203). The skull of the Taung child, a variety known as the “gracile” australopithecine, or A. africanus, exhibits smaller brain capacity, accounting for the smaller skull. The fourth fossil has a small skull be conveys the characteristics of Homo sapien, therefore may be a child. At the top of the skull, the bone has not fully come together, consistent with children, and very young Homo sapien. The teeth are very small but are shovel-shaped like modern Homo’s teeth, adapted to tear and chew softer foods than those eaten by earlier Homo and other hominids. The skull shows little to no prognathism consistent with humans. STATION 2: Fossil 1 at this station showed postorbital constriction, excess bone behind the eyebrows protecting the eyes. The skull showed slight prognathism, which is the protrusion of the jaw and lower skull. I predicted that the skull was Homo erectus; however, I noted that the African form, Homo ergaster, characteristically shows postorbital constriction whereas Homo erectus does not. Fossil 2 showed less prognathism, a skull more closely resembling modern Homo. However, the brow ridges present were more pronounced that in modern Homo. The small shovel-shaped teeth also are representative of an early Homo sapien because they ate more cooked vegetation and meat, their teeth were used less for the grinding of hard, brittle vegetation. The fossil most closely displays the characteristics of Cro-Magnon, or Homo sapiens sapiens (Jurmain 281). STATION 3: The first mandible is very robust and shows extreme molarization, 2005-04-24T07:55:19-04:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/Anthropology-Fossil-Determination,-Explanation,-and-Analysis-26552.aspx Examining the ideas and beliefs within ones own cultural context is central to the study of Anthropology. Issues of Race and Ethnicity dominate the academic discourses of various disciplines including the field of Anthropology. Race and Ethnicity are controversial terms that are defined and used by people in many different ways. This essay shall explore the ways in which Anthropologists make a distinction between race and ethnicity and how these distinctions serve as frames for cross-cultural comparison and analysis. It is important to accurately define these coined terms before one is able to make accurate comparisons and distinctions between them, and their relation to the concept of culture. This essay attempts to produce accurate definitions of the concepts of race, ethnicity and culture, and the reasons why Anthropologists discredit the nature of particular views of these notions within Anthropological study. To create a deeper understanding of the distinction between racial and ethnic relations within the New Zealand cultural context, case studies and theories between the Maori and Pakeha population will be drawn upon. The idea of ‘race’ is a problematic concept in various academic fields. In the discipline of Anthropology, the definition of this term carries much controversy. The concept of race that many people hold is in a sense, a social construct that changes amongst different cultures, one could look at different cultures to see racial definition as a cultural phenomenon in action (Kottak, 2000:139). King supports this idea that races are not established by a set of natural forces, rather they are products of human perception, “Both what constitutes a race and how one recognises a racial difference are culturally determined” (1981:156). Cashmore provides a brief definition of race as “a group of persons connected by common origin” (1988:235). However, Cashmore goes on to argue that the terminology of race has been used to reflect changes in the understanding of physical and cultural differences (1988:235). Cornell and Hartman argue the characteristics that constitute a definition for the concept of race are complex. The authors claim that race can be categorised in social and physical terms. Race is a “human group defined by itself or others as distinct by virtue of perceived common physical characteristics that are held to be inherent… a group of human beings socially defined on the basis of physical characteristics” (1988:24). The concept of race and the meanings associated with the term have continuously 2005-02-06T01:21:00-05:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/Ways-in-Which-Race-amp-Ethnicity-Relate-to-Culture-26257.aspx [i:d763929e91]What importance may the sex of the anthropologist have on the ethnographic process?[/i:d763929e91] There are many factors which can influence the ethnographic process for an anthropologist, and a very important one is his/her sex. This essay will examine the different attitudes towards sex, the problems that face all ethnographers when they embark on fieldwork in a different environment to their own, as well as the problems and benefits which can arise due to the sex of an anthropologist. In order to produce a written work about a certain culture or society (an ethnography, anthropologists must embark on what is known as the ethnographic process". This term refers to all of the various activities and research methods which the anthropologist must undertake if he/she wants to obtain a profound and objective understanding of the culture being studied. This process can involve the method of participant observation, which is the long-term, extreme interaction with a community and involves the inclusion of the anthropologist in the day-to-day life of the society, including the attendance of the anthropologist at rituals, ceremonies etc.. The ethnographic process also involves the anthropologist expressing the feelings that he/she has experienced during the course of the fieldwork, and the relations which they might have built with certain members of the community so that the readers of the ethnography can have a deeper understanding of the culture being studied. However, the above mentioned factors can easily be affected by the sex of the anthropologist. The word sex refers to the biological category into which a person is born; either male or female" but although the term refers only to the physical appearance of a person, the extremely diverse biological and psychological differences between the two sexes have led to there being a male-female a division and a "gender hierarchy" existing in virtually all societies. This can bring about both benefits and problems to the anthropologist, and this is what will be examined in this essay. When conducting fieldwork in a different environment, there are many problems which all anthropologists encounter, and learn to overcome, despite their sex. The first problem, which often occurs as soon as the anthropologist arrives in their area of study, is culture shock. The anthropologist must learn to adapt him/herself to such basic things as sleeping, bathing, eating, and in most cases, adjusting to the loneliness and lack of privacy which he/she is certain to encounter. Some anthropologists learn that 2004-07-05T21:57:16-04:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/Importance-of-the-Sex-of-the-Anthropologist-of-Ethnography-25459.aspx Two types of division of labour in two different hunting-gathering societies The division of labour in these hunter-gatherer societies is well balanced, and is organised to suit the needs of all of the members of the society. Every member of these societies plays a contributes in some way to the community throughout their life. The !Kung San Bushmen, Kalahari Desert, South Africa- Although a large group, it is divided into small bands, with each band being made up of between twenty and sixty people and having its own territory, within which the members of that band have rights to gather wild vegetable foods. However, hunters of larger animals may step into the territories of other bands quite freely if they are in the pursuit of game. The !Kung are almost entirely dependant upon hunting and gathering for their food supply. These people hunt and gather daily, and return in the evening to distribute all the food that has been collected equally among every single member of the band. The labour division of the !Kung San is by gender and age. The people in the 20-60 age group provide the food, while the younger children and adolescents are not expected to provide regular food until they are married (most commonly between the ages of fifteen and twenty for the females, and about five years later for the males years later), and instead have their older relatives provide food for them. The older members of the band are well respected and have a high position in this society, and their role is to be the leaders of the camps, and to carry out activities such as ritual curing and making decisions. For many years after they stop hunting and gathering, the aged are fed and cared for by their children and grandchildren. The women between the ages of 20-60 are responsible for the gathering, and work for two to three days a week each, whereas the men devote about twelve to nineteen hours a week to getting food. The food gathered by these women provides the bulk of the total !Kung San diet by weight. A woman gathers on one day enough food to feed her family, i.e. her elderly and younger relatives for three days, and spends the rest of her time resting in camp, doing embroidery, visiting other camps, or entertaining visitors from other camps. The men of these bands also collect plants and smaller 2004-07-05T21:56:33-04:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/Two-types-of-division-of-labour-in-two-different-societies-25456.aspx Popular stereotypes frequently present the scientist and the artist as extreme opposites in their pursuit of understanding - the scientist as being objective, disciplined and rational, and the artist as being subjective, impulsive and imaginative. Yet are they really so very different in the ways they look at the world? To what extent do you consider these stereotypes accurate, and to what extent do you consider them distortions of the ways in which the sciences and the arts give us their knowledge? Is there a difference between an artist and a scientist, except their profession? Are people born to be professors? Have some people a 'rational' brain? Or is it so that the artist have a bigger right brain-half that the scientist? Has an artist a greater ability to express him- or herself? - Is it a genetic question? One thing is obvious: people are not the same, everyone is individual with individual interests and hobbies. Some like to paint and some like to play with atoms and molecules. But the question remains; Is there a genetic difference between a scientist and an artist? Undoubtable is that the public opinion of scientists and artists is as two extremists. One as rational, often alone, thinking, and the other as impulsive, 'flower-power' and poetic and philosophical. How come? I believe that the human brain works in a way that is similar to a computer's way of storing information on a hard disk, or maybe the other way around, in files and directories, different directories for different kinds of information. That is, if we hear about an artist, we categorize him with quite many attributes; impulsive, subjective, imaginative, etc. etc. But then, why do we have these attributes? And more interesting, why is it a general opinion? Is it based on internal preferences, inborn values, or external impressions, gained from others? When I first read the question above, I realized that this is my idea of normal scientists and artists. But I also understood that this is only a generalization based on the definition of the two professions. First, let me try to define science, taken from Longman's Dictionary of Contemporary English; "knowledge about the world, especially based on examination and testing, and on facts that can be proven". So according to this definition, a scientist must find his knowledge after he has done some kind of observation, either it is on a piece of paper or he 2004-07-05T21:55:07-04:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/Analysis-of-Popular-Stereotypes-25453.aspx