eCheat.com RSS Feedhttps://www.echeat.com/ New formula of nuclear force 1 New Formula for Nuclear Force 1. NUCLEAR FORCE Kamal Uddin* , MD Organization—Independent, India ABSTRACT It is well established that the forces between nucleons are transmitted by mesons. According to the meson theory, the quantitative explanation of the nuclear forces was extremely tentative and incomplete. But this theory presents a valuable point of view. It is fairly certain now that the nucleons within nuclear matter are in a state made rather different from their free condition by the proximity of other nucleons .Charge independence of nuclear forces demand the existence of neutral meson as amongst the same type of nucleons (P-P) or (N-N). This force demands the same spin and the same orbital angular momentum. The exchange interaction is produced by only a neutral meson. The involving mesons without electric charge that it gives exchange forces between protons and Neutrons. Also therefore maintains charge independence character. It is evident for the nature of the products that neutral mesons decay by both strong and weak interactions. It means that neutral mesons’ constituents are responsible for the electromagnetic interaction. Dramatically neutral mesons play an important role for both electromagnetic and nuclear forces. Keywords: Rest mass energy, Mesons, Differentiation, velocity of light INTRODUCTION It is well established that the forces between nucleons are transmitted by mesons. According to the meson theory, the quantitative explanation of nuclear forces was extremely tentative and incomplete. But this theory presents a valuable point of view. Yukawa first pointed out that the nuclear force can be explained by assuming that the particle of the mass is about 200 times of the electron mass(meson) exists. It can be emitted or absorbed by nuclear particles (neutrons and protons). With such an assumption, a force between the nuclear particles is now being obtained. Now, we have the rest mass energy = m0 c 2 Differentiating with respect to r (Inner radius at which nuclear force comes into play), * * Email: kamal_kahkshan@yahoo.co.in 2Kamal Uddin This force is short-ranged, attractive and along the line, joining the two particles (the central force).The wide success of this first application of quantum mechanics to nuclear phenomena gives us confidence in general use of quantum mechanics for the description of the force between heavy particles present in the nuclei. Where dm0c 2 = either rest mass energy of p 0 mesons (for neutral theory), or rest mass energy of p+, p- & p 0mesons (for symmetrical theory). dm0 =either mass of p 0 mesons or mass of p + , p -& p0 mesons. m0 = mass of nucleons. m0cdc = rest mass energy of nucleons. dr= the range of the nuclear force, which can be calculated from the differentiation of nuclear radius. 2017-06-21T04:07:41.75-04:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/-New-formula-of-nuclear-force-45353.aspx Nuclear force NUCLEAR FORCE Kamal Uddin*, MD Organization—Independent, India ABSTRACT It is well established that the forces between nucleons are transmitted by mesons. According to the meson theory, the quantitative explanation of the nuclear forces was extremely tentative and incomplete. But this theory presents a valuable point of view. It is fairly certain now that the nucleons within nuclear matter are in a state made rather different from their free condition by the proximity of other nucleons .Charge independence of nuclear forces demand the existence of neutral meson as amongst the same type of nucleons (P-P) or (N-N). This force demands the same spin and the same orbital angular momentum. The exchange interaction is produced by only a neutral meson. The involving mesons without electric charge that it gives exchange forces between protons and Neutrons. Also therefore maintains charge independence character. It is evident for the nature of the products that neutral mesons decay by both strong and weak interactions. It means that neutral mesons’ constituents are responsible for the electromagnetic interaction. Dramatically neutral mesons play an important role for both electromagnetic and nuclear forces. Keywords: Rest mass energy, Mesons, Differentiation, velocity of light INTRODUCTION It is well established that the forces between nucleons are transmitted by mesons. According to the meson theory, the quantitative explanation of nuclear forces was extremely tentative and incomplete. But this theory presents a valuable point of view. Yukawa first pointed out that the nuclear force can be explained by assuming that the particle of the mass is about 200 times of the electron mass(meson) exists. It can be emitted or absorbed by nuclear particles (neutrons and protons). With such an assumption, a force between the nuclear particles is now being obtained. Now, we have the rest mass energy = m0 c2 Differentiating with respect to r (Inner radius at which nuclear force comes into play), This force is short-ranged, attractive and along the line, joining the two particles (the central force).The wide success of this first application of quantum mechanics to nuclear phenomena gives us confidence in general use of quantum mechanics for the description of the force between heavy particles present in the nuclei. Where dm0c2 = either rest mass energy of 2017-06-21T04:00:53.887-04:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/-Nuclear-force-45352.aspx New formula of nuclear force NUCLEAR FORCE Kamal Uddin*, MD Organization—Independent, India ABSTRACT It is well established that the forces between nucleons are transmitted by mesons. According to the meson theory, the quantitative explanation of the nuclear forces was extremely tentative and incomplete. But this theory presents a valuable point of view. It is fairly certain now that the nucleons within nuclear matter are in a state made rather different from their free condition by the proximity of other nucleons .Charge independence of nuclear forces demand the existence of neutral meson as amongst the same type of nucleons (P-P) or (N-N). This force demands the same spin and the same orbital angular momentum. The exchange interaction is produced by only a neutral meson. The involving mesons without electric charge that it gives exchange forces between protons and Neutrons. Also therefore maintains charge independence character. It is evident for the nature of the products that neutral mesons decay by both strong and weak interactions. It means that neutral mesons’ constituents are responsible for the electromagnetic interaction. Dramatically neutral mesons play an important role for both electromagnetic and nuclear forces. Keywords: Rest mass energy, Mesons, Differentiation, velocity of light INTRODUCTION It is well established that the forces between nucleons are transmitted by mesons. According to the meson theory, the quantitative explanation of nuclear forces was extremely tentative and incomplete. But this theory presents a valuable point of view. Yukawa first pointed out that the nuclear force can be explained by assuming that the particle of the mass is about 200 times of the electron mass(meson) exists. It can be emitted or absorbed by nuclear particles (neutrons and protons). With such an assumption, a force between the nuclear particles is now being obtained. Now, we have the rest mass energy = m0 c2 Differentiating with respect to r (Inner radius at which nuclear force comes into play), This force is short-ranged, attractive and along the line, joining the two particles (the central force).The wide success of this first application of quantum mechanics to nuclear phenomena gives us confidence in general use of quantum mechanics for the description of the force between heavy particles present in the nuclei. Where dm0c2 = either rest mass energy of 2017-06-21T03:43:54.063-04:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/New-formula-of-nuclear-force-45351.aspx New formula for nuclear force NUCLEAR FORCE Kamal Uddin*, MD Organization—Independent, India ABSTRACT It is well established that the forces between nucleons are transmitted by mesons. According to the meson theory, the quantitative explanation of the nuclear forces was extremely tentative and incomplete. But this theory presents a valuable point of view. It is fairly certain now that the nucleons within nuclear matter are in a state made rather different from their free condition by the proximity of other nucleons .Charge independence of nuclear forces demand the existence of neutral meson as amongst the same type of nucleons (P-P) or (N-N). This force demands the same spin and the same orbital angular momentum. The exchange interaction is produced by only a neutral meson. The involving mesons without electric charge that it gives exchange forces between protons and Neutrons. Also therefore maintains charge independence character. It is evident for the nature of the products that neutral mesons decay by both strong and weak interactions. It means that neutral mesons’ constituents are responsible for the electromagnetic interaction. Dramatically neutral mesons play an important role for both electromagnetic and nuclear forces. Keywords: Rest mass energy, Mesons, Differentiation, velocity of light INTRODUCTION It is well established that the forces between nucleons are transmitted by mesons. According to the meson theory, the quantitative explanation of nuclear forces was extremely tentative and incomplete. But this theory presents a valuable point of view. Yukawa first pointed out that the nuclear force can be explained by assuming that the particle of the mass is about 200 times of the electron mass(meson) exists. It can be emitted or absorbed by nuclear particles (neutrons and protons). With such an assumption, a force between the nuclear particles is now being obtained. Now, we have the rest mass energy = m0 c2 Differentiating with respect to r (Inner radius at which nuclear force comes into play), This force is short-ranged, attractive and along the line, joining the two particles (the central force).The wide success of this first application of quantum mechanics to nuclear phenomena gives us confidence in general use of quantum mechanics for the description of the force between heavy particles present in the nuclei. Where dm0c2 = either rest mass energy of p0 mesons (for neutral theory), or rest mass energy of p+, p-& p0mesons (for symmetrical theory). dm0 =either mass of p0 mesons or mass of p+ , p-& p0 mesons. m0 = mass of nucleons. 2017-06-21T03:01:54.503-04:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/New-formula-for-nuclear-force-45350.aspx Genetically modified foods paper To meet the increasing food needs, science has discovered how to genetically modifying plants and crops to enhance crop yield and create superior and stronger varieties of crops and fruits. Genetically Modified Organism’s are one of the most important issues from around the world. Genetically Modified Organism’s are special organisms in which the genetic material has been altered for improvement of productivity and product quality. Having food is very important in order for the human life to maintain good health and to survive. Genetically modified foods have spread out rapidly to the whole world. Genetically Modified Organism’s are harmful to our health. Transgenic crops lead to serious destruction of the environment and have contaminated organic crops. Major companies intend to monopolize market-foods. In order to prevent eating genetically modified foods without knowing it, genetically modified foods should be labeled and people should recognize how dangerous genetically Modified Organism’s are for us. Genetically Modified Organism’s are an injected gene from another species, unlike organic foods which have been eaten for human history. Despite the dangerousness, the foods have still been on our table without verification. Proving safety is beyond the capabilities of current technology. Supporters of genetic engineering argue that the application of biotechnology to improve the nutritional contents of various foods will help people who suffer many deficiency diseases. Also, they claim that genetically modified foods can yields medical benefit by injecting a particular genes or vaccine. However, Genetically Modified Organism’s are only a temporary measure, not the fundamental solution for nutritional improvement of foods and medical benefits. Their own disadvantages far outweigh their own advantages. A study by the American Academy of Environmental Medicine (AAME) advised precaution because genetically modified foods have not been tested for human consumption and because there is significant evidence of probable harm (AAME, 2009). The harmful effects that have risen up to now are that Genetically Modified Organism’s can cause food allergy reactions, indirect and non-traceable effects on cancer rate, unknown effects on human health and malfunction immune system. Several studies bear testimony to the dangerousness. For instance, according to the study conducted by Dr. Árpád Pusztai at the Rowett Research Institute in 1998, the result of his research showed feeding genetically modified potatoes to rat led them to malfunction of immune systems (Arpad, 1998). The other research published in New Scientist at Purdue University, 2015-06-09T09:39:31.13-04:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/Genetically-modified-foods-paper-35115.aspx Richard Dawkins Worldview Richard Dawkins Introduction I have chosen Richard Dawkins as the role model I am studying. His views are not the same as mine but he is a very well respected speaker and scientist. In this paper, I will explain the worldview that Richard Dawkins lived out in his life. I will compare and contrast the values and actions of Richard Dawkins with my own worldview and values. I will first compare my family values to the family values that Richard Dawkins lived out. I will then compare how I view sexuality to how he viewed this in areas of his life. Then I will compare how I view the nature of God and how Richard Dawkins views God. Finally, I will explain and give reasons as to why I believe that Richard Dawkins was a role model regarding certain topics, not all, but could definitely be a role model to others. Family I would say that Richard Dawkins worldview is one of an Atheist worldview. Richard Dawkins was born in Kenya. His mother and father later moved him to England. His entire life, his parents both answered an questions he has in great scientific explanations. He was raised as a Christian though. He believed in Christianity until he was a teenager. During his teenage years, he learned about the theory of evolution (Dawkins, 1995). He has always had a very complex way of thinking, so the theory of evolution seemed to help explain the complexity of humanity better than the theory of creationism (Dawkins, 1995). Richard Dawkins feels that you should always teach your children good morals. He doesn't believe that morals have to have anything to do with religion. He feels we should be able to teach our children good values without having to "fear" God (Dawkins, 1995). He also has also put an emphasis on success. He is a very successful and well-known man. My values are much like his, I try to show my children that you should try your hardest to be successful in life and have good morals. We strive to help our children be successful in life, to love God, not fear Him. We want them to care about other people, be compassionate about everything in their lives, and stand up for themselves. Sexuality Richard Dawkins is one of the founders of the "Gay Gene". 2013-09-29T21:54:36.1-04:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/Richard-Dawkins-Worldview-34971.aspx Apollonius of Perga Apollonius was a great mathematician, known by his contempories as " The Great Geometer, " whose treatise Conics is one of the greatest scientific works from the ancient world. Most of his other treatise were lost, although their titles and a general indication of their contents were passed on by later writers, especially Pappus of Alexandria. As a youth Apollonius studied in Alexandria ( under the pupils of Euclid, according to Pappus ) and subsequently taught at the university there. He visited Pergamum, capital of a Hellenistic kingdom in western Anatolia, where a university and library similar to those in Alexandria had recently been built. While at Pergamum he met Eudemus and Attaluus, and he wrote the first edition of Conics. He addressed the prefaces of the first three books of the final edition to Eudemus and the remaining volumes to Attalus, whom some scholars identify as King Attalus I of Pergamum. It is clear from Apollonius' allusion to Euclid, Conon of Samos, and Nicoteles of Cyrene that he made the fullest use of his predecessors' works. Book 1-4 contain a systematic account of the essential principles of conics, which for the most part had been previously set forth by Euclid, Aristaeus and Menaechmus. A number of theorems in Book 3 and the greater part of Book 4 are new, however, and he introduced the terms parabola, eelipse, and hyperbola. Books 5-7 are clearly original. His genius takes its highest flight in Book 5, in which he considers normals as minimum and maximum straight lines drawn from given points to the curve ( independently of tangent properties ), discusses how many normals can be drawn from particular points, finds their feet by construction, and gives propositions determining the center of curvature at any points and leading at once to the Cartesian equation of the evolute of any conic. The first four books of the Conics survive in the original Grrek and the next three in Arabic translation. Book 8 is lost. The only other extant work of Apollonius is Cutting Off of a Ratio ( or On Proportional Section ), in an Arabic translation. Pappus mentions five additional works, Cutting off an Area ( or On Spatial Section ) , On Determinate Section, Tangencies, and Plane Loci. Tangencies embraced the following general problem : given three 2013-02-18T15:07:30.853-05:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/Apollonius-of-Perga-34801.aspx A Free Essay about Tornadoes Tornadoes There are at least 1000 tornadoes reported each year in the United States. In this paper I will discuss how tornadoes develop, when and where tornadoes are most likely to occur, the different levels of tornadoes and how they are measured, and some tornado safety tips. Usually tornadoes will form from thunderstorms. For a thunderstorm to spawn a tornado the storm must contain rotation. For this rotation to develop within a thunderstorm there must be warm, moist air and cool, dry air that meet which form the rotation. From this rotation a cone-shaped column of air coming from the thunderstorm is formed, which is known as a funnel cloud. But, when the funnel cloud touches the ground it becomes a tornado. Tornadoes are very unpredictable and could happen at any time of the day or anytime of year. For southern states, like us, tornado season is not only at its peak from March to May, but also in the fall. For the nothern states tornadoes usually occur during the summer. However, in the north and south of the United States the most likely time for a tornado to happen is between three o'clock and nine o'clock p.m. More than half of the nation's tornadoes occur in the central part of the United States, this area is known as the Great Plains. The Great Plains is made up of Texas, Oklahoma, Kansas, and South and North Dakota. This area of the United States is also known as Tornado Alley. This area of flat land combines all of the elements needed to form tornadoes. The Fujita Tornado Intesity Scale was developed to measure the strength of a tornado by the damage it made. The Fujita Scale, also known as the F-Scale, was invented in 1971 by Ted Fujita. The National Weather Service uses the Fujita Tornado Intensity Scale to measure tornado intensity. The only problem with this scale is that the tornado can't be measured until after it has occurred. The F-Scale starts out with an EF0 being the weakest and goes all the way up to an EF6. The EF0 has winds between 65 and 85 mph, and would only leave minor damage such as leaving trees with broken branches. The most damaging tornado on the F-Scale is the EF6. This strength tornado has winds 2012-10-25T11:43:52.92-04:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/A-Free-Essay-about-Tornadoes-34723.aspx Richard Feynman This paper gives a biography of physicist Richard Feynman, and explains what his life and accomplishments tell us about the structure of scientific inquire in the United States. (8 pages; 2 sources; end notes) I Introduction Richard Feynman (1918-1988) was one of those scientists who achieved not only a great deal of respect from his peers, but also “crossed over” into mainstream American culture to the extent that many non-scientists at least knew his name. Feynman worked to develop the first atomic bomb, won the Nobel Prize in physics, and was the person who solved the mystery of the Challenger explosion. He seems to have what I can only describe as “fans”: there are tons of websites devoted to him, his work, his life, and his somewhat unorthodox non-scientific pursuits (he was an artist, storyteller, Mayan hieroglyphics translator and safe-cracker!) This paper will look at Feynman’s life, which will help us see him in his various roles as “scientist, administrator, strategist, pioneer” and suggest how his experiences can help us understand the “historical structure and organization of American science.” II Brief Biography Richard Feynman was born in New York City in 1918. His family was comfortable but not wealthy, and they gave their son a great gift: the confidence to be himself. “As a young man he had the opportunity to learn to work industriously, but without undo pressure to perform. That in itself would be a theme that he'd rediscover periodically over his lifetime. The rewards for his labors were his own. He would be the judge of his own merit. He was a free man. But what to do with his freedom?” His father, Melville, wanted the boy to be a scientist, but apparently didn’t “push” him hard in that direction. Rather, instead of teaching the boy facts, he encouraged Richard to ask questions. This “intuitive and subtle” approach let the boy become involved in science because he was interested in it, not because he was forced to work in the field. He also learned that it is quite possible to live one’s entire life and never find the answers to the most important questions; what’s important is asking the questions themselves. Richard’s mother Lucille gave him a gift just as important as his sense of inquiry: a sense of humor and an ability to laugh at himself. Because science requires a great deal of 2011-10-26T13:58:49.93-04:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/Richard-Feynman-34133.aspx Darwin Biography In late October, 1831 the HMS Beagle set sail for a five year voyage around the world. On board was renowned geologist Charles Darwin who sought to document native species around the world and study ancient fossils. During this journey, he traveled to five of the continents, but the most revolutionary findings of this trip were found in South America on the Galapagos Islands. Darwin first traveled to South America where he developed new theories on plate tectonics and the geological history of some of the islands he had landed on. Darwin discovered raised beaches, landforms, and layers of volcanic rock. He would even experience and earthquake while in Chile and witness first hand how the ground rose. Darwin would later theorize about this fascinating geological history by writing a book several months later. In South America, Darwin would also discover fossils of extinct mammals in the newest level of strata, signifying that they had recently been extinct. These creatures were extremely similar to armadillos found on other continents. These findings gave Darwin the first idea of species distribution and would greatly assist him in his further findings of natural selection among species. Soon after, Darwin traveled to the Galapagos Islands where he would make his most profound findings. Landing among several of the more secluded islands, Darwin discovered that the native species were greatly different from the fossil records he had studied. Furthermore, he also discovered that despite these differences, there were many strong similarities between the ancient and new species. This was the first hint at the concept of evolution. Darwin studied many of the main species of the Galapagos Islands; most important were the finches and tortoises. Among the finches, Darwin discovered that those who lived on one island had several important differences than those that lived on another. These distinctions included longer beaks on finches who needed to reach the nectar from their food source, while short hard beaks on finches who had to crack nuts for their food source. These differences were vital for the finches’ survival as it gave them access to their food source. Those who lacked these new characteristics were not adapt to survive in their environment. Survival of the fittest is an incorrect term commonly associated with Darwin for this reason. Darwin believed 2008-06-11T22:31:29-04:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/Darwin-Biography-33614.aspx Max Planck Biography Max Karl Ernst Ludwig Planck (April 23, 1858 in Kiel, Germany – October 4, 1947 in Göttingen, Germany) was a German physicist. He is considered to be the founder of quantum theory, and therefore one of the most important physicists of the twentieth century. Contents [hide] 1 Life and work 1.1 Education 1.2 Academic career 1.3 Family 1.4 Professor at Berlin University 1.5 Black-body radiation 1.6 Einstein and the theory of relativity 1.7 World War and Weimar Republic 1.8 Quantum mechanics 1.9 Nazi dictatorship and Second World War 2 Religious view 3 Honours and medals 4 See also 5 Notes 6 Publications 7 Bibliography 8 External links 8.1 Biographies 8.2 Articles [edit] Life and work Planck came from a traditional, intellectual family. His paternal great-grandfather and grandfather were both theology professors in Göttingen, his father was a law professor in Kiel and Munich, and his paternal uncle was a judge. Planck was born in Kiel to Johann Julius Wilhelm Planck and his second wife, Emma Patzig. He was the sixth child in the family, though two of his siblings were from his father's first marriage. Among his earliest memories was the marching of Prussian and Austrian troops into Kiel during the Danish-Prussian war 1864. In 1867 the family moved to Munich, and Planck enrolled in the Maximilians gymnasium, where he came under the tutelage of Hermann Müller, a mathematician who took an interest in the youth, and taught him astronomy and mechanics as well as mathematics. It was from Müller that Planck first learned the principle of conservation of energy. Planck graduated early, at age 16. This is how Planck first came in contact with the field of physics. [edit] Education Planck was extremely gifted when it came to music: he took singing lessons and played the piano, organ and cello, and composed songs and operas. However, instead of music he chose to study physics. Munich physics professor Philipp von Jolly advised him against going into physics, saying, "in this field, almost everything is already discovered, and all that remains is to fill a few holes." Planck replied that he did not wish to discover new things, only to understand the known fundamentals of the field, and began his studies in 1874 at the University of Munich. Under Jolly's supervision, Planck performed the only experiments of his scientific career, studying the diffusion of hydrogen through heated platinum, but soon transferred to theoretical physics. In 1877 he went 2007-11-01T22:17:38-04:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/Max-Planck-Biography--33380.aspx George Berkeley George Berkeley was a strong believer in the idea that individuals can only directly know sensations and ideas of objects, not abstractions such as "matter." He was an Irish Philosopher whose was recognized most for his idea or immaterialism or subject idealism. The University Of Berkeley and the city surrounding it are named after him and his great works and Yale University also bears his name. Berkeley grew up in Dysart Castle. He was William Berkeley’s eldest son. He was educated at Kilkenny College. He then went on to Trinity College and remained there after completion of his degree as a tutor and Greek lecturer. In 1713 George Berkley’s third book Dialogues between Hylas and Philonous, made known his system of philosophy, the leading principle of which is that the world as represented to our senses depends for its existence, as such, on being perceived. One of his main objects was to combat the prevailing materialism of the time which was largely recognized as wrong and was ridiculed. Between 1714 and 1720, he began to travel around Europe to take a break from his academic problems. In 1721, he took Holy Orders, earning his doctorate in divinity, and once again chose to remain at Trinity College. In 1724 he was made Dean of Derry (a city in Northern Ireland). During the year 1725 he founded a college in Bermuda. He then went to Newport, Rhode Island where Berkeley then proceeded to buy a plantation know as “whitehall”. Then George Berkeley bought multiple slaves to help him on the plantation. On June 11, 1731 Berkeley Baptized three of his black slaves. In Berkeley's sermons explained to colonists why Christianity supported slavery, and hence slaves should become baptized Christians. Berkeley said, "It would be of advantage to their slave masters' to have slaves who should 'obey in all things their masters according to the flesh, not with eye-service as men-pleasers, but in singleness of heart, as fearing God; ‘that gospel liberty consist that gospel liberty consists with temporal servitude; and that their slaves would only become better slaves by being Christian" (Berkeley, Proposal, 347. See his sermon in Newport, preached October, 1729). He continues to lived at the plantation while waiting for funds for his Bermuda college to arrive. The funds, however, didn’t come so in 1732 he returned to London. In 1734, he was appointed Bishop of Cloyne. While living 2007-04-03T21:32:01-04:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/George-Berkeley--32887.aspx Rosalind Franklin Rosalind Franklin always liked facts. She was logical and precise, and impatient with things that were otherwise. She decided to become a scientist when she was 15. She passed the examination for admission to Cambridge University in 1938, and it sparked a family crisis. Although her family was well-to-do and had a tradition of public service and philanthropy, her father disapproved of university education for women. He refused to pay. An aunt stepped in and said Franklin should go to school, and she would pay for it. Franklin's mother also took her side until her father finally gave in. War broke out in Europe in 1939 and Franklin stayed at Cambridge. She graduated in 1941 and started work on her doctorate. Her work focused on a wartime problem: the nature of coal and charcoal and how to use them most efficiently. She published five papers on the subject before she was 26 years old. Her work is still quoted today, and helped launch the field of high-strength carbon fibers. At 26, Franklin had her PhD and the war was just over. She began working in x-ray diffraction -- using x-rays to create images of crystalized solids. She pioneered the use of this method in analyzing complex, unorganized matter such as large biological molecules, and not just single crystals. She spent three years in France, enjoying the work atmosphere, the freedoms of peacetime, the French food and culture. But in 1950, she realized that if she wanted to make a scientific career in England, she had to go back. She was invited to King's College in London to join a team of scientists studying living cells. The leader of the team assigned her to work on DNA with a graduate student. Franklin's assumption was that it was her own project. The laboratory's second-in-command, Maurice Wilkins, was on vacation at the time, and when he returned, their relationship was muddled. He assumed she was to assist his work; she assumed she'd be the only one working on DNA. They had powerful personality differences as well: Franklin direct, quick, decisive, and Wilkins shy, speculative, and passive. This would play a role in the coming years as the race unfolded to find the structure of DNA. Franklin made marked advances in x-ray diffraction techniques with DNA. She adjusted her equipment to produce an extremely fine beam of x-rays. She extracted finer DNA fibers than ever 2007-03-15T23:45:46-04:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/Rosalind-Franklin--32799.aspx Galileo Galilei Biography Galileo Galilei Biography This late breaking news has just come in. Galileo Galilei has been named one of the smartest men alive. Certain theories he has made has been a great success to our society. He has now invented what he has called a thermometer. This thermometer is used to check temperature. He has also invented what is also called a compass, which is used to locate directions to a certain point. He has made many other great accomplishments. Now we give his life story and how it all began. Galileo Galilei was born February 15, 1564. He was born near Pisa, Italy and died in Florence, Italy. Galileo was an Italian astronomer. He studied in the field of astronomy. He was also a mathematician. He would give private tutoring lessons from 1885-1889. Plus in 1592 he obtained the chair of mathematics at the University of Puda in the Venetian Republic where he remained until 1610. Galileo had three children by a lady named Marina Gamba. He had two daughters and one son. He sent both of his daughters to a convent because he could not provide a good education for his young daughters. He later managed to have his only son get a good education. In 1609 Galileo detected with his self made telescope four satellites and a moon around Jupiter. In that year he was appointed Chief mathematician of the university and the Philosopher to the Duke of Tuscany. Then in 1621 Galileo was elected Council of the Academe Fiorentino. Galileo invented several things. He invented a hydrostatic balance in 1608. In 1593 he invented the horse driven water pump. He also made a geometric and military compass in 1597. And in 1606 invented the thermometer. His last invention was the pengelium clocks or grandfather clocks in 1641. Galileo had five theories. The first theory was the Principal of Inertia. The next one was Law of Falling Bodies. The following Theory is the path of a projectile is a parabola. Then subsequently came the simple thermometer theory. There upon came the last law of Equilibrium. Galileo made some contributions to science. He invented the thermometer, which aids us in our everyday lives. Now we can check our temperatures to see if we are sick. Thanks to him we have information about the solar system and it’s planets. Galileo was different from the scientists at 2006-11-17T02:40:13-05:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/Galileo-Galilei-Biography-31802.aspx Biography of Isaac Newton Biography of Isaac Newton Isaac Newton was born on December 25, 1642 in Woolsthorpe England. He was born the same year Galileo died. Newton is clearly the most influential scientist who ever lived. His accomplishments in mathematics and physics laid the foundations for modern science and revolutionized the world. As mathematician, Newton invented calculus, and with the help of Leibnitz, differential calculus. He also calculated a formula for finding the velocity of sound in a gas which was later corrected by Laplace. Newton made a huge impact on theoretical astronomy. He defined the laws of motion and universal gravitation which he used to predict precisely the motions of stars, and the planets around the sun. Using his discoveries in optics Newton constructed the first reflecting telescope. Newton found science a hodgepodge of isolated facts 2006-11-17T01:32:58-05:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/Biography-of-Isaac-Newton-31773.aspx The Life Of Benjamin Franklin The Life Of Benjamin Franklin When one takes a look at the world in which he currently lives, he sees it as being normal since it is so slow in changing. When an historian looks at the present, he sees the effects of many events and many wise people. Benjamin Franklin is one of these people. His participation in so many different fields changed the world immensely. He was a noted politician as well as respected scholar. He was an important inventor and scientist. Particularly interesting is the impact on the scientific world. Benjamin Franklin was a modest man who had had many jobs in his lifetime. This may help explain his large array of inventions and new methods of working various jobs. He did everything from making cabbage-growing more efficient to making political decisions to being the first person to study and chart the Gulf Stream movement in the Atlantic Ocean. Franklin was born in Boston, Massachusetts, on January 17, 1706. He was the fifteenth child in a family of seventeen kids. His parents, Josiah and Abiah Franklin, were hard working devout Puritan/Calvinist people. Josiah Franklin made candles for a living. Since the Franklin’s were so poor, little Benjamin couldn't afford to go to school for longer than two years. In those two years, however, Franklin learned to read which opened the door to further education for him. Since he was only a fair writer and had very poor mathematical skills, he worked to tutor himself at home. Benjamin Franklin was a determined young man. As a boy, he taught himself to be a very good writer. He also learned basic algebra and geometry, navigation, grammar, logic, and natural and physical science. He partially mastered French, German, Italian, Spanish, and Latin. He was soon to be named the best educated man in the country. When he was 12-years-old, he was apprentice to his brother in printing. Benjamin's brother founded the second newspaper in America. Many people told him that one newspaper was enough for America and that the paper would soon collapse. On the contrary, it became very popular. Occasionally, young Benjamin would write an article to be printed 2006-08-27T15:42:13-04:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/The-Life-Of-Benjamin-Franklin-31307.aspx Biography of Galileo Galilei Biography of Galileo Galilei “In questions of science, the authority of a thousand is not worth the humble reasoning of a single individual.” For Galileo Galilei this thought meant everything. He went against everyone and believed what he thought was true. Many disrespected him and thought he was insane to question the theories of many great scientists of that day. He proved to be right a portion of the time. Galilieo the Great fits him better than Galileo Galilei, “cause great he was. Galileo was born on February 15, 1564 in Pisa, Italy. His father, Vincenzio Galilei, was a Florentine patrician. His father also taught music and wrote against the prevailing abstract, numeral theories of harmony. Galileo’s first dream was a musician due to the fact that his father was very involved in music. A private tutor provided Galileo’s education. Then his education was given to him by the Camaldolese monks of Vallombrosa. Finally Galileo reached collage. At this point in his life he decided he wanted to be a medical student. With this in mind he enrolled in the University of Pisa as a medical student. Approximately 2 years later he began studying mathematics with a family friend, Ostilio Ricci. Galileo left the University in 1585 without a degree. Galileo started applying mathematics to physics. This helped him start forming theorems about the center of gravity of solids bodies and a treatise on the hydrostatic balance. He then became interested in uniform beating of pendulums and the speed of descent bodies in air and in water. Most physics before Galileo was treated as a branch of Aristotelian philosophy. Heavy bodies were supposed to fall at speeds the same as its weight, seeking the center of the earth. Thrown bodies supposedly were kept in motion either by some property of the air or a temporary force put into them by the thrower. It was all different for Galileo. In 1590 he wrote a treatise on motion in which he disputed nearly every assumption of Aristotelian physics. He held the view that bodies composed of the same of material fall with the same speed through a given medium regardless of their weights. He supported his theory based on the principle of Archimedes. Galileo achieved many 2006-07-29T16:05:56-04:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/Biography-of-Galileo-Galilei-30784.aspx Biographical Report on Heinrich Schliemann Biographical Report on Heinrich Schliemann The life of Heinrich Schliemann embodies the era of scientific discovery in the late eighteen hundreds. His is a tale of success, and that of man turned to myth. From a meager upbringing, he achieved success in business, and went on to make some of the most impacting archeological discoveries in the nineteenth century. Though copious amounts have been written on Schliemann, the accounts differ greatly, varying from hero to charlatan. From Schliemann's biographers, it remains difficult to glean an accurate perception of him; in many cases, legend is incorporated as fact, thus the man envisioned as Schliemann is the fusion of myth and reality. Regardless of whether one defines Schliemann as a genius after intellectual pursuits or a mere gold-digger, he remains a man that intrigues or induces curiosity. His story is "inextricably bound up with the beginnings of archaeology as a science" (Wood, 50) It is widely believed that from Schliemann's youth, he was inspired by the writing of Homer, and determined to find and excavate Troy in order to prove the truth of its existence. Accounts vary on this theme, but commonly, this is considered true. Schliemann based his business ventures and wealth on his lifelong scholarly pursuits. Deviants to this notion, however, believe that Schliemann concocted the accounts of a lifelong obsession for the epic poems and all things Greek late in life in order to cover up the fact that he was merely in search of fame and fortune. As Wood writes in In Search of the Trojan War, "today it is customary to deride Schliemann's archaeological technique as well as his character" (Wood, 51). Schilemann is considered by some as a brilliant, self-taught man who climbed the ranks to achieve success, whose quick mind, wit and excitability lent themselves to create a most fascinating man. Some historians maintain that Schliemann was passionate about Greek culture from his youth, immersing himself in it, even to the point of marrying a young Greek woman solely for her cultural roots. Legend has it that he held a contest in order to find the most eloquent reading of Homer's Iliad, however it is also said that a friend arranged the marriage. Schliemann's wife, Sophia (Figure 2), became an integral part of his life, contributing a great deal to his research and excavations. Schliemann's seemed determined to bring to life the ancient lore of 2006-07-16T20:33:25-04:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/Biographical-Report-on-Heinrich-Schliemann-30251.aspx Biography of Chemist Linus Pauling Biography of Chemist Linus Pauling Chemist Linus Pauling; born in Portland, Ore. After taking his Ph.D. at the California Institute of Technology (1925) and then two years of study abroad, he returned to that institution for most of his professional career (1927--63). Details of those years are as follows: At the California Institute of Technology his advisor was Roscoe Dickinson, whose area of expertise was X-ray crystallography. At this time Dickinson was investigating the crystal structure of various minerals. In his work with Dickinson, Pauling displayed what was to become his standard method of attacking a problem. According to Dr. Edward Hughes, "He would guess what the structure might be like, and then he would arrange it to fit into the other data. . . he could then calculate the intensities he would get from that structure and then compare it with the observed ones." For the rest of his career Pauling was criticized for using too large an amount of intuition in his work and not always having complete data to back up what he wrote. As well as doing his research work, Pauling was taking courses and serving as a teaching assistant in the freshman chemistry course. He received his Ph. D. in chemistry with high honors in the June of 1925. His dissertation comprised the various papers he had already published on the crystal structure of different minerals. A year later, when he was 25, he received a Guggenheim fellowship to study at the University of Munich under Arnold Sommerfeld, a theoretical physicist. Here he began work with quantum mechanics. In January of 1927 he published "The Theoretical Prediction of the Physical Properties of Many Electron Atoms and Ions; Mole Refraction, Diamagnetic Susceptibility, and Extension in Space" in which he applied the concept of quantum mechanics to chemical bonding. In 1928 he published six principles to decide the structure of complicated crystals. This bothered Bragg even more since they did not all originate with Pauling. Actually, according to Horach Judson, "Pauling clarified them, codified them, demonstrated their generality and power." However, Bragg was spreading stories in England about Pauling's "thievery" and lack of professional ethics. At this time Pauling took an assistant professorship in chemistry at Cal. Tech. In 1928 he published a paper on orbital hybridization and resonance. In 1931 he published the first paper, "The Nature of the Chemical Bond". At this time he was also 2006-07-07T12:33:22-04:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/Biography-of-Chemist-Linus-Pauling-30071.aspx Comprehensive Albert Einstein Biography Comprehensive Albert Einstein Biography Of all the scientists to emerge from the nineteenth and twentieth centuries there is one whose name is known by almost all living people. While most of these do not understand this man's work, everyone knows that its impact on the world of science is astonishing. Yes, many have heard of Albert Einstein's General Theory of relativity, but few know about the intriguing life that led this scientist to discover what some have called, "The greatest single achievement of human thought." Einstein was born in Ulm, Germany on March 14, 1874. Before his first birthday, his family had moved to Munich where young Albert's father, Hermann Einstein, and uncle set up a small electro-chemical business. He was fortunate to have an excellent family with which he held a strong relationship. Albert's mother, Pauline Einstein, had an intense passion for music and literature, and it was she that first introduced her son to the violin in which he found much joy and relaxation. Also, he was very close with his younger sister, Maja, and they could often be found in the lakes that were scattered about the countryside near Munich. As a child, Einstein's sense of curiosity had already begun to stir. A favorite toy of his was his father's compass, and he often marvelled at his uncle's explanations of algebra. Although young Albert was intrigued by certain mysteries of science, he was considered a slow learner. His failure to become fluent in German until the age of nine even led some teachers to believe he was disabled. Einstein's post-basic education began at the Luitpold Gymnasium when he was ten. It was here that he first encountered the German spirit through the school's strict disciplinary policy. His disapproval of this method of teaching led to his reputation as a rebel. It was probably these differences that caused Einstein to search for knowledge at home. He began not with science, but with religion. He avidly studied the Bible seeking truth, but this religious fervor soon died down when he discovered the intrigue of science and math. To him, these seemed much more realistic than ancient stories. With this new knowledge he disliked class even more, and was eventually expelled from Luitpold Gymnasium being considered a disruptive influence. Feeling that he could no longer deal with the German mentality, Einstein moved to Switzerland where he continued 2006-07-03T15:27:44-04:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/Comprehensive-Albert-Einstein-Biography-29940.aspx Material on the Life of Charles Darwin Material on the Life of Charles Darwin Charles Darwin was born in Shrewsbury, Shropshire. He was the son of Robert Waring Darwin and his wife Susannah, and the grandson of the scientist Erasmus Darwin. His mother died when he was eight years old, and he was brought up by his sister. He was taught the classics at Shrewsbury, then sent to Edinburgh to study medicine, which he hated. Like many modern students Darwin only excelled in subjects that intrigued him. Although his father was a physician, Darwin was uninterested in medicine and he was unable to stand the sight of surgery. He did eventually obtain a degree in theology from Cambridge University, although theology was of minor interest to him also. What Darwin really liked to do was tramp over the hills, observing plants and animals, collecting new specimens, scrutinizing their structures, and categorizing his findings, guided by his cousin William Darwin Fox, an entomologist. Darwin's scientific inclinations were encouraged by his botany professor, John Stevens Henslow, who was instrumental, despite heavy paternal opposition, in securing a place for Darwin as a naturalist on the surveying expedition of HMS Beagle to Patagonia. Under Captain Robert Fitzroy, Darwin visited Tenerife, the Cape Verde Island, Brazil, Montevideo, Buenos Aires, Chile, the Galapagos Islands, Tahiti, New Zealand, and Tasmania. In the Cape Verde Island Darwin devised his theory of coral reefs. Another significant stop on the trip was in the Galapagos Islands, it was here that Darwin found huge populations of tortoises and he found that different islands were home to significantly different types of tortoises. Darwin then found that on islands without tortoises, prickly pear cactus plants grew with their pads and fruits spread out over the ground. On islands that had hundreds of tortoises, the prickly pears grew substantially thick, tall trunks, bearing the pads and fruits high above the reach of the tough mouthed tortoises. During this five-year expedition he obtained intimate knowledge of the fauna, flora, and geology of many lands, which equipped him for his later investigations. In 1836, Darwin returned to England after the 5 years with the expedition, and by 1846 he had became one of the foremost naturalists of his time, and he also published several works on the geological and zoological discoveries of his voyage. He developed a friendship with Sir Charles Lyell, became secretary of the Geological Society, a position which Darwin 2006-07-02T22:35:30-04:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/Material-on-the-Life-of-Charles-Darwin-29908.aspx Overview of Galileo's Life as a Scientist Overview of Galileo's Life as a Scientist Galileo Galilei was born near Pisa in February 15’ 1564. As he grew up he was taught by Monks and entered into the University of Pisa. In the University of Pisa he studied Mathematics and he got a very high degree. After he graduated, around 1609 when the first telescope was invented he made a telescope of his own which magnified 20 times. 2006-06-27T02:26:01-04:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/Overview-of-Galileo-s-Life-as-a-Scientist-29868.aspx Biography of Charles Darwin's own Evolution Biography of Charles Darwin's own Evolution Charles Darwin was born in Shrewsburry, England on February 12, 1809. He is the son of Robert Waring Darwin, a physician. Darwin showed little interest in his education at Shrewsburry School and in medical studies at Edinburgh University (1825-27). He decided to turn away from becoming a physician after witnessing several operations performed without anesthesia. At the same time he began to be interested in geology and in natural history. He was sent to study for Holy Orders for the Church of England at Christ Church College at Cambridge University in 1828. Instead of becoming a minister he became more and more interested in natural history. After he got his B.A. degree in 1831 , a professor and friend, John Stevens Henslow recommended him for an unpaid position as a naturalist on a scientific expedition. Darwin went on a 5 year voyage on the H.M.S Beagle; a turning point in his life. The ship set sail on December 27,1831 to study the Pacific Coast of South America and some Pacific Islands; and also set up navigation stations in the area. Darwin's duty was to study geology and biology of the areas. His research in geology was that sedimentary rocks crystallize when metamorphosed by overlying rocks. He also saw evidence of how volcanoes and earthquakes change the lay of the land, uplifting some areas. His theory of coral reefs were built up by skeletal remains of coral organisms that died as their home reefs around oceanic mountains sank below sea level. His common idea was all things in nature change in time . He published his observations like Coral Reefs in 1842, Volcanic Islands in 1844, Geological Observations On South America in 1846. The Galapagos Islands were probably the scene of his most important and best known research. Darwin found dazzling array of animal species that lived on different islands even though all islands were very similar in geological, climatic, and other physical conditions. He found an array of ground finches with beaks ranging from large and powerful to small or fine. He correlated differences not with physical conditions but with birds' feeding habits. Those with small beaks ate small seeds, and those with fine beaks primarily fed on insects. He thought that each finch was suited by food available in its environment. They were later called Darwin's Finches. In November 24,1859 he published a 2006-06-15T22:46:37-04:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/Biography-of-Charles-Darwin-s-own-Evolution-29576.aspx Biography of Nobel Prize Winner Michael Smith Biography of Nobel Prize Winner, Michael Smith I was born on April 26th, 1932 in Blackpool, England. My childhood went by quickly. I was very bright in elementary school. My family wasn’t to rich, so I didn’t have the option to go to a private school. Luckily I earned a Scholarship to Arnold School. And although I didn’t like my peers, I tried hard at school and I did well. I was not proficient in Latin and so was not able to go to Oxford or Cambridge. However, I did enter the first-rate chemistry honours program at the University of Manchester in 1950, where the professors were E.R.H. Jones and M.G. Evans, and graduated in 1953, with the financial support of a Blackpool Education Committee Scholarship. I had hoped to get a first-class degree, but only got a 2(i)! I was very disappointed. However, I still was able to obtain a State Scholarship which supported me throughout my graduate studies until I finished my Ph.D. degree in 1956. My supervisor was H.B. Henbest. He was an outstanding young organic chemist, and I was glad to have him as a supervisor of my work on cyclohexane diols. However, we did not have a particularly warm relationship. I was socially shy and moody and was probably quite hard to understand. I heard of a very intelligent scientist in Vancouver, Gobind Khorana. I wrote to him and was awarded a fellowship after an interview in London with the Director of the British Columbia Research Council, Dr. G.M. Shrum. I arrived in Vancouver in September 1956. My first project was to develop a general, efficient procedure for the chemical synthesis of nucleoside-5' triphosphates based on the synthesis of ATP by Khorana in 1954. Not the easiest thing to do let me tell you that. In 1960, the Khorana group, including myself, newly married (I have three children, Tom, Ian and Wendy. My wife Helen and we separated in early 1983), moved to the Institute for Enzyme Research at the University of Wisconsin. I enjoyed my time there because of the opportunity it presented to learn about marine biology and I was able to sustain my interest in nucleic acid chemistry because of the award of a U.S. National Institutes of Health Grant, which led to a new synthetic method for nucleoside-3',5' cyclic phosphates. However, the atmosphere of the laboratory, although based on the campus 2006-06-12T20:55:51-04:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/Biography-of-Nobel-Prize-Winner-Michael-Smith-29374.aspx Henry Ford [Henry Ford: A Man of the Century The 2006 Porsche 911 that I would love to own would not even be in existence were it not for the fortitude and ingenuity of men like Henry Ford who lead the way in the automotive industry. The Ford Motor Company and Henry Ford with his engineer’s mind and spirit of inventiveness changed American history. Henry Ford was a man with an interesting private life as well being a man who pushed to make his dreams come true and did not take “no” for an answer which is what a great inventor and business man needs. Henry Ford was responsible for the assembly line way of manufacturing. In the plant that was built in Highland Park, Michigan to produce the Model T the first assembly line was built. All of the equipment was installed beginning in 1908 and the plant went into production in 1910 the idea was that one person could become very good at doing one thing by doing it over and over and be proud of their work. The assembly line change was what headed the Ford Motor Company to huge sales and profits over the next several years. Charles Sorensen, and Clarence Avery could possibly have been responsible for the idea of the assembly line way of manufacturing, but with Henry Ford’s engineering background he was definitely involved in some way along with these top men of his. Many credit him with the idea alone so it isn’t known if it was collaboration or not. Ford didn’t promote this first car by announcing that he would provide a public demonstration of the capabilities of the car like Charles B. King did who was the first man to drive a car through Detroit. Ford called the car the “quadricycle” and gave that demonstration on Memorial Day in 1896. Basically, there was not a soul that cared, no newspaper wrote an article and this strange car of his wasn’t the first or the best, so back to the drawing board Henry Ford went. Ford’s second car was released in 1899, and he even got a little press with the arrival of this one. In the July 29 edition of the Detroit Journal there was not only an interview but also nice pictures of the demonstration. 2006-04-26T04:57:27-04:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/Henry-Ford--28749.aspx How the Universe was created University of Pristina Faculty of Electronics and Computing Department of: Computing and Telecommunication Besim A. Ismaili Everything comes from nothing "What choice did God have in creating the Universe? - ALBERT EINSTEIN Abstract This will be a resume of space-time existence, starting from the time of creation to the daytime. On this paper, our basic interest will be the old questions about the Universe and the new answers about them. All the project will be separated on the domain of time in three sequences: Pre-Big Bang, Big Bang and The Universe. A big part of this paper will be dedicated for the question: ˜what is happen before Big Bang?™, which is a very good calculated project where the result is still before us. This belong to the first sequence of our separation. It will be described by new theories and concepts, where more important are: The theory of Active Points (Similar to Singularity Theory), The theory of Accumulation Points, The concept of the Universe centre, The concept of space evolution dimensions, etc. The second part is a short enormous process that 2006-03-23T18:22:46-04:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/How-the-Universe-was-created-28614.aspx British Scientist, Charles Robert Darwin Charles Robert Darwin was born in 1809 and lived until 1882. He was a British scientist, who laid the foundation of modern evolutionary theory. He belived that all life was developed through natural selection. His work influenced modern sciences. Darwin was born born in England, on February 12, 1809, he was born into a rich family with five kids. After graduating from college at Shrewsbury in 1825. Darwin went to the University of Edinburgh to study medicine. In 1827 he dropped out of medical school and entered the University of Cambridge, in preparation for becoming a clergyman of the Church of England. After graduating from Cambridge in 1831. At theage of 22 Darwin was taken aboard the English survey ship HMS Beagle, he was going on a 2005-08-02T06:30:50-04:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/British-Scientist,-Charles-Robert-Darwin-27528.aspx Charles Darwin Biography The Life of Charles Darwin Charles Darwin was born on Feb. 12. His full name is Charles Robert Darwin. He died on April 19,1882.Darwin was an English naturalist known for his theory of evolution and for its operation, known as Darwinism. His evolutionary theories, mostly in two works: On the Origin of Species by Means of Natural Selection (1859) and The Descent of Man, and Selection in Relation to Sex (1871)-have had an important influence on scientific thought. Charles was the son of Robert Darwin, who had one of the largest medical practices outside of London, and the grandson of the physician Erasmus Darwin, and of the artisan-entrepreneur Josiah Wedgwood. Darwin enjoyed a secure position in the upper middle class that provided him with social and professional advantages. Darwin's mother died when he was eight years old. He enjoyed a fairly good childhood with his sisters and an older brother. During school he was interested in specimen collecting and chemical investigations. Though while at the Shrewsbury school, where he was an uninspired student, Dr. Samuel Butler, publicly criticized Darwin for wasting his time with chemical experiments. At age 16 he was sent to study medicine at the University of Edinburgh, where he was disgusted by surgery performed without anesthetics. During his two years in Scotland, Darwin benefited from a friendship with the zoologist Robert Grant, who introduced him to the study of marine animals.<Tab/> Disappointed by Darwin's lack of interest for medicine, his father sent him to the University of Cambridge in 1827 to study divinity. At the time Darwin remained true to the standard beliefs of the Church of England. He enjoyed hunting, shooting, riding, and sporting friends. Guided by his older cousin William Darwin Fox, Darwin met the circle of Cambridge scientists led by the botanist John Stevens Henslow. Soon a regular at Henslow's open houses, Henslow encouraged Darwin's interest in science and confidence in his own abilities. On leaving Cambridge in the spring of 1831 Darwin, at Henslow's recommendation he accompanied Adam Sedgwick, professor of geology at Cambridge, on a three-week tour of North Wales to learn geologic fieldwork. In August 1831, at Henslow's recommendation to the Admiralty, Darwin was invited to sail as the naturalist on HMS Beagle. The ship was to survey the east and west coasts of South America and continue to the Pacific. At first Darwin's father refused permission because it was dangerous and would not advance 2005-08-01T07:48:20-04:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/Charles-Darwin-Biography-27513.aspx A Blast from the Past: Albert Einstein A Blast from the Past: Albert Einstein Of all the scientists to emerge from the nineteenth and twentieth centuries there is one whose name is known by almost all living people. While most of these do not understand this mans work, everyone knows that his impact on the world is astonishing. Yes, many people have heard of Albert Einsteins General Theory of Relativity, but few people know about the intriguing life that led this scientist to discover what some have called The Greatest Single achievement of human thought! JB: So here with us today is Alert Einstein, So Albert... do you mind me asking you to tell us a little about your childhood? Einstein: No not at all, lets see here... I was born in Ulm, Germany on March 14th of 1874. I was raised mostly in Munich, Germany. One very odd thing that my mother told me was that I didn't speak until I was three years old. My father owned a small electrochemical shop, once it failed in 1890 then my dad moved us to Million, Italy. JB: I understand that in you’re attempt to attend Princeton you failed the entrance exam, then once you studied you attended anther school instead. what was that all about? Can you tell us? Einstein: Um. O.K. Yes, as a matter of fact I did fail the Mathematical Portion of the exam. I found anther college near by, I attempted to attend I was accepted. This new place was named the Swiss Federal Institute of Technology. This new college was located in Zurich, Italy. In 1896 I started my freshman year of college. Even though I commonly missed classes due to me testing theories, and such. I passed all my examinations with the reviewing of my friends' notes; thus I graduated in 1900 JB: According to my sources you became a naturalized Swiss citizen in 1901. Can you tell us why you became a Naturalized Swiss Citizen? Einstein: The main reason for me becoming a naturalized citizen, was because in order for me to be accepted in society, and to vote also. JB: Once you graduated from college, what did you do for money, and a place to stay? Einstein: Well after my graduation a friend of mine told me that there was an opening for a Technician Assistant. I seized the opportunity; there I made a decent living. Saving my money as I went had enough money to pay the 2005-07-25T06:46:06-04:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/A-Blast-from-the-Past-Albert-Einstein-27372.aspx Short Biography on William Dunbar Obscure Achiever In our nations great history there has always been those who have achieved greatness but are not recognized. One such person is the scientist and planter William Dunbar. Not much is known about William, what is known is as follows. During the year of 1749 William Dunbar was born in and lived near Elgin, Scotland.William Dunbar was the youngest son of Sir Archibald Dunbar of Morayshire, Scotland. He was educated at Glasgow, and later studied mathematics and astronomy at London. The call of America reached to him so that in 1771 he traveled to America.He moved to West 2005-06-03T04:35:03-04:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/Short-Biography-on-William-Dunbar-26816.aspx Louis Pasteur Biography Louis Pasteur Biographical Essay Louis Pasteur was born on December 27, 1822, in Dôle, a small town in France. He grew in a humble family and his father was a tanner. He graduated in 1840 from the College of Arts at Besancon and entered the prestigious Ecole Namale Supervieure, Paris, to work for his doctorate degree. He chose for his studies the then obscure science of crystallography, which was to have a great influence on his career. Pasteur entered the scientific world as a professor of physics at the Lycee of Tournon and started his research on the optical properties of crystals of tartaric acid salts. He found the two forms of this acid which could rotate the plane of polarization of light, one to the right and the other to the left. This was his first important discovery in crystallography, the phenomenon of optical isomers. Paradoxically it incited him to abandon the field. But it won the acclaim of the French Academy and Britain's Royal Society. Thus Pasteur became famous at the age of 26. Pasteur soon began researching the complexities of bacteriology. The prevalent theory of life at the time was spontaneous generation which states that certain forms of life such as flies, worms, and mice can develop from non-living matter such as mud and decaying fish. Pasteur disproved this theory with a simple experiment. He showed that microorganisms would grow in sterilized broth only if the broth was first exposed to air containing spores, or reproductive cells. His findings led to the development of the cell theory of the origin of living matter which states that all life originates from preexisting living material. In 1849, Pasteur became professor of chemistry at the University of Strasbourg, where he began studying fermentation, a type of chemical breakdown of substances by microbes. He served the rest of his career as Dean of Sciences at the University of Lille. Soon after his arrival at Lille, Pasteur was asked to solve the problems of the local industries, vinegar and silk manufacture. A producer of vinegar from beet juice wanted to know why the product was sometimes spoilt. On examining the juice microscopically, Pasteur observed that the contaminant, amyl alcohol, was optically active. This gave clear evidence that it was produced by a living organism. Pasteur then proposed a biological interpretation of the process of fermentation. He demonstrated that when no contamination by living 2005-05-27T05:18:10-04:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/Louis-Pasteur-Biography--26761.aspx Stephen Hawking A Life in Science Summary Stephen Hawking: A Life in Science depicts the life and accomplishments of Stephen Hawking, a unique and towering figure in modern physics, perhaps the most famous scientist since Einstein. He has achieved far more than the vast majority of able-bodied people would ever have dreamed of accomplishing. He has made fundamental breakthroughs in cosmology and, perhaps more than anyone else alive, he has pushed forward our understanding of the universe we live in. His brilliant work on black holes, the big bang, and quantum cosmology has already guaranteed his reputation among physicists and gives hope to those who might not otherwise have any with his success in his field despite his disabilities. Stephen William Hawking came from a family of intellects. He was born on January 8, 1942, in Oxford, England. Both of his parents, Frank and Isobel Hawking, had previously attended Oxford. When it came time for Stephen to attend school, his parents could not afford the tuition to Westminster, one of the best schools in the country. However, Stephen could attend on his own academic merit which would be tested by an entrance examination. The day he was to take the exam he fell ill and consequently never obtained a place at the Westminster Academy. Although disappointed, Stephen's parents knew this small setback would not stop him. Despite his failure, Stephen was still able to attend a local private school which was well-known as an academically excellent institute. He was eccentric and awkward, skinny and puny. His school uniform was always worn messily and he had inherited a slight lisp from his father. He was only a little above average in his class, but had come to be regarded by his teachers as a bright student. Growing up he was always "a bit of a self-educator". He was interested in the stars, and his family used to lie out on the grass looking at the stars. His writing was appalling, and he was one of the only people at school to be issued with a copybook. He was never really good with his hands, and gave the impression of nervousness, being lanky and awkward in movement. However, his poor manual dexterity didn't hold him back. Stephen wanted to study mathematics and physics in university, but his father believed that there would not be any jobs in mathematics and so he took physics and chemistry, and only 2005-05-26T09:19:15-04:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/Stephen-Hawking-A-Life-in-Science-Summary-26725.aspx Galileo Biography Scientist Biographical Essay, Galileo Galileo, Italian physicist and astronomer, was born at Pisa February 15, 1564 and died at Arcetri, near Florence, January 8, 1642. In 1581 he entered the University of Pisa to study medicine and the Aristotelian philosophy, but soon abandoned medicine for mathematics and physical science. In 1585 he left the university and went to Florence to study under Otilio Ricci. He was professor of mathematics at Pisa 1589-91, and at Padua 1592-1610, lecturing there to crowds of enthusiastic pupils from all over Europe. In 1610 Cosmo II, grand duke of Tuscany, appointed him philosopher and mathematician at the Florentine court, thus relieving him of all academic routine and enabling him to devote himself entirely to his scientific investigations. Galileo's opposition to the Ptolemaic cosmology first brought him under the suspicion of the Inquisition in 1611, though he continued his investigations and publicly defended the Copernican system. In a letter to Ms friend Father Castelli, dated Dec. 21, 1613, he maintained that the theologian, instead of trying to restrict scientific investigation on Biblical grounds, should make it his business to reconcile the phraseology of the Bible with the results of science. In 1615 a copy of this letter was produced before the Inquisition, with the result that the following year Galileo was warned by the pope to desist from his heretical teachings on the pain of imprisonment. In 1632 he again drew the attention of the Inquisition by publishing a defense of the Copernican system. After a long and wearisome trial he was condemned on June 22, 1633, solemnly to abjure his scientific creed on bended knees. This he did under threats of torture; but whether he was actually put to the torture is still a mooted question. He was also sentenced to indeterminate imprisonment, but this was soon commuted to residence at Sienna, and the following December he was allowed to return to his villa at Arcetri, though he remained under the surveillance of the Inquisition. In 1637 he became totally blind. Galileo's chief contributions to science are his formulation of the laws governing failing bodies, the invention of the telescope, the discovery of the isochronism of the pendulum, and numerous astronomical discoveries, including the phases of Venus, four satellites of Jupiter, and the spots on the sun. His works were stricken from the Index in 1835. The most important are The System of the World, in 2005-03-21T01:35:28-04:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/Galileo-Biography--26392.aspx Sigmund Freud Biographical Essay Sigmund Freud Biography Sigmund Freud was born on May 6, 1856, in Freiberg, Moravia, which is now Pribor, in Czech Republic, the son of Jacob Freud and his third wife Amalia. Sigmund was followed by seven younger brothers and sisters. His family constellation was unusual because Freud's two half-brothers, Emmanuel and Philip, were almost the same age as his mother. Freud was younger than his nephew John, Emmanuel's son. This odd situation may have triggered Freud's interest on family dynamics, leading to his ulterior formulations on the Oedipus Complex. Freud's father, a Jewish wool merchant of modest means, moved the family to Leipzig, Germany in 1859, and then settled in Vienna, where Freud remained until 1938. When Freud was eight years old, he was reading Shakespeare, and, during his adolescence, the hearing of a lecture about Goethe's essay on nature impressed him very much. Having considered studying law previously, he decided instead on a career in medical research, beginning his studies at Vienna University in 1873. As a student, Freud began research work on the central nervous system, guided by Ernst von Brock, and qualified as doctor of medicine in 1881. He worked at the Theodor Meynert's Psychiatric Clinic for a year, and later studied with Charcot, at the Salpetriure, in Paris. From 1884 to 1887 Freud published several articles on cocaine. He married Martha Bernays in 1886. The couple had six children (Mathilde, 1887; Jean-Martin, 1889; Olivier, 1891; Ernst, 1892; Sophie, 1893; Anna, 1895). He established a private practice, specializing in nervous disorders. His interest in hysteria was stimulated by Breuer's and Charcot's use of hypnotherapy. Freud moved to a flat in Berggasse, which turned into The Freud Museum Vienna eighty years later, in 1971. Freud and Breuer published their findings in Studies on Hysteria in 1895; in the same year, Freud was able to analyze, for the first time, one of his own dreams, frequently known as "The Dream of Irma's Injection". He also wrote 100 pages of draft manuscript that were published only after his death, under the name of Project for a Scientific Psychology in 1950. From 1895-1900, Freud developed many of the concepts that were later included in the theory and practice of psychoanalysis. The term 'psychoanalysis' (free association) was named by Freud in 1896. After breaking with Breuer and reacting to a crisis, due to his father's death, Freud started his self-analysis in 1897, exploring his 2005-03-21T01:31:33-04:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/Sigmund-Freud-Biographical-Essay-26389.aspx Ernst Heinrich Haeckel Biography Ernst Haeckel was born in Potsdam, Germany on February 16th, 1834. Haeckel began his study at Wurzburg, Berlin and Vienna. He excelled in medicine and science under the instruction of Johannes Muller, R. Virchow and R.A. Kolliker. Haeckel graduated in 1857 with a MD and M Ch at Berlin. Haeckel then began to practice as a doctor in Berlin. Haeckel did not have many patients in his practice, but was much more comfortable with the low amount 2004-12-11T07:59:30-05:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/Ernst-Heinrich-Haeckel-Biography-25815.aspx Isaac Asimov Robotics Essay Isaac Asimov Isaac Asimov was born on January 2, 1920 in Petrouchi, Russia. His parents were Judah and Anna Asimov. Isaac also has a sister Veronica and a brother Stanley. In 1923 his family immigrated to the United States. He and his family grew up in Brooklyn, New York. In Brooklyn his family ran a small candy and magazine store. This is one of the places where Asimov began to learn about printing. Also it was here that Asimov learned good business and self-discipline skills (Bloom, 251). Asimov attended school and was a very bright student. He went to college at Columbia University. He graduated from there with his master's degree in Chemistry in 1941. His career was cut short though because in 1942 he moved to Philadelphia Naval Yard to work for the war. In 1945 he entered the army. In July of 1946 he was discharged from the army and he moved around for a few years till settling in West Newton, Massachusetts with Gertrude. It is there that he raised his family (Seiler,8). Asimov married Gertrude Blugerman on July 26th, 1942. They met on a blind date on Valentine's Day. In 1955 their first son was born they named him David. Four years later their daughter Robyn Joan was born. Asimov met another woman Janet Jepson at a mystery writers banquet. The two of them were immediately attracted to one another. In 1970 when Gertrude and Asimov separated he moved in with Janet. His divorce to Gertrude was officialized on November 16th, 1973. On November 30th, 1973 an official of the Ethical Culture Society married Asimov and Janet in her home. They did not have any children (7). Asimov worked for many years of his life before become just a writer. His first job was in 1929. When Asimov's mother became ill and could no longer work at the family business. This is where Asimov first learned his skills he would carry for the rest of his life. He was a hardworking diligent man. After the war and everything Asimov became an instructor at the Boston University of medicine. He was promoted to assistant professor in December of 1951. On July 1st, 1958 he gave up his teaching job and became a writer. Finally in 1979 he was promoted to professor (9). Being a very diligent writer Asimov wrote more than eight hours a day, seven days a week. Although he 2004-07-04T20:15:57-04:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/Isaac-Asimov-Robotics-Essay-25256.aspx Albert Einstein Relativity and the Cosmos Relativity and the Cosmos In November of 1919, at the age of 40, Albert Einstein became an overnight celebrity, thanks to a solar eclipse. An experiment had confirmed that light rays from distant stars were deflected by the gravity of the sun in just the amount he had predicted in his theory of gravity, General Relativity. General Relativity was the first major new theory of gravity since Isaac Newton's, more than two hundred and fifty years earlier. Einstein became a hero, and the myth building began. Headlines appeared in newspapers all over the world. On November 8, 1919, for example, the London Times had an article headlined: "The Revolution In Science/Einstein Versus Newton." Two days later, The New York Times' headlines read: "Lights All Askew In The Heavens/Men Of Science More Or Less Agog Over Results Of Eclipse Observations/Einstein Theory Triumphs." The planet was exhausted with World War I, eager for some sign of humankind's nobility, and suddenly here was a modest scientific genius, seemingly interested only in pure intellectual pursuits. What was General Relativity? Einstein's earlier theory of time and space, Special Relativity, proposed that distance and time are not absolute. The ticking rate of a clock depends on the motion of the observer of that clock; likewise for the length of a "yard stick." Published in 1915, General Relativity proposed that gravity, as well as motion, can affect the intervals of time and of space. The key idea of General Relativity, called the Equivalence Principle, is that gravity pulling in one direction is completely equivalent to an acceleration in the opposite direction. (A car accelerating forwards feels just like sideways gravity pushing you back against your seat. An elevator accelerating upwards feels just like gravity pushing you into the floor. If gravity is equivalent to acceleration, and if motion affects measurements of time and space (as shown in Special Relativity), then it follows that gravity does so as well.In particular, the gravity of any mass, such as our sun, has the effect of warping the space and time around it. For example, the angles of a triangle no longer add up to 180 degrees and clocks tick more slowly the closer they are to a gravitational mass like the sun. Many of the predictions of General Relativity, such as the bending of starlight by gravity and a tiny shift in the orbit of the planet Mercury, have been quantitatively confirmed by 2004-07-04T00:44:07-04:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/Albert-Einstein-Relativity-and-the-Cosmos-25198.aspx Matthias Schleiden Cells Cells Discovery and Basic Structure In 1655, the English scientist Robert Hooke made an observation that would change basic biological theory and research forever. While examining a dried section of cork tree with a crude light microscope, he observed small chambers and named them cells. Within a decade, researchers had determined that cells were not empty but, instead, filled with a watery substance called cytoplasm. Over the next 175 years, research led to the formation of the cell theory, first proposed by the German botanist Matthias Jacob Schleiden and the German physiologist Theodore Schwann in 1838 and formalized by the German researcher Rudolf Virchow in 1858. In its modern form, this theorem has four basic parts: The cell is the basic structural and functional unit of life; all organisms are composed of cells. All cells are produced by the division of preexisting cells (in other words, through reproduction). Each cell contains genetic material that is passed down during this process. All basic chemical and physiological functions, for example, repair, growth, movement, immunity, communication, and digestion are carried out inside of cells. The activities of cells depends on the activities of sub-cellular structures within the cell (these sub-cellular structures include organelles, the plasma membrane, and, if present, the nucleus). The cell theory leads to two very important generalities about cells and life in general: Cells are alive. The individual cells of your organs are just as “alive” as you are, even though they cannot live independently. This means cells can take energy (which, depending on the cell type, can be in the form of light, sugar, or other compounds) and building materials (proteins, carbohydrates and fats), and use these to repair themselves and make new generations of cells (reproduction). The characteristics and needs of an organism are in reality the characteristics and needs of the cells that make up the organism. For example, you need water because your cells need water. Most of the activities of a cell (repair, reproduction, etc.) are carried out via the production of proteins. Proteins are large molecules that are made by specific organelles within the cell using the instructions contained within the genetic material of the cell. Cytology is the study of cells, and cytologists are scientists that study cells. Cytologists have discovered that all cells are similar. They are all composed chiefly of molecules containing carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, 2004-07-04T00:32:17-04:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/Matthias-Schleiden-Cells-25197.aspx Matthias Schleiden Matthias Schleiden was a German Biologist and a master micoscopist. He lived from 1804 -1881. Schleiden was influenced by Schelling’s Naturphilosophie and the writings of 2004-06-10T00:37:07-04:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/Matthias-Schleiden--25062.aspx