https://www.echeat.com/ INTRODUCTION Worldwide, the exponential growth in healthcare costs has led to a focus on improving the efficiency of healthcare providers. To this end, several means have been made available, such as improving the quality of leadership, which will provide effective services, improving working conditions and employees, and developing the structures and resources allocated for this purpose (Awamleh and Gardner, 1999). The laboratory is a professional bureaucracy-type organization (Mintzberg: 1989) with multiple and heterogeneous components, with a diversity of profiles of the different actors who rub shoulders daily. A good manager, who wants to succeed in a competitive environment, must consider this hetero-complexity, in this particular institution "where neither error nor delay are tolerated, due to a vital prognosis that can be engaged at any time" (N. EBOLO: 2019). Beyond the action of the Ministry and the various health administrations, a large part of what we have to invent comes back to the actors in the field. In this scheme, managers lead in supporting change and adapting organizations to new challenges. It is they, through their ability to understand the needs of the populations, their proximity to the professionals working in the various professions, and their in-depth knowledge of the realities of the communities, who are and will be able to define and implement the most effective organizational modalities to meet the challenges of the health system (Ham, 2012; Storey and Holti, 2013). To evaluate these different parameters, we will therefore show, firstly, the importance of the organizational structure and the type of management in improving the quality and reducing variations in health services is one of the most important objectives of governments and societies as a whole; second, to present the impact of different leadership styles on health care outcomes and the validation of leadership theories in the health care context. Third, we will respond to debates about the nature and effectiveness of the implementation of the National Health System (NHS) improvement programs: the Knowledge Skill Framework and the Agenda for Change. I. IMPACT OF HIERARCHY WITHIN THE NHS The hierarchical line is made up of the management of the organization. Indeed, it is the company's executives who serve as a transmission belt between the strategic top and the operational center. She embodies the voice of the strategic top and aims to spread her message to the teams at the bottom of the hierarchical pyramid. For example, in the area of care 2024-11-01T04:12:38.537-04:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/Improving-the-efficiency-of-healthcare-providers-45591.aspx The Bicep The long head of the biceps (LHB) brachii tendon originates at the supraglenoid tubercle and superior glenoid labrum. Its labral origin is mostly posterior in over half of cases, and the tendon, on average, is 9 cm in length. Inside the joint, the tendon is extrasynovial and passes obliquely, heading toward the bicipital groove. As it exits the distal bicipital groove in the upper arm, the long head of the biceps tendon joins the short head of the biceps tendon (SHBT) as both transition into their respective muscle bellies in the central third of the upper arm. After crossing the volar aspect of the elbow, the biceps brachii inserts on the radial tuberosity and medial forearm fascia. The latter occurs via the bicipital aponeurosis.[6] The distal insertion point has become a relevant yet a controversial topic of interest. Over the last decade, there has been a renewed interest in investigating the insertional anatomy of the distal biceps tendon, specifically concerning its relevance in the evolution of distal biceps reconstruction techniques. Historically, the insertion site was described as one homogenous tendon that inserts on the radial tuberosity. More recent studies have reported its distal attachment as two distinct tendons. More specifically, recent studies have demonstrated the presence of an entirely bifurcated distal biceps tendon insertion. The studies found that the short head of the distal biceps tendon commonly inserts more distally than the long head and typically inserts at the apex of the tuberosity. The long head passes deep to the distal tendon of the short head before inserting proximal to the tendinous footprint of the short head.[7] ’’ ‘’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’ Biomechanics The biceps brachii muscle primarily is a strong forearm supinator but a weak elbow flexor.[8] Biomechanically, the long head of the biceps tendon has a controversial role in the dynamic stability of the shoulder joint. It has been demonstrated, mostly in biomechanical cadaveric-based studies and animal models, that the tendon at least plays a passive stabilizing role in the shoulder. Neer proposed in the 1970s that the long head of the biceps tendon's stabilizing role varied depending on the position of the elbow. Several subsequent studies refuted the theory that the long head of the biceps tendon played an active shoulder stabilizing effect.[9] Jobe and Perry evaluated the activation of the biceps during the throwing motion in athletes. The authors reported the peak muscle stimulation occurred in relation to elbow flexion and 2023-12-26T11:51:17.273-05:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/The-Bicep-45584.aspx INQUIRY LAB – BACKGROUND Evaluate Chemical Reactions Concepts Chemical reactions Law of Conservation of Mass Balancing equations Background Chemical reactions involve a form of chemical change in which matter combines or breaks apart to produce new kinds of matter with different properties. Evidence for a chemical change may involve the release of a gas, a color change, the formation of a precipitate, or changes in heat or light. Any chemical change involves the reorganization of the atoms in one or more substances. For example, when carbon (C) combines with oxygen gas (O2) in the air and burns, carbon dioxide gas (CO2) is formed. This process is represented by a chemical equation, a symbolic expression used in chemistry to represent a chemical reaction. The reactants (carbon and oxygen) are written on the left side of the equation, and the products (carbon dioxide) are written on the right side of the equation. A plus sign (+) is used between two substances to indicate reactants combined or products formed. An arrow represents the direction of the reaction and is read as “yields” or “produces.” C(s) + O2(g) ? CO2(g) Reactants Products The chemical equation for a reaction provides two important types of information: the nature of the reactants and products and the relative numbers of each. The equation often also gives the physical states of the reactants and the products using state symbols, the symbols in parentheses written after the chemical formulas. Solids are represented with (s), liquids with (l), gases with (g), and aqueous solutions with (aq) to indicate that the substance is dissolved in water. The basic types of chemical reactions can be broken down into five general categories: synthesis, decomposition, single replacement, double replacement, and combustion. In a synthesis reaction, two or more substances react to form a single product (e.g., X + Y ? Z). In a decomposition reaction, a single reactant decomposes or breaks down into two or more products (e.g., A ? B + C). In a single replacement reaction, one element replaces another in a compound such that an element combines with a compound to produce an element plus a compound (e.g., X + YZ ? XY + Z). In a double replacement reaction, two compounds react to produce two different compounds (e.g., AB + CD ? AD + CB). Finally, in a combustion reaction, one reactant (a fuel) combines with oxygen to produce 2023-10-20T19:32:32.837-04:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/Evaluate-Chemical-Reactions-45582.aspx Reaction Time Lab Reaction time is a measure of how quickly an organism can respond to a particular stimulus. The stimulus is processed by your nervous system before you are able to react, and the time lag is your reaction time. Many factors have been shown to affect reaction times, including age, gender, physical fitness, fatigue, distraction, alcohol, personality type, and whether the stimulus is visual (sight), auditory (hearing), tactile (touch), olfactory (smell) or gustatory (taste). The model for information flow within an organism can be represented in this way: Stimulus ? Sensory Neuron ? Spinal Cord or Brain ? Motor Neuron ? Response Sensory neurons convert a stimulus into an electro-chemical signal, which flows the length of the sensory neuron(s), then through a neuron or neurons of the central nervous system, and then through the length of the motor neuron(s). Generally, motor neurons will cause a muscle to contract or a gland to secrete a substance. Reactions that involve only the receptor, the spinal cord, and the effector, are faster than those which involve processing in the brain. Reactions which only travel to, through, and from the spinal cord are often called spinal reflexes or cord-mediated reflexes; withdrawing one’s hand from a hot stove is an example of such a reflex. In ‘simple reaction time’ experiments, there is only one stimulus and one response. Catching a dropped stick, or hitting a button when a light changes are examples. Visual: Online Reaction Time Test Test Number Reaction Time (s) 1 0.303 2 0.011 3 0.202 4 0.244 5 0.289 Average 0.2098 Auditory:What is Your Reaction Speed to Sound? Test Number Reaction time (ms) 1 263 2 227 3 174 4 291 5 249 Average 241 Analysis: When looking at your results, did you respond faster to the auditory or visual stimuli? (moving the decimal 3 places left will put the visual into ms, instead of seconds) Compare your results to a classmate. I responded faster to visual stimuli. Why did you run several trials? Because the first time I did the test I could have messed up or did better than I normally would meaning the data would be inaccurate. Explain why a message moving along nerve pathways takes time. The response time may be slow.it has to travel more sensory ? spinal cord ? brain ? motor Reflex arcs differ from the traditional response-stimulus 2022-03-28T10:26:41.19-04:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/Reaction-Time-Lab-45556.aspx Respiration in Yeast: Balloon Lab Cellular respiration is a series of reactions essential to all living cells. Respiration releases energy from sugars and stores it in the form of adenine triphosphate (ATP). ATP is the basic energy currency for cell processes. Respiration can take place in the presence or absence of oxygen (aerobic vs. anaerobic conditions). For yeast, anaerobic respiration is known as fermentation, and produces carbon dioxide (CO2) along with ethanol, or alcohol, as the primary waste products, while aerobic respiration 2021-12-16T11:06:15.453-05:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/Respiration-in-Yeast-Balloon-Lab-An-Experiment-45533.aspx Prokaryotes vs. Eukaryotes There are lots of different and interesting types of living things on our planet. I think you already knew that though. You’ve probably seen an abundance of unique organisms like giraffes, mushrooms, worms, alligators, grasshoppers, bacteria, algae, and apple trees. Did you know that all of these very different organisms are divided into two categories? That’s right – every living thing on the planet can be classified into two groups based on the cells that make them up. So let’s talk about these cells. I hope that you already knew that cells are the basic units of life, and that all living things are composed of cells. Although all cells have some things in common, each cell type also has unique characteristics that make them easy to identify. Let’s focus on these unique characteristics. Prokaryotes Our first cell type is called a prokaryotic cell or prokaryote (pro-kar-e-oat). These cells are unique because they are only found in the smallest organisms on the planet, bacteria. Scientists believe that these bacterial cells (prokaryotes) were the very first life forms on Earth. That means that these cells have been on the planet longer than any other living thing. Bacteria are really old! So what makes bacterial cells different from all other types of cells? These prokaryotic cells are very simple and small. It’s their simplicity that makes them so easy to recognize. Prokaryotes do not have any membrane-bound organelles (cell parts). That means that bacteria don’t have a nucleus (PRO-NO). That’s crazy! Their DNA just floats around. So what does this all mean? Prokaryotes are the simplest of all cell types: they are very small, unicellular (made of one cell), and they do not have a nucleus. Eukaryotes If bacteria are the only living examples of prokaryotes, everything else on the planet must be composed of eukaryotic cells. Eukaryotes (U-kar-e-oats) are much bigger than prokaryotic cells. Some eukaryotic cells are even large enough to be seen without a microscope! Eukaryotic cells are complex. They have lots of different rooms or compartments inside of them. These rooms are called membrane-bound organelles. Some examples of these rooms are mitochondria and endoplasmic reticulum. The most important organelle in a eukaryotic cell is its nucleus. This is the control center 2021-12-15T10:49:58.36-05:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/Exploring-Cell-Types-45532.aspx Did you know the effects of climate changes include rising sea levels, regional changes in precipitation, more frequent extreme weather events such as heatwaves, and expansion of deserts? Ocean acidification is also caused by greenhouse gas emissions and is commonly grouped with these effects even though it is not driven by temperature. Surface temperature increases are greatest in the Arctic, which has contributed to the retreat of glaciers, permafrost, and sea ice. Overall higher temperatures bring more rain and snowfall, but for some regions droughts and wildfire increase instead. Climate change threatens to diminish crop yields, harming food security, and rising sea levels may flood coastal infrastructure and face the abandonment of many coastal cities. Fortunately, there are always things that we can do to fight against these terrible changes. Saving the environment starts with us and it is our responsibility to act against these terrible changes to preserve the planet for future generations. Recycle According to King county.gov, Page one. “ recycling helps reduce greenhouse gas emissions by reducing energy consumption.” Manufacturing plants emit a large number of greenhouse gasses per year. It is unavailable in the production of goods that we use on a regular basis. However, a cleaner alternative would be to invest in recycling. Recycling is a cost-effective and eco-friendly process that eliminates waste and doesn’t emit greenhouse gasses into the environment. Be sure to collect your discarded paper, glass, plastic, and electronics at your local recycling center the professionals will take these items to a processing plant where there will be remade into other recyclable materials again. Be More Conservative with Energy Usage According to science direct.com, on page one. “ energy conservation has often been referred as to the fifth fuel, the other for being the so-called primary or fossil fuels of wall solid oil liquid, gas, and nuclear hydroelectricity.” Becoming more energy efficient is a great way to prevent pollution. It causes the power plant to expend less energy that can lead to the production of greenhouse gasses. This means that you should do what you can to cut down on energy usage in households. Make sure to turn off lights and unplug devices that you are not using anymore when you are done with them. Replace light bulbs with energy-efficient light bulbs to help you save electricity. Make Your Commute Green According to Lettie Stratton, how to do it and why it's important, page1. “ green commuting can 2021-11-16T16:16:32.58-05:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/EFFECTS-OF-CLIMATE-CHANGE-AND-WAYS-TO-HELP-PREVENT-IT-45517.aspx UIT's in Children Maria Rubinich Florida National University Human Growth and Development-DA Prof. Rafael Ramos, M.S. May 28th, 2020 Abstract Urinary tract infection more commonly known as U.T.I. When found in young children can be difficult to diagnose given their inability to communicate. Some Singh’s a child may have a U.T.I are irritability, fever, lack of appetite just to give a few. To more accurately diagnose a U.T.I a urine sample needs to be obtained as soon as possible to ensure the infection does not spread and cause permanent damage to the kidneys and overall health of the young child. U.T.I.’s is most caused by bacteria surrounding the anus that enter the urethra by touching and improper wiping after using the restroom for girls as with small children with who are still utilizing diapers. Although girls are three times as likely as Boy’s with whom are uncircumcised also are at risk for contracting this infection given the environment the uncircumcised penis gives the length of time in which it was able to manifest will determine the necessary treatment usually antibiotics given over seven to ten days will eliminate the infection. Testing will once again need to be done to ensure the infection has been eliminated. History / symptoms Upon acquiring information on the history of U.T.I’s in children its established that six to eight percent will acquire a urinary tract infection. Symptoms vary from patient to patient given their age and a combination of their specific individual history with urinary tract infections. A specific diagnosis cannot be given without proper testing but rather a combination of generalized symptoms which include unexplained fever in children less than two months old, irritability, pelvic pain, discoloration of urine being cloudy However overall, additional testing needs to be done and as rapidly as possible. to ensure that it does not evolve into a more severe infection that can cause permanent damage. 2020-06-15T18:51:05.057-04:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/urinary-tract-infections-in-children-45493.aspx Evidence-Based Practice in Healthcare Name Affiliation Date Evidence-Based Practice in Healthcare Evidence-based practices have been associated with improved patient outcomes in the clinical setting. In most cases, such clinical interventions usually reduce the rate of medication errors and provide long-term solutions. This essay evaluates how the consistent use of condoms can be a proper way of overcoming the cases of sexually transmitted infections and unwanted pregnancy among students due to unprotected sex. Clinical Issue The higher cases of unprotected sex among teenagers and young adults have been on a rise in high schools and colleges where they have got the freedom that they were seeking. Furthermore, “Health Promotion and Maintenance” is one of the NCLEX category, which has a subsection known as the “High-Risk Behavior” (NCSBN, 2017). Hence, the clinical issue highlighted is classified as one of the high-risk tendencies that are associated with younger people. The subcategory that the medical providers should identify the inappropriate activities that the patients are undertaking and raise awareness about the concerns associated with such issues. From that point, they can have programs that can transform the behaviors of the population and help them in avoiding such elements to overcome their infections. Importance A discussion of the high-risk behaviors can help the nurses in identifying how certain infections are caused. As a result, they can suggest the evidence-based practices that can address the problem and provide long-term solutions. In the process, the patients will remain healthy and avoid the risk factors that can increase their chances of contracting some serious infections. The high school and college students will also understand the danger associated with having multiple sexual partners. The knowledge can enhance their awareness of such situations and how they should avoid the issues that might undermine their health. On the other hand, the failure to comply with such requirements can place the well-being of the patient population at risk. For instance, unprotected sex will result in higher cases of sexually transmitted infections (STIs) and pregnancy among young adults (Ashenhurst, Wilhite, Harden, & Fromme, 2017). As a result, such negative effects can interfere with their education because the ladies might be forced to abandon school so that they can take care of their new-born babies. They can also spend more time in the medical institutions and funds as they are seeking treatment for the STIs that they have acquired. The healthcare system will keep getting more cases of infections and ladies with unwanted pregnancy 2018-11-19T01:49:15.203-05:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/Evidence-Based-Practice-in-Healthcare-45459.aspx Nursing Values in Baccalaureate Nursing Students Name Institution Affiliation Nursing Values in Baccalaureate Nursing Students Title The title of the article is self-sufficient where it gives the aim of the research. It is an analysis that targets at investigating the nursing values nurses acquire from their education. The study population are the nursing student, and it is evident from the title. Indeed, in the article, it involves students from four different nursing institutions. Therefore, the title is well analyzed to cater the need of the material. Abstract Unfortunately, the article did not have an abstract. Basically, according to Dewan & Gupta (2016), a strong abstract lays as a foundation to a sound argument. Right from the start, the reader is aware of the expected results in the paper hence better understanding. In this case, it is not evident in the article and thus minimizing the chances of prior knowledge of the paper's expectations. Introduction Statement of Problem However, using the introduction, the authors were able to introduce the paper hence giving the main aim efficiently. The statement of the problem was adequate for the research. Rose, Nies & Gupta (2016), formulated an easy and straightforward explanation of problem which involves the skills and values the nurses acquire from education. In the nurse professional, one has to consider the socialization process to establish a right attitude when serving the patients. Indeed, professional socialization is one of the most critical factors in any career path. From the approach, there are reliable details that link the nurses to the education they gain and how they use it to offer health services. The research methods involved engaging the nurses in the activities which were non-experimental and non-manipulative. The individuals involved were the student nurses, hence, justifying the use of the techniques. Generally, the approach was appropriate since it engaged everyone on their consent. Research Questions The research questions aim at giving the article a way forward to base all the arguments. In this case, the research questions were well stated making it easy to see the connection to the survey. For instance, the first question enquired the change of the skills and acceptable behavior as learning nurses increased the level of education. Secondly, it critiqued the factors that affect their performance in the health sector. The wording gives a clear flow of thoughts making it easy to comprehend. The study targeted the nurses in the different levels of education, that is, sophomore, 2018-10-02T03:33:17.247-04:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/Nursing-Values-in-Baccalaureate-Nursing-Students-45450.aspx Unit 5 Written Assessment Name Institution Affiliation Introduction A formal approach is more suitable to validate the problem. The outlook offers a valuable tool that helps to reveal omissions, inconsistencies, and ambiguities in health records. Traditional approaches can't detect uncertainties and several other issues in health information system. Also, it enhances the efficacy and applicability of data in any health settings. However, a formal approach allows and complements exclusive validation procedures. Patient data efficiently used has excellent capability to improve and even save human lives. The need for the transparent information system is of great importance to creating a reliable service design and healthcare delivery system (Sammon, O'Connor & Leo, 2009). The hospital collects demographic data of its patients. It includes analytical expression of patients' socioeconomic status such as education level, sex, marital status, religion, age, death rate, income rate, birth rate, family size, and occupation (Yanamadala et al, 2016). The data is stored in structured form. Structured information is accessible and readily searchable using straightforward algorithms. On the other hand, unstructured data is the opposite of being readily available. According to Sun and Reddy (2013), data mining process uses several essential techniques that define data recovery and mining operation. Techniques such as prediction, classification, long-term processing, clustering, association, decision trees, sequential patterns, and combinations are applicable in both structured and unstructured data sets. For this assessment, classification and association techniques are suitable to extract the required patient data. Preferably, I will use the Naïve Bayes (NB) mining algorithm. It is a supervised algorithm that uses Bayes' Theorem to make predictions within a data set. By doing so, it facilitates the detection of the issue from the relevant evidence as presented in the patient data (Sun & Reddy, 2013). To arrive at an evidence-based answer, approximately 75 percent of the patient need to be successfully extracted. In most cases, researchers undermine the data pre-processing step in data extraction exercise. “Garbage In, Garbage Out” is a significant phrase in data mining process. Methods used to gather the data need to be controlled to avoid ambiguities and irrelevant or redundant data combinations such as (Gender: Male, Pregnant: Yes). Also, to make sure that all essential values are available to avoid misleading conclusions. Therefore, quality of data and accurate representation is of importance before analysis. Data pre-processing improves the quality of the data by ensuring that the data isn't noisy, doesn't have inconsistencies, and missing values 2018-02-20T03:13:57.767-05:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/Unit-5-Written-Assessment-45419.aspx Treatment Plan Exercise Student’s Name Institution Client Name: _________Yang_________________________________ Date of Birth: ______N/A________ Gender: _Female___ Age: ___41 years__________ Race: _____Brown________ Client Ethnicity: ______Chinese______________ Reason for referral for counseling: Yang presented symptoms of posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) following the death of her son, Daiyang in the earthquake, as well as, the subsequent pregnancy, months after her son’s death. Other reasons may include; • She reported frequent flashbacks and disturbing memories of the scene of her son’s death that made her feel anxious and miserable • She was unwilling to talk about the earthquake • Yang reported significant sleep difficulties, memory difficulties, and anhedonia • After getting pregnant again, Yang reported nausea and loss of appetite • She reported problems in interacting along with her husband and neighbors Concern 1: Disturbing memories as shown by the frequent flashbacks and nightmares related to the scene of her son’s death outside the building Goal for improvement: Disturbing memories and symptoms of PTSD will be significantly reduced and they will no longer interfere with Yang’s functioning. Objective 1: Yang will identify the issues that trigger the bad memories about her son’s death Objective 2: She will be involved in an additional physical activity or sport Objective 3: Yang will learn coping skills necessary for emotional regulations, for example, training herself not to think much about her son’s death Concern 2: Avoidance to think about the earthquake as shown by Yang’s tendency to avoid news related to the Chinese earthquake (Leahy, Holland & McGinn, 2012) Goal for improvement: Increasing contact with people, places and things that bring back the memories of her son’s death Objective 1: Yang will list down the places, people or things that remind her about the earthquake Objective 2: She will avoid staying isolated in her house and try to maintain contact with these places or people Objective 3: Yang will be taught that turning to drugs or alcohol is a wrong way of reducing the pain and she should avoid drugs entirely Concern 3: Physical stress as indicated by difficulties in sleeping, anger, anxiety, and conflicts with her husband (Leahy, Holland & McGinn, 2012) Goal for improvement: Reestablishing a normal mood by becoming happy and confident, as well as, having enough sleep Objective 1: Yang will be sleeping for 7 hours in a day Objective 2: Yang and her husband will establish a timetable of family activities so that she can build a positive relationship with her spouse Objective 3: She will start gaining mental strength by not dwelling much on the past, but focusing on the future Primary Diagnosis: Stressor: The person was 2017-06-19T01:14:03.573-04:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/Treatment-Plan-Exercise-45349.aspx Student’s Name Professor Course Date Laboratory Report on Gene Cloning into Expression Vector Abstract Gene cloning involves manipulation of a given cellular component to isolate the desired gene properties. Isolation of particular cellular component forms the core of the cell chemistry and biology. For a gene to be efficiently cloned, it must be inculcated in a larger medium that will allow sufficient expression of its markers. The vectors form the structures viable enough to encourage the manipulation of the genes to get the desired efficacy. Mostly used vectors are the plasmid vectors. They are ideal because of their neutrality nature and the growth favoring characteristics. The cloning vector obtained from the plasmid is useful and provides a good binding for the foreign DNA fragments which allows for the elucidation of cloned gene. This laboratory report explores on how gene cloning is altered into an expression vector. It also highlights on the Polymerase Chain Reaction and how the process is used to amplify the cloned genes into the desired particles. The last section explains the findings of the experiment. Keywords: cloning vectors Polymerase Chain Reaction Introduction For any desired effect of gene cloning to have an impact, there must be a proper layout on the ways to elucidate the genes properly. The use of expression vector is effective method since the vectors provide the necessary requirements and conducive media for an insertion of foreign DNA genes. In the experiment, tomato cells were used as the expression vector to plant with the gene of interest. Ideally, for a successful experiment to be conducted on the gene cloning, different sets of parameters must be taken into consideration. First, the gene has to be isolated. Secondly, the gene has to be cloned into a vector for a greater expression, and lastly, the gene must be expressed and translated to give the desired aims of the experiment (Brown 10). The laboratory experiment conducted followed the same fashion. Adjustments were made in the vector to meet the typical qualities of eukaryotic cells. The first step taken into consideration was the use of promoter sections, Kozak sequence and inserting appropriate start and stop codons. In addition to the requirements, kanamycin resistance gene was used as selected marker to identify the cells that have taken up the DNA. Materials and Reagents Used Isolated cDNA gene Plasmid, pXCN Escherichia coli strain 5microlitres 2017-06-14T01:20:39.153-04:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/Laboratory-Report-on-Gene-Cloning-into-Expression-Vector-45345.aspx How Earthquakes Are Caused Author’s name Institutional affiliation How Earthquakes Are Caused An earthquake is the shaking of the surface of the earth when so much energy is submitted to the ground. According to (Pakiser & Shedlock, 2014), “the earth is made up of four major layers including crust, mantle, outer core and, the inner core while the crust and the upper part of the mantle make up a thin layer on the surface of the earth consisting of many pieces, tectonic plates”. On the other hand, the 2017-06-10T09:44:27.997-04:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/How-earth-quakes-are-caused-45340.aspx Mobile Health Name Institutional Affiliation Table of Contents List of Figures 3 Figure 1 10 Figure 2 12 Abstract 3 Introduction 4 Overview of Findings from the Fifteen Studies. 5 Review of Success Issues and Failure: Motivation 6 Impact of Business Strategies on the Leadership Concept 7 Economics, Ethics and Business Standards. 8 Impact of Law in Health Information Management and Impact of Health Policies to Address Health Informatics Needed in Mobile Health 8 Statistical Used in the Healthcare. 9 Meta-Analysis. 10 Results and Discussion 13 Implications for Further Research 15 Conclusion 16 Reference. 18 Abstract Following the huge number of population that is continuously up ticking, mobile health or m-health has been a significant remedy to the health sector. This is because it has devolved the responsibility and work of health officers and personnel to the phones of their clients as well as patients. This topic considers the review of problems, failures and any evidence that has arisen from the HIM practices. The impact of business strategies on the concept of leadership and management and how these practices have affected the mobile health sector, a discussion of the impact and effect of economics, ethics professional standards and an analysis of the consequences of health policies information management on mobile health. A study of statistical models that was used in the health care to gather and analyze data and in turn give discussions on the statistical models that was used in this research (Chib, van Velthoven & Car, 2015). Further, we also look at the results of the meta-analysis, the discussions of other related studies that have been made and their comparison to the new research concerning the mobile health, limitations, summary and if there are areas that there should be a recommendation of a further study. M-health has been seen to be encompassing a lot of issues and show their interdependence and relations to the above issues (Chib, van Velthoven & Car, 2015). Hence, this topic discusses the contributions, failures, projects and impacts of mobile health to nations her people. Introduction M-Health is an abbreviation of mobile health used in the current health sector. ICT commonly known as information communication technology will be discussed in this topic and how it relates and influence the mobile health. The FNIH which represents a health body referred to as the foundation of the national institute of health and its contribution to mobile health will have to be considered. W.H.O referred to World Health Organization (Telecommunications Union, 2013) Hence the topic discuss the review of issues, failures and any evidence that 2017-06-01T01:05:10.177-04:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/M-Health-is-an-abbreviation-of-mobile-health-used-in-the-current-health-sector_-45336.aspx Vaccinate All Children Act 2015 Name Institution Vaccinate All Children Act 2015 Provision of quality healthcare remains to be among the primary goals of the United States’ federal government. Various policies have been introduced for the purpose of affordable, efficient, and quality health for the American people. The “Vaccinate All Children” Act of 2015 is one of the policies that sought out the provision of medical care to all children in America through vaccination. The policy would be significant in ensuring the prevention of communicable diseases against children who stand a higher risk of contracting fatal infectious diseases due to their tender age and relatively weak immune systems. Similarly, the Act would ensure that all students in public schools acquire the mandatory vaccination and therefore, it would be a requirement for students enrolling in public schools to have received the treatment. Despite opposition from various organs and individuals, the Vaccinate All Children Act is of great significance to everyone in the United States since it curbs the infection of deadly diseases among children and guarantees a reduced mortality rate for the vulnerable. Explanation of the Act On 1st May 2015, Florida Congresswoman Ms. Frederica Wilson introduced the Vaccinate all Children Act (Medina, 2015). The bill required all students attending public schools to receive a mandatory vaccination with a few exemptions. The exemptions require a letter from a state-certified physician giving medical reasons as to why vaccination is harmful to the child. Moreover, children with allergies and weak immune systems resulting from pressing operations like chemotherapy would also be exempted. The bill would revise the Public Health Service Act of 1994 that gave the federal government authority to quarantine individuals for the purpose of preventing the introduction and spread of transmissible diseases from other countries and into the United States (Medina, 2015). Despite being a country that has an excellent reputation in almost all realms, there have been instances where some Americans have suffered from diseases due to ignorance, philosophical thoughts and also due to high cost of medications (Medina, 2015). The introduction of the controversial bill was accompanied by high expectations among some Americans as others felt the bill went against their rights due to its obligatory nature. The Act would make sure that all students joining elementary and secondary public schools have access to the vaccine. According to Bill, its implementation would be paramount because the vaccines were proven to be efficient and safe for the 2017-04-27T04:57:06.143-04:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/Vaccinate-All-Children-Act-2015-Provision-of-quality-healthcare-remains-to-be-among-the-primary-goals-of-the-United-States’-federal-government_-Various-policies-have-been-introduced-for-the-purpose-of-affordable,-efficient,-and-quality-health-for-the-Amer-45319.aspx Stem Cell Research Name: Institutional Affiliation: Tutor: Date: Stem Cell Research Stem research is a significant stride in the field of biomedicine. Through this field, scientists have been able to find out various developments that have taken place. The research entails the study of molecule antimicrobials and the modern genetics. Besides, there has been the study of cell therapy and genomics. Stem cells are immature cells that keep dividing to produce more and more cells. The cells produce stem cells, or they can transform into specialized cells such as heart, liver, skin or brain cells. The paper is going to discuss the various types of stem cells, the science, and ethics behind them. Stem cells are of different types. For example, the embryonic, adult and iPS stem cells. The embryonic stem cell is said to be found in the embryos, and it matures to become a specialized type of cell in the body. These cells can be obtained from a variety of sources. These sources include embryonic stem cell lines, those embryos that are generated from the nuclear genome transfer and finally, these cells can be gotten from unused in vitro fertilization procedures. Besides, adult stem cells are obtained from the bone marrow. The adult stem cells are usually obtained after birth. Study shows that these adult cells have the ability to develop into various types of cells. To sum up, the IPS cells are the type of cells that are in most cases produced in the laboratories. These cells play various roles in body development and growth (Austin, 2012). Also, research that has been conducted based on the stem cells has shown that these cells have two crucial features (Campo-Ruiz, 2012). The first characteristic is that these cells have the ability to renew themselves. The renewal process takes place through the cell division. Another significant feature of the stem cells is that they have capacity to become tissue cells. The feature is usually achieved under some specific controlled experimental conditions. When these cells have been modified, they perform specific functions in the body. Besides, scientific investigations have shown that cell division takes place in some specific parts of the body such as the gut. Biologically, it is evident that stem cells grow into the different type of cells in the body that are modified to perform various functions. Two or more of these cells are combined to make a body tissue. The tissue in the body performs 2016-12-14T03:06:07.5-05:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/Stem-Cell-Research-35258.aspx Essay Questions Name: Institution: Essay Questions Q1. The process of oxidative phosphorylation takes place in the mitochondria. Electrons are moved from FADH2 or NADH to O2 to form ATP. It involves proton-motive force generation during electron transport. On the other hand, electron transport chain (ETC) is the series of organic molecules and proteins in the inner mitochondria membrane. Electrons moves through the members of the transport chain in a series of redox reactions (Murray, Rosenthal, and Pfaller, 2015). As a result, they release energy, which is captured as proton gradient to make ATP through chemiosmosis process. The high energy levels of NADH electrons make it a good electrons donor in a redox reaction. Therefore, it can directly transfer electrons to complex I. Contrary, the low energy levels of FADH2 makes it a poor electron donor; hence, it cannot move them to complex I. Q2. Glycolysis is the first stages of bacterial respiration that happens in a clear cytoplasm portion called cytosol. It involves splitting of glucose molecule into pyruvic acid, a two- 3carbon molecule. Next is the Krebs cycle where the Acetyl-Coenzyme A (CoA) breaks down into protons and carbon dioxide. It then releases energy in the form of electrons, which are used by NAD+ to form NADH. The last stage happens in the interior membrane of mitochondria. It involves the transfer of NADH from one protein to another. Respiration does not require oxygen, it produces water molecules, glycolysis occurs in the cytoplasm, and it has a net gain of 32 ATPs. Conversely, fermentation requires oxygen, it does not produce water molecules, all reactions take place in the cytoplasm, and it has a net gain 2 ATPs. Q3. Carbon- constituent of cellular material Oxygen- constituent of cell water and material Nitrogen- constituent of nucleic acids, amino acids, and coenzymes Hydrogen- constituent of cell water and organic compound Phosphorous – constituent of phospholipids, nucleic acids nucleotides, and teichoic acids Defined medium is a nutrient material with a known exact chemical composition while the complex medium is a nutrient material with unknown exact chemical composition. Q4. Functional media types are used in cell culture to facilitate microorganisms’ growth. They include differential, selective, and enriched media. Transport media is used prevent overgrowth of contaminated commensals and organisms. Examples include alkaline peptone water and Cary-Blair medium. Selective media is used to encourage and suppress the growth of desired microbes and unwanted bacteria respectively. For example, brilliant green agar, campylobacter agar, and EMB 2016-12-10T13:22:50.957-05:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/Essay-Questions-Biology-35256.aspx Exercises Student’s Name Course Institution Date Exercise 1: Search Process To gather information and data regarding Club 18-30 Style Mediterranean Party Tourism Holidays, procedural steps were followed. This section will outline the procedure followed to get the literature used. For the researcher to get comprehensive information about the topic, systematic and thorough search of all the types of published literature were listed to get good quality references that are relevant (White, 2009). For the literature search to be successful, undoubtedly, through review of the literature has to be carried out from the beginning (Kitchenham et al., 2009). By getting literature search helps in saving the time allotted for the research and will help also improve the research. The search of the literature on Club 18-30 Style Mediterranean Party Tourism Holidays was carried out from 5th August to 12th August. However, initial searches were done early July 2016 and then repeated later for new references in late July 2016. While doing, the search different databases were used. To get the required information I used the ISI Web of Knowledge, the Club’s directory, Search engines of Holiday places. Further, I also perused through tour and travels magazines to get the information about the place. I concluded the search by combing through the different articles within my University to find out information regarding the club. While doing the search, I carried out a systematic search of the published literature on different online databases including Embase, ACM Digital Library, EconLit, and HEED. My search ideally started by checking through the multi-disciplinary journal databases resources. Some of the journal databases included JSTOR, Academic OneFile. The use of multi-disciplinary was mainly because they have peer-reviewed journals that would be essential for this study. I also used publisher’s database to get the required information for the study. The main databases that I used in the process included Emerald, Sage, and Science Direct. Additionally, when carrying out the search, I also made use of the other relevant contents that were non-journal. The contents included e-books, magazines, encyclopedias, images, newspapers, information available within the publication of the local authority and video and audio as well. To carry out the search for the literature, search terms were used. Using search terms helped to improve the quality of search. Some of the search terms that were used included “Club 18-30 Style” “Mediterranean Party Tourism” “Holidays”, “Club 18-30” “Mediterranean Party Tourism Holidays”. The whole name of the club was treated as 2016-11-10T05:28:25.047-05:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/Exercises-35245.aspx FAIR Analysis Frequency and Magnitude of Future Loss associated with Online Banking Application through Smartphones Name Institution Fair Analysis In today’s dynamic and competitive environment, new and improved technology and innovations tend to shape our business and social environment. As the fast and emerging technological advancements continue to grow, it remains to pose a significant amount of risks when deployed to businesses and organizations. Impaired IT controls can have significant effects on the organizations' performance and profitability. Companies are now tasked to employ the latest and modest technologies, or they risk losing business and market share. Similarly, consumers are not left to chance with the innovations. With the ease of access to the internet and mobile phones, individuals can now use these platforms and tools for making utility payments, banking, shopping and even budgeting. Given the increasing pace of expansion in the mobile finance sector, it will be possible for individuals to conduct online banking applications through their smartphones. However, the rapid developments of these tools, devices, and their functionality concerning introducing m-commerce supporting technologies, will create newer risks, including cyber criminal activities which are increasing by the day and made worse by the economic challenges. To help control and manage these IT exposures, Freund & Jones (2015) developed a FAIR approach to aid businesses to measure and control information risks. The FAIR analysis, which stands for Factor Analysis of Information Risk, is an international standard quantitative method for handling operational risks and cyber security. This technique is mostly used to identify, understand, assess and measure information risk in meaningful financial context (Freund & Jones, 2015). It creates a basis for establishing an accurate model to information risk management. The power of FAIR is relatively massive as it helps risk professionals to foster clarity and generate viable decisions from the ambiguous risky environment one was exposed to and basing judgment on useful measurements that yield quantifiable and defensible outcomes. The objective of this paper is to analyze the frequencies and magnitude of present and future losses associated with online banking systems applications. Loss scenario, threat agent, and risk question identified We are shifting from the paper-based banking environment that has been in existence for a very long time to a digital trading platform that is still in its early stages but seeks to provide real-time processing and convenience. Internet development has become the common source of communication across the globe and is rapidly being used by 2016-11-10T05:21:16.52-05:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/Frequency-and-Magnitude-of-Future-Loss-associated-with-Online-Banking-Application-through-Smartphones-35244.aspx The practice of pharmaceutical job can be said to be profoundly satisfying. However, it can also be stressful. This could be more so in an environment of change and when the events are beyond the staff’s control. The effect of workplace stress goes beyond the individual physical effects to the mental effects. In light of this, this paler will examine some of the effects of workplace stress to a pharmacy staff. In most cases, stress can affect individuals in many ways. Some of the ways to which individuals are affected include physical, psychological and emotional as well as the behaviors (Beehr 14). Stress and other external factors affect the deliverability of individuals within the working environment. Stress is known to be an extreme reaction that individuals have when they are exposed to too much of pressure or even other kinds of demands (McNeely 292). These demands exist to protect people against the existing risks to their safety or health out of the various working activities. Even though, it is admitted that stress is not an illness, so much of stress or prolonged stress can eventually make them healthy. Normally, working is good for individuals, but it is best when properly designed. Otherwise, work can automatically become a source of pressure. Pressure itself can be positive or negative. Positive pressure can ensure that individuals achieve the intended goals while negative pressure becomes stress if the indeed it is excessive. Pharmacy staffs are no exception, and they are affected by stress too (McNeely 293). Stress affect their lives physically, psychologically and emotionally while delivering on their duties. In most cases, pharmaceutical staffs have faced the negative effects of work place stress. The overwhelming work experience in this filed is capable of causing a person a substantial distress, depression, burnout and some of the psychosomatic disorders. In a short, the effects of workplace stress on a pharmaceutical staff can be summarized to three major effects: medical illness, behavioral problems and the psychological disorders (Beehr 19). Effect on Psychological Well-being Most of the pharmacists whose psychological well-being are affected are those who undergo stress in the workplace. The effects on the psychological well-being are because the pharmacists have gone through different periods of anxiety or depression. Some of the staffs are affected by insomnia, irritability with others, problems with concentration and others are affected by low self-esteem (Beehr 23). Physical Health Several studies that have been carried out previously 2016-07-26T04:28:45.033-04:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/How-Stress-in-the-Workplace-affects-Pharmacy-Staff-35206.aspx Arthur was face-to-face with an enormous white snake, whose black eyes were looking at him as its prey. Arthur was so surprised that he couldn't even move, where did he came from, it just appeared out of nowhere in his way just before he would come to...the king! -Behold beast, get out of my way or you'll feel my sword's edge !!! he exclamated while he was unsheating his sword, Light. The snake, as if he wasn't hearing anything, atacked Arthur with his mouth wide opened. Arthur dodged and atacked it's head, but his sword broked at the contact with it's skin, letting Arthur shocked. It wasn't only it's skin, from both of his theeth was pouring venim, which at the contact with the stone and disintegrated it. The snake tried another atack but Arthur dodged in the last moment. -If i can't cut you then I will let you moveless, he said with anger. And so he started to move between pilars, with the snake following him and trying to bite him. After a few minutes of running and dodging Arthur finally stoped, the snake, although it was longer than expected, he managed to imobilise it at least for a few minutes. -I have to go to my king, he must be in danger, ge said while running to the main hall. While he was running he saw that the sentinels were dead, and most of the soldiers were in a struggle against death, and they were losing. He wanted to help them, but there was no time. When he finally arrived at the main hall he saw a nightmare: the king and the queen weren't just dead, they were rottening at such a fast rate that he thought it wasn't true. He approached to them and fell on his knees. Without realising it, he was holding the king's and queen's heads on his arms. -I...failed...to protect you both...I failed... -Indeed you failed, a cold voice heared from the shadows, you are pathetic Arthur, and naive. It was a warrior, just like Arthur, but he has a snake emblem on his black armor and a white snake-like sword. -You...! You killed them !?! -Of course I do! Also I will finish you too. Arthur grabbed the king's sword and atacked him in a flash, but the snake warrior dodged, grabbed Arthur's face then smashed him on the floor, cracking half of the floor. Arthur coughed blood and paralised of fear. The 2016-05-27T04:24:22.11-04:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/Aliphatic-Solvents-in-Asia-Market-35199.aspx Arthur was face-to-face with an enormous white snake, whose black eyes were looking at him as its prey. Arthur was so surprised that he couldn't even move, where did he came from, it just appeared out of nowhere in his way just before he would come to...the king! -Behold beast, get out of my way or you'll feel my sword's edge !!! he exclamated while he was unsheating his sword, Light. The snake, as if he wasn't hearing anything, atacked Arthur with his mouth wide opened. Arthur dodged and atacked it's head, but his sword broked at the contact with it's skin, letting Arthur shocked. It wasn't only it's skin, from both of his theeth was pouring venim, which at the contact with the stone and disintegrated it. The snake tried another atack but Arthur dodged in the last moment. -If i can't cut you then I will let you moveless, he said with anger. And so he started to move between pilars, with the snake following him and trying to bite him. After a few minutes of running and dodging Arthur finally stoped, the snake, although it was longer than expected, he managed to imobilise it at least for a few minutes. -I have to go to my king, he must be in danger, ge said while running to the main hall. While he was running he saw that the sentinels were dead, and most of the soldiers were in a struggle against death, and they were losing. He wanted to help them, but there was no time. When he finally arrived at the main hall he saw a nightmare: the king and the queen weren't just dead, they were rottening at such a fast rate that he thought it wasn't true. He approached to them and fell on his knees. Without realising it, he was holding the king's and queen's heads on his arms. -I...failed...to protect you both...I failed... -Indeed you failed, a cold voice heared from the shadows, you are pathetic Arthur, and naive. It was a warrior, just like Arthur, but he has a snake emblem on his black armor and a white snake-like sword. -You...! You killed them !?! -Of course I do! Also I will finish you too. Arthur grabbed the king's sword and atacked him in a flash, but the snake warrior dodged, grabbed Arthur's face then smashed him on the floor, cracking half of the floor. Arthur coughed blood and paralised of fear. The 2016-05-27T04:03:35.64-04:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/Aliphatic-Solvents-in-Asia-Market-Trends,-Size,-Challenges,-Costs-and-Price,-Analysis,-Segmented-Overview-and-Outlook-35198.aspx High School could be stressful.......especially Physics....................................shhdhdjdjfnud hi de jjd hi hi de if jk fnd. Gbfbdjdn. Bsnrhd. Bns rbrjrjjdjkdjd 2016-04-25T23:16:39.597-04:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/Graphs-35189.aspx Student’s Name Professor’s Name Course Date Chinese Civilization The distribution of natural physical features and their location has a direct influence on population and the culture of a group of people. Such differences determine the unity and the duration of a civilization’s existence. China is a country whose ancient cultural practices and unique traditions have remained intact for many generations due to its geography. Its size and topography were the principal contributor to the country’s unique features, preventing invasions and foreign cultural influences. Like Mesopotamia and Egypt, the Chinese civilization is one of the most ancient ones on Earth. The peculiar location and a unique way of life have been one of the nation’s features since the establishment of the Han Dynasty more than two millennia ago (National Geographic n.p.). Thus, the country’s topography is the leading cause of differences in distribution and population in China, with more than ninety million people living in Shandong province characterized by mild coastal climate, while less than three million people inhabit Tibet due to its harsh mountainous weather (National Geographic n.p.). Such a disparity has caused certain differences in economic and social development. China’s distribution of natural physical features isolated it from any neighboring cultural influences. Thus, the country’s geography isolated it from surrounding civilizations and made it mostly dependent on its own capability (Bartsch n.d.). The rough terrain did not only isolate China from the outside world, but also posed an economic problem because most of the Chinese could not access essential commodities. Thus, the country remained separated from the outside world until the establishment of the “Silk Road” during the rise of the Han Dynasty (Bartsch n.p.). Apart from opening China to foreign influence, the Silk Road connected various part of the country, which paved the way for regional dissemination of different cultures and economic activities. Nonetheless, the Chinese people preserved the integrity of their traditions despite the interactions with the outside world. In fact, the new rout of trading did not encourage foreigners to venture into the interior of the country. For instance, one could travel through rainforests of grasslands and then encounter a desert or a mountain range. In addition, the early Chinese civilization lacked knowledge of the existence of influential Western countries. Thus, it made the Chinese people self-reliant in finding solutions to their problems. For instance, many innovations were made to improve agriculture; moreover, the discovery of loadstones, the invention of chariots and 2016-02-05T00:28:42.957-05:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/chinese-civilisation-35167.aspx Introducción Historia del tiempo: Del Big Bang 2015-12-13T10:45:39.737-05:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/El-casi-nada-complejo-mundo-y-descubrimiento-científico-espacial-de-Stephen-Hawking-35158.aspx Oxygen Oxygen, the 8th element in the periodic table. It is on period #2, group 16 and has an atomic mass of 16. It is classified as a non-metal and it is highly reactive. It is from the Latin words oxys and genes, which together they mean acid forming (which was names incorrectly with this name). Oxygen supports life but it also kills it. Oxygen is the reason we grow old and die, it causes oxidation in almost everything, even our organs. Oxygen is actually created by photosynthesis and is also made when water evaporates it loses the hydrogen it had been made in a compound to make H2O. ` Its discoveries were in the 1770’s, one was by Joseph Priestly in England in 1774 and the other was Carl Wilhelm Scheele, both independently. The name oxygen came from Antoine Lavoisier, Scheele called it fire air and Priestly called it dephlogisticated air. The reason why Scheele called it “fire air” was because he discovered that you need oxygen to have a fire. Joseph Priestly called it dephlogisticated air because he knew it was needed and it was used for many other thing that were not life. Although Antoine a French chemist that was oxygen’s 3rd discoverer was incorrect by giving it that term, but that is how it remains to this day. It has 8 protons 8 neutrons and 8 electrons, all of which give it the atomic mass number of 16. Its energy level is the second with 6 valence electrons and it is colorless and is also odorless. One of the uses is it is in plastic and it is in the ozone layer. It is also in H2O (water) and it covers most of the earth since the earth is 96% water. 21% of earth’s atmosphere is oxygen and it is a very important resource for all humanity. It is also in rocks and soil, 50% of earth’s crust is soil which is half of the earth’s crust. Oxygen is gas at room temperature and solid at -217 degrees Celsius and/or -361.82 degrees Fahrenheit. Its isotopes are 0-15, 0-16, 0-17, 0-18. If there is a room full of oxygen and hydrogen, someone lights a match and the entire room will explode. Oxygen dissolves in cool water faster than in warm water. When other elements combine with oxygen it is called oxidation, usually creating a compound. Out of the entire 2015-12-07T20:58:01.333-05:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/OXYGEN-O-ESSAY-35155.aspx {{YOURNAME}} {{PERIOD}} Factors that Affect the Rate of Reaction Data Table 1. Effect of Various Levels of Molarity of Acid on the Speed of Reaction Concentration (milliliters of gas per minute) Molarity of Acid Trial 1 Trial 2 Trial 3 Average 0.5 M 2.7 1.98 2.04 2.16 1 M 18 19.14 19.78 18.97 2 M 35.43 33.09 33.33 33.95 This data 2015-09-21T22:37:01.507-04:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/Concentration-of-Acid-Lab-Conclusion-35136.aspx MEASURING HUMAN METABOLISM NV Report Introduction Research question: The purpose of this experiment is to determine how much power is released from a human while at rest. Hypothesis: The human body releases heat to its surroundings – even while rested. This phenomenon can be used to figure out the energy usage of a human. Theory: The normal processes happening in the human’s body end up in form of heat. This means it is possible to isolate the human inside a box where the temperature inside is measured as well as being aware of the humidity level, as it is a natural part of the human body to breathe out water as gas. The human will slowly generate power outside to his surroundings (which, in this case, is a box) until the surrounding temperature reaches a constant value. This means that a thermal equilibrium has been achieved, which literally means that the temperature inside and around the human are balanced. The relationship between the change of temperature in the box and the power given off by the person is determined by placing electric bulbs of known power (60W, 100W and 150W) in the box. Methodology Equipment: Thermometer, Hygrometer, a person, 3 different light bulbs (60W, 100W and 150W), An isolated box (big enough to fit a person), Procedure: In these experiments, I worked in a group consisting of four people. Experiment 1 (light bulb 60W): I had the experiment set up in advance. In the experiment I was set to do, I started by connecting a light bulb of 60W onto the roof of the box. I also made sure that the light bulb was turned on but not plugged in. The wire was outside the box. I used the thermometer to measure the temperature in the box when 0W is released and noted the result. I locked off the entrance to the box so it was more or less airtight and plugged in the light bulb. I then started a timer – though this is not necessary and is solely to keep track of time spent. Around the time where the temperature only increased slightly (47 minutes), I stopped the experiment and stopped the timer. I read off the new temperature from the thermometer and noted it. Experiment 2 (human): First off, I waited until the temperature inside the box had cooled down and reached the room temperature, as the warmth from the first experiment was still present. A friendly group mate volunteered to enter the box. Then 2015-05-04T06:57:59.26-04:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/MEASURING-HUMAN-METABOLISM-35109.aspx We all love pets. But is it worth to keep wild animals at home and use them as pets? How will they feel? What will they do? How would they react to this? Now I will try to tell you about it. On the one hand, it sounds exciting. If you care for animals, it is possible that will save rare species from extinction. Also, if you find a small, wounded, abandoned animal, help it. The animal will be linked with you and will be your pet. In addition, it is very interesting to watch it; you can examine your pet from all sides. On the other hand, it may result in poor consequences. The beast cannot fall in love with you and become dangerous for you. Not everyone knows how to deal with wild animals, and it can lead to danger for the pet as well 2015-05-02T02:38:57.807-04:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/Keeping-wild-animals-as-pets-35106.aspx Alexander Kollmann 9E D Assessment - Sulfuric Acid Mr. Curran 09.03.2015 Introduction Sulfuric Acid, also known as Oil of Vitriol to medieval European alchemists, is a colourless, greasy, dence and also corrosive liquid, that has the chemical formula of H2SO4. It is arguably one of the most important chemicals, that can be used for important things that benefit society to many extents. It can be prepared industrially, with the reaction of water and sulfur trioxide, which can be made by reacting sulfur dioxide and oxygen by using either a chamber process or a contact process. It is produced in a larger scale due to it’s beneficial contribution to the production of fertilizers, dyes, pigments, drugs, detergents, explosives as well as inorganic salts. It is always soluble in water in all concentrations. How have scientists managed, to a feasible extent, managed to produce Sulfuric Acid on a larger scale safely without causing excess environmental damage ? Furthermore, how what have the social, economic and political impacts been regarding the production of Sulfuric Acid ? In this essay, i will talk about how Sulfuric Acid is produced on a large scale, and how it’s feasible production grant it such success in the industry. Furthermore, I will also explore the effects and impacts the production of Sulfuric Acid has on a Economic, political, social and ethical basis. How is Sulfuric Acid made ? In my introduction, I wrote that sulfuric acid can be produced either through the chamber process or the contact process. Here, I will be explaining and describing how sulfuric acid can be produced using the contact process. The raw materials needed in order to produce sulfuric acid are air, water and sulfur. The contact process, that is needed in order to produce the liquid, is a process that involves a reversible reaction i.e. a chemical reaction that can go both ways. 1 ) As a first step in the production of sulfuric acid, sulfur is burned, in order to produce the chemical compound Sulfur Dioxide. (l) means liquid and (g) means gas This, not yet is a reversible reaction. During this process, be sure not to release any sulfur dioxide, as this can contribute to acid rain, rain that contains dissolved acidic gases such as nitrogen oxides and sulfur dioxide. 2) As a second step in the production of Sulfuric Acid, more oxygen has to be reacted with Sulfur Dioxide in order to create sulfur trioxide. ?H=-196 kJ/mol This reaction 2015-03-15T15:38:09.61-04:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/Sulfuric-Acid-Everything-you-need-to-know-35095.aspx HIMAJA JAKKA ID-1413839 SCIENTIFIC WRITING ASSIGNMENT WEEK-3 Topic : Robotic Surgery Just as computers revolutionized the first half of the twenty first century, the robotics feild has the promise to equally coincide the way we live in the present generation. We have already known how robots have customized the manufacturing of automobiles and other goods of client by narrowing and speeding up the assembly lines. Robots have also empowered humans to see places that cannot be visited , such as other planets and depths of the ocean that is never before seen and just as technology operated diagnostic instruments have been in light from past many years in medical industry to provide correct effective information through ultrasound, computer-aided topography, ultracentrfuge and other image capturing technologies, robotic technology is making it's way to operating rooms all over the globe. When we address about robots doing work of humans we commonly hype about the future, but robotics surgery is already in sight. This technology is not self-controlled robot that can perform surgical procedures on it's own,but the surgeon should contribute his helping hands during oversensitive surgery procedures. This technology, named the Vinci Surgical System, allows the human surgeon to get closer to the surgical place than human vision and will coordinate the work at a lowered scale than prescribed surgery tolerance. While gathering at the control desk, a few feet away from the operating table, the surgeon looks into a optical device to examine the 3-D images being captured and sent by camera placed inside the patient. The images show the surgical place and the two surgical analyser mounted at the corner of two robotic arms. Joystick which controls, located at the keyboard beneath the screen, are used by the surgeon to take command over surgical analysers, which moves in sync with the movements of the surgeon's hands. This technology translates the surgeon's movements into precise real-time movements of the surgical instruments inside the patient without hand vibration. a narrow pencil sized instrument specialized computer technology-enhanced automobile wrists that are designed to have the same motion as the surgeon's forearm and wrists at the operative place. These mechanical motion wrists give the surgeon the ability to reach around, beyond, and behind delicate body structures. The wrists can roll, pitch, bend, and grip just as if it were a human hand. The Vinci system provides the surgeon with the control, range of motion, tissue manipulation capability, and 3-D visualization of open surgery all while working through 1-cm incisions in the patient. Robotic surgery has many advantages. For instance, heart bypass surgery now requires that the patient's chest be cracked open 2015-03-02T12:16:44.083-05:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/Robotics-Surgery-35094.aspx Evidence Based Practice: Aseptic Technique for Peripheral IV Insertion Name: Course: Instructor’s Name Date: Introduction The significance of asepsis in the intravenous IV therapy is integral in the modern patient care because of the increased patients number requiring IV therapy due to changes in patterns of prescription and the today’s illnesses which has acute nature (Bofah et al, 2012). Peripheral Intravenous Cannulation according to Bofah et al (2012), is a procedure in which patent’s skin is punctured with a needle allowing a device to be temporarily inserted into the hand or forearm veins in administering intravenous medications or fluids, although other body sites can be used. It is vital to use intravenous drugs in the management of the patients who are hospitalized. The infections linked to the intravenous therapy may affect the blood stream or the skin around the insertion site of the catheter (Bofah et al, 2012). For this reason, Bofah et al (2012) suggested that general infection control and universal precautions measures need to be taken into considerations when undertaking a clinical procedure. However, specific measures need to be taken into consideration when administering intravenous therapy especially those in the home setting and the vulnerable patients. Kampf et al (2013) conducted an observational intervention study on “Improving Patient Safety during the Insertion of Peripheral Venous Catheters. The aim of the study was to determine the application of specific steps for peripheral venous catheters insertion in clinical practice and implementation of a multimodal intervention with an aim of improving both optimum order and compliance with the steps. Results indicated that 202 insertions were observed during the intervention period and 207 in the control period (Kampf et al, 2013). Compliance significantly improved for 4 to 5 steps that are 11.6% - 57.9% for disinfection of hand before contact with the patient (Kampf et al, 2013). Skin antisepsis of the site of puncture compliance was high after and before intervention (99% after and 99.5% before). Specific steps performance in the correct order also improved, which is from 7.7% - 68.6% when 3-5 steps were done. From the description of the intervention by participants, 46.8% said it was helpful, 46.8% as neutral and 6.4% as disruption (Kampf et al, 2013). This indicated that a multimodal strategy, of improving compliance with peripheral venous safety steps of insertion of catheter and optimum procedure performance, was effective and regarded as helpful by the health professionals. Bofah et al (2012) conducted 2015-01-28T19:02:47.92-05:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/Evidence-Based-Practice-Aseptic-Technique-for-Peripheral-IV-Insertion-35080.aspx TOPIC 10 ORGANIC CHEMISTRY 10. 1 Introduction Homologous series A homologous series is a set of compounds which has the following features: ? share a general formula (i.e. same elements in the same ratio); ? members share the same functional group; a functional group is a group of atoms which determine the chemical properties of the homologous series; ? whose nearest neighbours differ by one repeating unit, most often a methyl group -(CH3 ) or a methylene group -(CH2)- ; ? have similar chemical properties (same functional group); ? show a gradual change (gradation) in physical properties as shown by the table below which shows the melting points and boiling points of some alkanes: ? examples of homologous series: alkanes, alkenes, alkynes, alcohols, esters, alkanals and amines. name molecular formula melting point (oC) boiling point (oC) state at 25oC methane CH4 -183 -164 gas ethane C2H6 -183 -89 propane C3H8 -190 -42 butane C4H10 -138 -0.5 pentane C5H12 -130 36 liquid hexane C6H14 -95 69 heptane C7H16 -91 98 octane C8H18 -57 125 nonane C9H20 -51 151 decane C10H22 -30 174 undecane C11H24 -25 196 dodecane C12H26 -10 216 eicosane C20H42 37 343 solid triacontane C30H62 66 450 The table on the left shows a gradual increase in boiling point with increasing number of carbon atoms and therefore increasing molar mass. A trend caused by the fact that as the number of carbon atoms in the molecules increases so does the number of electrons within the compound which creates greater polarity during instantaneous polarisation (which causes the Van der Waals’ forces) and therefore produces greater Van der Waals’ forces. There is also a greater surface area over which instantaneous polarization can occur. A graph of boiling points of alkanes against chain length gives a steep line at first but then flattens out at higher numbers of carbon atoms suggesting that the size of molecules becomes less influential in affecting boiling point. Formula of organic compounds type of formula description example empirical formula shows most simple ratio CH2 molecular formula shows the different atoms and how many of each; no information on how they are arranged. C6H14 structural formula structural formula show how atoms are arranged together in the molecule; a full structural formula (sometimes called a graphic formula or displayed formula) shows every atom and bond. condensed structural formula structural formula which shows order in which atoms are arranged but which omits bonds CH3CH2CH2CH2CH2CH3 or CH3(CH2)4CH3 Naming of organic compounds When naming an organic compound we want to give a lot of information in its name which is why the name of an organic compound consists of at least two parts: one to indicate the number of carbon atoms in the chain and the other the functional group. Other parts will indicate length and number of branches or if the compound is cyclic. Example: eth ane • this part tells us how many carbons atoms there are in the molecule; • this part 2015-01-24T18:19:49.66-05:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/Organic-Chemistry-35078.aspx Photosynthesis and Cellular Respiration Estee 2014-11-05T00:02:46.237-05:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/photosynthesis-respiration-35062.aspx Et Luce Stellarum There is no other phenomenon in the universe that can accelerate from stopped to top speed instantly. And as particles try to get closer and closer to this speed, they resist more and more. There is absolutely nothing in this world that behaves like light. Physicists don't even know where there is a cosmic speed limit. All they know is that time stands still when you travel and the speed of light. Isaac Newton's enduring fascination with light began when he was a child. By the time he was in his 20s, Newton had become the first person to decipher the mysteries of the rainbow. Newton discovered that sunlight or "white light" was a culmination of all the lights. He made this discovery by carving a small hole of light into a wall and then placing a prism in front of the beam of light. He named the displays of colors "spectrum" which was Latin for phantom. Fast forward to the 1800s. At the time, everybody who went outside knew that sunlight carries heat. By night, William Herschel scanned the starry skies with the largest telescope at the world. By day, he asked whether or not different colors were different temperatures. When Herschel first set up this experiment he placed three thermometers on a table with two of them being on the spectrum's red and blue ends. The third was placed below red and served as the control of the experiment. As Herschel recorded the temperatures he found that red light was warmer than blue light. Something far more interesting however was going on with the control. After duplicating his experiment many times, Herschel discovered that there was a new form of light that was not seen by humans. He named the light Infrared, which is Latin for below red. At about the time of Herschel's discovery, Joseph Von Fraunhofer was a small boy working in a glass making factory in Germany. By the age of 27, Joseph was the world's leading optician. At the time, this acutely refined glass making process of optics, which were instrumental in creating spectacles, magnifying glasses, and telescopes, and was cutting edge and an extremely close guarded secret by the Bavarian Government. One day, while working in his laboratory, Joseph was experimenting with prisms and he wanted to get a closer look at the spectrum. He called upon his primitive telescope and looked into 2014-05-13T12:04:20.313-04:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/A-History-of-The-Light-Spectrum-As-seen-from-the-Cosmos-A-Spacetime-Odessy-35032.aspx 2014-03-08T05:25:54.703-05:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/-THE-DETERMINATION-OF-THE-PERCENT-WATER-IN-A-COMPOUND-35006.aspx Necrotizing fasciitis, commonly known as flesh-eating disease or flesh-eating bacteria syndrome, is a rare infection of the deeper layers of skin and subcutaneous tissues, easily spreading across the fascial plane within the subcutaneous tissue. The most consistent feature of Necrotizing Fasciitis was first described in 1952 by Wilson, as necrosis of the subcutaneous tissue and fascia with relative sparing of the underlying muscle. Necrotizing fasciitis progresses quickly, having greater risk of developing in the immunocompromised due to conditions such as diabetes or cancer. It is a severe disease of sudden onset and is usually treated immediately with surgical debridement and high doses of intravenous antibiotics, with delay in surgical treatment being associated with higher mortality. Many types of bacteria can cause necrotizing fasciitis (e.g., Group A streptococcus (Streptococcus pyogenes), Staphylococcus aureus, Clostridium perfringens, Bacteroides fragilis, Aeromonas hydrophila). The disease is classified as Type I (polymicrobial, due to a number of different organisms) or Type II (monomicrobial, due to a single infecting organism).The majority of cases of necrotizing fasciitis are polymicrobial, with only 15% of cases being Type II Such infections are more likely to occur in people with compromised immune systems secondary to chronic disease. Historically, most cases of Type II infections have been due to group A streptococcus and staphylococcal species. However, since as early as 2001, another serious form of monomicrobial necrotizing fasciitis has been observed with increasing frequency, caused by methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA). Signs and symptoms Over 70% of cases are recorded in patients with at least one of the following clinical situations: immunosuppression, diabetes, alcoholism/drug abuse/smoking, malignancies, and chronic systemic diseases. For reasons that are unclear, it occasionally occurs in people with an apparently normal general condition. The infection begins locally at a site of trauma, which may be severe (such as the result of surgery), minor, or even non-apparent. Patients usually complain of intense pain that may seem excessive given the external appearance of the skin. Patients initially present with signs of inflammation, pyrexia and tachycardia. With progression of the disease, often within hours, tissue becomes progressively swollen, the skin becomes discolored and develops blisters. Crepitus may be present and there may be discharge of fluid, said to resemble "dish-water". Diarrhea and vomiting are also common symptoms. In the early stages, signs of inflammation may not be apparent if the bacteria are deep within the tissue. If they are not deep, signs of inflammation, such as redness and swollen or hot 2013-10-25T05:16:32.72-04:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/Flesh-Eating-Bacteria-34977.aspx 2013-09-22T08:52:58.33-04:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/Save-the-Environment-34968.aspx The Haber process, also called the Haber–Bosch process, is the industrial implementation of the reaction of nitrogen gas and hydrogen gas. It is the main industrial route to ammonia: N2 + 3 H2 ? 2 NH3 (?H = -92.4 kJ·mol-1) Nitrogen is a critical limiting mineral nutrient in plant growth. Carbon and oxygen are also critical, but are easily obtained by plants from soil and air. Even though air is 78% nitrogen, atmospheric nitrogen is nutritionally unavailable because nitrogen molecules are held together by strong triple bonds. Nitrogen must be 'fixed', i.e. converted into some bioavailable form, through natural or man-made processes. It was not until the early 20th century that Fritz Haber developed the first practical process to convert atmospheric nitrogen to ammonia, which is nutritionally available. Prior to the discovery of the Haber process, ammonia had been difficult to produce on an industrial scale. Fertilizer generated from ammonia produced by the Haber process is estimated to be responsible for sustaining one-third of the Earth's population.[6] It is estimated that half of the protein within human beings is made of nitrogen that was originally fixed by this process; the remainder was produced by nitrogen fixing bacteria and archaea. History Main article: History of the Haber process Early in the twentieth century, several chemists tried to make ammonia from atmospheric nitrogen. German chemist Fritz Haber discovered a process that is still used today. Robert Le Rossignol was instrumental in the development of the high-pressure devices used in the Haber process.[8] They demonstrated their process in the summer of 1909 by producing ammonia from air drop by drop, at the rate of about 125 ml (4 US fl oz) per hour. The process was purchased by the German chemical company BASF, which assigned Carl Bosch the task of scaling up Haber's tabletop machine to industrial-level production.[3][9] Haber and Bosch were later awarded Nobel prizes, in 1918 and 1931 respectively, for their work in overcoming the chemical and engineering problems posed by the use of large-scale, continuous-flow, high-pressure technology. Ammonia was first manufactured using the Haber process on an industrial scale in 1913 in BASF's Oppau plant in Germany, production reaching 20 tonnes/day the following year.[10] During World War I, the synthetic ammonia was utilized for the production of nitric acid, a precursor to munitions. The Allies had access to large amounts of sodium nitrate deposits in Chile (so called "Chile saltpetre") that belonged almost totally to 2013-09-14T05:09:31.847-04:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/Haber-process-34961.aspx Water cycle The water cycle, also known as the hydrologic cycle or the H2O cycle, describes the continuous movement of water on, above and below the surface of the Earth. Although the balance of water on Earth remains fairly constant over time, individual water molecules can come and go, in and out of the atmosphere. The water moves from one reservoir to another, such as from river to ocean, or from the ocean to the atmosphere, by the physical processes of evaporation, condensation, precipitation, infiltration, runoff, and subsurface flow. In so doing, the water goes through different phases: liquid, solid (ice), and gas (vapor). The water cycle involves the exchange of energy, which leads to temperature changes. For instance, when water evaporates, it takes up energy from its surroundings and cools the environment. When it condenses, it releases energy and warms the environment. These heat exchanges influence climate. By transferring water from one reservoir to another, the water cycle purifies water, replenishes the land with freshwater, and transports minerals to different parts of the globe. It is also involved in reshaping the geological features of the Earth, through such processes as erosion and sedimentation. Finally, the water cycle figures significantly in the maintenance of life and ecosystems. As the Earth's surface water evaporates, winds move water in the air from the sea to the land, increasing the amount of fresh water on land. Water vapor is converted to clouds that bring fresh water to land in the form of rain or snow. Precipitation falls on the ground, but what happens to that water depends greatly on the geography of the land at any particular place. Description[edit] The Sun, which drives the water cycle, heats water in oceans and seas. Water evaporates as water vapor into the air. Ice and snow can sublimate directly into water vapor. Evapotranspiration is water transpired from plants and evaporated from the soil. Rising air currents take the vapor up into the atmosphere where cooler temperatures cause it to condense into clouds. Air currents move water vapor around the globe, cloud particles collide, grow, and fall out of the upper atmospheric layers as precipitation. Some precipitation falls as snow or hail, sleet, and can accumulate as ice caps and glaciers, which can store frozen water for thousands of years. Most water falls back into the oceans or onto land as rain, where the water flows over the ground as surface runoff. A portion 2013-06-23T03:35:25.883-04:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/Water-Cycle-34899.aspx HEALTHY LIFE STYLE AND COLORECTAL CANCER Life style resembles on our health. When we practice good pattern of living; it would ensure the vitality of our well being. Good pattern of living is equivalent to the healthy lifestyle. What is meant by healthy lifestyle? Healthy life style is one of the best defenses against various health-related problems. This type of life style includes healthy diet and regular exercise plan. At the same time, it also imposes life style which is not addicted to smoking and alcohol. When we talk about having a healthy diet and exercise, how many of us are practicing on this? In this era of globalization and drastic economical growth. Most of us are busy concentrating on ways to improve our financial standard rather than having healthy food. As the fast food branching out, we prefer to have food at fast food centers. After tiring day at work fast food centers has become the choice of food for many. Fast food does not contain a complete diet. Too much of fast food and irregular diet plan creates problem to health. World wide variously affecting diseases which are obesity. Obesity-in normal term is overweight but scientifically it is defined as a medical condition in which excess body fat has accumulated to the extent that it may have an adverse effect on health. Obesity imposes a greater risk of developing colon cancer for men of all ages and premenopausal women than it does in postmenopausal women. It been proofed scientifically that obesity is one of the cause of colorectal cancer. Insulin is one of the biochemical mediators between obesity and colorectal cancer. The visceral abdominal fact has been identified as the essential fat depot for pathogenetic theories that relates obesity and colorectal cancer. Consumption of alcohol and smoking also one of the causative lifestyle which promotes colorectal cancer. Alcohol and the smoke contain tobacco damages body tissues. In our colon and rectum, bacteria convert alcohol into large amount of acetaldehyde. Acetaldehyde is a cancer causing chemical. These damaged cells may try to repair themselves, this triggers DNA changes in cells. Changes of DNA cells results in multiple growth of cells at the spot of cell repair happens. Multiple growth and the accumulated cells leads to the cancerous cells which later leads to colorectal cancer. Alcohol and cigarette lowers the folate intake of body. Heavy consumption of alcohol and smoking habit 2013-05-10T01:58:13.097-04:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/HEALTHY-LIFE-STYLE-AND-COLORECTAL-CANCER-34882.aspx Green chemistry, also called sustainable chemistry, is a philosophy of chemical research and engineering that encourages the design of products and processes that minimize the use and generation of hazardous substances.[1] Whereas environmental chemistry is the chemistry of the natural environment, and of pollutant chemicals in nature, green chemistry seeks to reduce and prevent pollution at its source. As a chemical philosophy, green chemistry applies to organic chemistry, inorganic chemistry, biochemistry, analytical chemistry, and even physical chemistry. While green chemistry seems to focus on industrial applications, it does apply to any chemistry choice. Click chemistry is often cited as a style of chemical synthesis that is consistent with the goals of green chemistry. The focus is on minimizing the hazard and maximizing the efficiency of any chemical choice. It is distinct from environmental chemistry which focuses on chemical phenomena in the environment. In 2005 Ryoji Noyori identified three key developments in green chemistry: use of supercritical carbon dioxide as green solvent, aqueous hydrogen peroxide for clean oxidations and the use of hydrogen in asymmetric synthesis.[2] Examples of applied green chemistry are supercritical water oxidation, on water reactions, and dry media reactions. Bioengineering is also seen as a promising technique for achieving green chemistry goals. A number of important process chemicals can be synthesized in engineered organisms, such as shikimate, a Tamiflu precursor which is fermented by Roche in bacteria. The term green chemistry was coined by Paul Anastas in 1991.[3] Principles [edit] Paul Anastas, then of the United States Environmental Protection Agency, and John C. Warner developed 12 principles of green chemistry,[4] which help to explain what the definition means in practice. The principles cover such concepts as: the design of processes to maximize the amount of raw material that ends up in the product; the use of safe, environment-benign substances, including solvents, whenever possible; the design of energy efficient processes; the best form of waste disposal: not to create it in the first place. The 12 principles are: It is better to prevent waste than to treat or clean up waste after it is formed. Synthetic methods should be designed to maximize the incorporation of all materials used in the process into the final product. Wherever practicable, synthetic methodologies should be designed to use and generate substances that possess little or no toxicity to human health and the environment. Chemical products should be designed to preserve efficacy of function while reducing toxicity. The use of auxiliary substances (e.g. solvents, separation agents, etc.) should be made 2013-05-07T00:54:41.187-04:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/Green-Chemistry-34879.aspx Smell Consider any aspect of the human sense of smell and choose any genre (but you can not choose a narrative or argumentative) in which to compose a reflection on the human sense of smell. Goals I intend to write a comprehensive paper on the aspects of the human sense of smell. Identifying and understanding the process of smelling Identifying the physiological parts involved in smelling. Animals have five different senses that enable them to function. The sense include, smelling, hearing, seeing, feeling and tasting. All the five senses are important in the manner in which they are of use to animals. Each of the five different senses has a different organ through which it utilizes to carry out its function. Smelling is carried out through the anatomical part known as the nose. In humans, the nose appears as a protrusion form the face (the size varies among different individuals). Some animals such as dogs have a stronger sense of smell in comparison to other animals such as humans. The nose has features that ensure its smelling function is effectively executed. The nose cleans, warms and moistens air before it is transported to other breathing organs such as the lungs. Transport of fresh air that contains oxygen is very important and important for life to be sustained (Alters 93). If foul and toxic gases are smelled and breathed into the human body, they might lead to collapse of normal body processes.The sense of smell organ; nose, closely works in close conjunction with other body organs such as the eyes. However, even individuals without the sense of seeing also have effective senses of smelling. In the past, it was thought that blind individuals have better senses for smelling. However, recent studies indicate that they have similar smelling capabilities as individuals with normal eyesight. Smells that are produced by different substances have different vapors which they produce, generate and it is then detected by the receptors in the nose. The nose has membranes that are lined with receptors which are linked to the olfactory nerve. The nose has small hairs that filter the air that is breathed in before it is inhaled to other body parts such as the lungs. The airs ensure that no physical obstructions enter through the nose. The lungs need the air that is inhaled to be as clear as possible. After the air moves through the nose, it 2013-04-17T03:32:34.6-04:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/Write-any-essay-about-smelll-34860.aspx Karenia brevis usually reproduce by asexual process, dividing into two cells, then into four and so on. Firstly, cysts of the karenia brevis lay on the ocean floor and might stay in the ground for years, without being disturbed. Oxygen and other conditions, such as the right temperature and pressure are essential for the beginning of the germination process. When the temperature increases, as well as the light absorbsion, the cyst breaks open and a swimming cell appears to the ocean. After a few days time the cell reproduces by simple division and as a result hundred of cells will reproduced within weeks, having the same number of chromosomes in the nucleus. However, is really important to mention that karenia brevis might have sexual reproduction and a new life change and that happens only when the organism cannot have access in available nutrients, thus growth stops and gametes are formed. During gametogenesis the chromosomes in the nucleous reassume a typical dinokaryotic appearance, the nuclear envelope appears in all mitotic stages and the mitotic spindle is extracellular. Spindle microtubules pass through furrows and tunnels that form in the nucleus at prophase (Dodge 1987). Some microtubules contact the nuclear envelope, lining the tunnels at points where the chromosomes also contact. The chromosomes usually have differentiated, dense regions inserted into the envelope. After that, the two cells (gametes) join together. Syngamy involves equal motile gametes and is called isogamy. Then, the formed cell develops into a zygote by homothallism, which is the gamete fusion in clonal strains. The product of gamete fusion is a planozygote, which may remain motile for hours or a few days. Eventually a non-motile thick-walled resting cyst (hypnozygote) is formed. Excystment occurs after a varying length of time of inactiveness. Meiosis is heralded by a peculiar churning and rotation of the nucleus, a process called nuclear cyclosis associated with the pairing of homologous chromosomes .Meiosis may occur before or after the encystment and is normally accomplished in two successive divisions. The mobile zygotes follow the long-term encystment (resting cysts). The inactive cysts fall into the bottom of the ocean until the time is appropriate for another germination (Mona Hoppenrath and Juan F. Saltarriaga, 2008). Many scientists have done research about the life cycle of Karenia brevis in order to find out if is connected with the main effects of red tides in humans and animals. Karen 2013-04-04T06:43:16.96-04:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/Karenia-Brevis-34847.aspx Think About Thin "From now on you'll eat what I tell you to .... this is the last time you'll refuse to eat. From now on..." ...Be 2013-04-03T15:15:32.757-04:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/Eating-Disorders-34844.aspx Introduction What is a rock’s favorite ice-cream? ROCKY road! What is a rock’s favorite song? We Will, We Will, ROCK You! Ok, ok, all jokes aside. Would you like to learn more about rocks and minerals? If you do, come along on my fascinating journey. (In an airplane.)There are many things to see and learn about on this trip. So, pack your bag and socks because we are going to learn more about rocks! We are turning on the oldies…Haha Minerals are natural compounds or elements of inorganic nature. There are 92 naturally occurring elements that have specific physical properties, definite chemical composition, and characteristic atomic structure. You can also find between 2,000 to 2,500 minerals in the earth’s crust. Minerals are formed in a positive response to their environment, most of them too deep for an observer. Environments in which minerals are formed far beneath the earth’s surface are plutonic igneous, pegmatitic, hot temperature vein, moderate temp. Vein, low temp. Vein and a metamorphic environment. Environments in which minerals form near the earth’s surface are groundwater, weathering, and sedimentary. Minerals are divided into groups on the basis of their composition. About one third of all mineral belong to the group silicates. Other groups are carbonates they includes calcite, oxide which includes magnetite, sulfides which includes pyrite, halides which includes halite, sulfates which includes gypsum, and phosphateswhich eapalite the mineral belongs to. The last group is every mineral that is a chemical element and is found their uncombined state. The elements include copper, silver, gold, and so on. The Rock Cycle describes the process the earth uses to recycle rocks. Yes, even rocks are recycled. There are three basic types of rocks: igneous, metamorphic, and sedimentary. The interesting part of knowing these names is that any one of the three types of rock can be changed into one of the other types. The names of the rock types refer to the way the rocks are formed. Igneous rocks are formed from fiery molten magma. Metamorphic rocks form under intense heat and pressure. Sedimentary rocks form by weathering. Get ready for a very rocky flight….Haha Igneous Rocks Igneous rocks are formed of magma, the molten form of the earth’s mantle layer. Igneous rocks can form above ground as lava spewing from volcanoes. But igneous rocks can also form below the surface. Pockets of magma get stuck in layers of the earth. As they get closer and closer to the surface, the magma slowly cools. Granite is an igneous rock that formed from a 2013-04-02T20:14:26.757-04:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/Rocks-34842.aspx Gauss, Carl Friedrich (1777-1855). The German scientist and mathematician Gauss is frequently he was called the founder of modern mathematics. His work is astronomy and physics is nearly as significant as that in mathematics. Gauss was born on April 30, 1777 in Brunswick (now it is Western Germany). Many biographists think that he got his good health from his father. Gauss said about himself that, he could count before he can talk. When Gauss was 7 years old he went to school. In the third grade students came when they were 10-15 years old, so teacher should work with students of different ages. Because of it he gave to half of students long problems to count, so he in that time could teach other half. One day he gave half of students, Gauss was in this half, to add all natural numbers from 1 to 100. 10 year old Gauss put his paper with answer on the teacher's desk first and he was the only who has got the right answer. From that day Gauss was popular in the whole school. On October 15, 1795, Gauss was admitted to Georgia Augusta as "matheseos cult."; that is to say, as a mathematics student. But it is often pointed out that at first Gauss was undecided whether he should become a mathematician or a philologist. The reason for this indecision was probably that humanists at that time had a better economic future than scientists. Gauss first became completely certain of his choice of studies when he discovered the construction of the regular 17-sided polygon with ruler and compass; that is to say, after his first year at the university. There are several reasons to support the assertion that Gauss hesitated in his choice of a career. But his matriculation as a student of mathematics does not point toward philology, and probably Gauss had already made his decision when he arrived at Gottingen. He wrote in 1808 that it was noteworthy how number theory arouses a special passion among everyone who has seriously studied it at some time, and, as we have seen, he had found new results in this and other areas of mathematics while he was still at Collegium Carolinum. Gauss made great discoveries in many fields of math. He gave the proof of the fundamental theorem of algebra: every 2013-02-18T14:55:56.203-05:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/Gauss-Carl-Friedrich-34800.aspx The atom is a basic unit of matter that consists of a dense central nucleus surrounded by a cloud of negatively charged electrons. The atomic nucleus contains a mix of positively charged protons and electrically neutral neutrons (except in the case of hydrogen-1, which is the only stable nuclide with no neutrons). The electrons of an atom are bound to the nucleus by the electromagnetic force. Likewise, a group of atoms can remain bound to each other by chemical bonds based on the same force, forming a molecule. An atom containing an equal number of protons and electrons is electrically neutral, otherwise it is positively or negatively charged and is known as an ion. An atom is classified according to the number of protons and neutrons in its nucleus: the number of protons determines the chemical element, and the number of neutrons determines the isotope of the element.[1] Chemical atoms, which in science now carry the simple name of "atom," are minuscule objects with diameters of a few tenths of a nanometer and tiny masses proportional to the volume implied by these dimensions. Atoms can only be observed individually using special instruments such as the scanning tunneling microscope. Over 99.94% of an atom's mass is concentrated in the nucleus,[note 1] with protons and neutrons having roughly equal mass. Each element has at least one isotope with an unstable nucleus that can undergo radioactive decay. This can result in a transmutation that changes the number of protons or neutrons in a nucleus.[2] Electrons that are bound to atoms possess a set of stable energy levels, or orbitals, and can undergo transitions between them by absorbing or emitting photons that match the energy differences between the levels. The electrons determine the chemical properties of an element, and strongly influence an atom's magnetic properties. The principles of quantum mechanics have been successfully used to model the observed properties of the atom. EtymologyThe name atom comes from the Greek ?t?µ?? (atomos, "indivisible") from ?- (a-, "not") and t?µ?? (temno, "I cut"),[3] which means uncuttable, or indivisible, something that cannot be divided further.[4] The concept of an atom as an indivisible component of matter was first proposed by early Indian and Greek philosophers. In the 18th and 19th centuries, chemists provided a physical basis for this idea by showing that certain substances could not be further broken down by chemical methods, and they applied the ancient philosophical 2013-02-02T08:18:05.007-05:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/Atomic-Structure-34787.aspx While science helps us understand the world around us, engineering manages practical and effective solutions to the challenges we face as society. Engineers are the science students having a different perspective about the world and sets out to make it better, they decide the best and the most efficient ways to get the job done. My first subconscious exposure to mechanics perhaps were the toys that I got as a kid, moving parts in them always kept me fascinated and as I moved through my schooling I found it to be ever more interesting and exciting . The process of applying engineering methods to solve real life problems kept me spellbound throughout my years of studying and after my grade tenth, Engineering as a career became an obvious choice. To me, the field of engineering is much rewarding in a sense that it is widely applied in many of the disciplines, from electrical to biomedical, from space to civil, an engineering degree can provide a wide range of career possibilities. Majority of the people now, prefer to have more than one career during their work life and engineering in my opinion can provide a strong foundation and a driving cam to succeed in almost any other career. A child’s intrinsic abilities and dreams can be very best shaped in a strong cradle, and therefore selecting good schooling is very important to shape up my ambitions. The reputation that the universities all around the globe have earned throughout the years has compelled me to further my education through these institutes. I see them as one of the most dynamic opportunities in the world of education as they exchange partnerships with one another throughout the world and have their roots in almost every field of life sciences. This allow the students to get the most out of their time and finances that they have invested and with such benefits and opportunities the exceptional students can become extra ordinary people. Amongst the unique learning experiences, the universities also have student clubs which can reflect true color of passion shared among the students. The reputation of a university may also enable many prominent speakers to come to the campus; its policies provide a platform that strives for an environment free of verbal and physical violence. The institutions also offer a flexible curriculum that focuses on producing men-of-hour engineers that can communicate their ideas effectively to 2012-12-05T23:18:40.727-05:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/Free-Term-Paper-on-Engineering-34760.aspx Cell membrane A cell membrane is the outer surrounding of the cell that controls what goes in and out. Also cells need to have a dynamic equilibrium amongst other molecules. There are two types of cellular diffusion; Simple Diffusion and Facilitated Diffusion. Osmosis is also another type of diffusion that involves the transfer of water in the organism. None of the diffusions require energy because it is a natural process that transfers the areas of high concentration too low. Active Transport on the other hand does require energy because the movement of the molecules in the opposite direction of the diffusion, even when the equilibrium is reached the cell still needs the molecules around it. Endocytosis and Exocytosis are both very important to the cells. When a cell membrane takes in molecules it is called Endocytosis. Endocytosis is a process by which the particles are taken in by the cell, from the outside to the cytoplasm inside a vessel. Exocytosis is a process by which the particles of waste are taken out of the sell. Then the vesicles travel to the Golgi apparatus. By Endocytosis the energy is transferred through the cytoplasm of the cell. Sometimes the cell has a lower level of proteins than its surroundings. That is called diffusion. Diffusion occurs when the surrounding of the cell has fewer molecules than the inside of it. Then the cell uses diffusions to transfer the molecules into the cell. When diffusions are complete the outcome is called the dynamic equilibrium. Osmosis occurs often too, only with water particles in the organism. Osmosis is used also to establish equilibrium. Sometimes if a membrane can only pass water particles, so the water will adjust itself to have the same hypertonic solution. There are more types of ways diffusion is used with energy. Facilitated diffusion and active transport are almost the same things, but then the facilitated diffusion tries to adjust the dynamic equilibrium. For example when the protein carrier takes the same amount of molecules, it requires no energy. The active transport uses energy to take more of the molecules that the cell needs, therefore making the numbers of molecules on the outer side fewer than inside the cell. For example, red blood cells use the facilitated diffusion to move glucose across membranes. Some sugars and amino acids are used in the active transport. The thing called Selective permeability also occurs in 2012-12-02T10:43:38.38-05:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/The-Cell-Membrane-34757.aspx HOW AirPLANES FLY Aerodynamic forces Essentially there are 4 aerodynamic forces that act on an airplane in flight; these are lift, drag, thrust and gravity (or weight). In simple terms, drag is the resistance of air (the backward force), thrust is the power of the airplane's engine (the forward force), lift is the upward force and gravity is the downward force. So for airplanes to fly and stay airborne, the thrust must be greater than the drag and the lift must be greater than the gravity (so as you can see, drag opposes thrust and lift opposes gravity). This is certainly the case when an airplane takes off or climbs. However, when it is in straight and level flight the opposing forces of lift and gravity are balanced. During a descent, gravity exceeds lift and to slow an airplane drag has to overcome thrust. The picture below shows how these 4 forces act on an airplane in flight Thrust is generated by the airplane's engine (propeller or jet), gravity is a natural force acting upon the airplane and drag comes from friction as the plane moves through air molecules. Drag is also a reaction to lift, and this lift must be generated by the airplane in flight. This is done by the wings of the airplane... The generation of lift is a widely discussed and sometimes disputed theory, but there are some key factors that nobody argues. A cross section of a typical airplane wing will show the top surface to be more curved than the bottom surface. This shaped profile is called an 'airfoil' (or 'aerofoil') and the shape exists because it's long been proven (since the dawn of flight) that an airfoil generates significantly more lift than opposing drag. During flight air naturally flows over and beneath the wing and is deflected upwards over the top surface and downwards beneath the lower surface. Any difference in deflection causes a difference in pressure ('pressure gradient') and because of the airfoil shape the pressure of the deflected air is lower above the airfoil than below it, hence the wing is 'pushed' upwards by the higher pressure beneath. One of the argued theories of lift generation is related to Newton's 3rd Law of Action & Reaction, whereby the air being deflected downwards off the lower surface of the wing creates an opposite reaction, effectively pushing the wing upwards. This may well be the case but it's the 2012-11-24T14:19:46.183-05:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/A-free-Research-Paper-on-How-Airplanes-Fly-34752.aspx Hydrogen 1H - ? H ? Li Periodic table - ? hydrogen ? helium Appearance colorless gas Purple glow in its plasma state Spectral lines of hydrogen General properties Name, symbol, number hydrogen, H, 1 Pronunciation /'ha?dr?d??n/ HY-dr?-j?n[1] Element category nonmetal Group, period, block 1, 1, s Standard atomic weight 1.008(1) Electron configuration 1s1 1 History Discovery Henry Cavendish[2][3] (1766) Named by Antoine Lavoisier[4] (1783) Physical properties Color colorless Phase gas Density (0 °C, 101.325 kPa) 0.08988 g/L Liquid density at m.p. 0.07 (0.0763 solid)[5] g·cm-3 Liquid density at b.p. 0.07099 g·cm-3 Melting point 14.01 K, -259.14 °C, -434.45 °F Boiling point 20.28 K, -252.87 °C, -423.17 °F Triple point 13.8033 K (-259°C), 7.042 kPa Critical point 32.97 K, 1.293 MPa Heat of fusion (H2) 0.117 kJ·mol-1 Heat of vaporization (H2) 0.904 kJ·mol-1 Molar heat capacity (H2) 28.836 J·mol-1·K-1 Vapor pressure P (Pa) 1 10 100 1 k 10 k 100 k at T (K) 15 20 Atomic properties Oxidation states 1, -1 (amphoteric oxide) Electronegativity 2.20 (Pauling scale) Ionization energies 1st: 1312.0 kJ·mol-1 Covalent radius 31±5 pm Van der Waals radius 120 pm Miscellanea Crystal structure hexagonal Magnetic ordering diamagnetic[6] Thermal conductivity 0.1805 W·m-1·K-1 Speed of sound (gas, 27 °C) 1310 m·s-1 CAS registry number 1333-74-0 Most stable isotopes Main article: Isotopes of hydrogen iso NA half-life DM DE (MeV) DP 1H 99.985% 1H is stable with 0 neutrons 2H 0.015% 2H is stable with 1 neutron 3H trace 12.32 y ß- 0.01861 3He v ·t ·e· r Hydrogen is a chemical element with symbol H and atomic number 1. With an average atomic weight of 1.00794 u (1.007825 u for hydrogen-1), hydrogen is the lightest element and its monatomic form (H1) is the most abundant chemical substance, constituting roughly 75% of the Universe's baryonic mass.[7] Non-remnant stars are mainly composed of hydrogen in its plasma state. At standard temperature and pressure, hydrogen is a colorless, odorless, tasteless, non-toxic, nonmetallic, highly combustible diatomic gas with the molecular formula H2. Naturally occurring atomic hydrogen is rare on Earth because hydrogen readily forms covalent compounds with most elements and is present in the water molecule and in most organic compounds. Hydrogen plays a particularly important role in acid-base chemistry with many reactions exchanging protons between soluble molecules. In ionic compounds, it can take a negative charge (an anion known as a hydride and written as H-), or 2012-11-22T08:52:01.043-05:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/Hydrogen-34751.aspx "Visible light" redirects here. For light that cannot be seen with human eye, see Electromagnetic radiation. For other uses, see Light (disambiguation) and Visible light (disambiguation). The Sun is Earth's primary source of light. About 44% of the sun's electromagnetic radiation that reaches the ground is in the visible light range.Visible light (commonly referred to simply as light) is electromagnetic radiation that is visible to the human eye, and is responsible for the sense of sight.[1] Visible light has a wavelength in the range of about 380 nanometres to about 740 nm – between the invisible infrared, with longer wavelengths and the invisible ultraviolet, with shorter wavelengths. Primary properties of visible light are intensity, propagation direction, frequency or wavelength spectrum, and polarisation, while its speed in a vacuum, 299,792,458 meters per second (about 300,000 kilometers per second), is one of the fundamental constants of nature. Visible light, as with all types of electromagnetic radiation (EMR), is experimentally found to always move at this speed in vacuum. In common with all types of EMR, visible light is emitted and absorbed in tiny "packets" called photons, and exhibits properties of both waves and particles. This property is referred to as the wave–particle duality. The study of light, known as optics, is an important research area in modern physics. In physics, the term light sometimes refers to electromagnetic radiation of any wavelength, whether visible or not.[2][3] This article focuses on visible light. See the electromagnetic radiation article for the general term. Speed of visible lightMain article: Speed of light The speed of light in a vacuum is defined to be exactly 299,792,458 m/s (approximately 186,282 miles per second). The fixed value of the speed of light in SI units results from the fact that the metre is now defined in terms of the speed of light. All forms of electromagnetic radiation are believed to move at exactly this same speed in vacuum. Different physicists have attempted to measure the speed of light throughout history. Galileo attempted to measure the speed of light in the seventeenth century. An early experiment to measure the speed of light was conducted by Ole Rømer, a Danish physicist, in 1676. Using a telescope, Rømer observed the motions of Jupiter and one of its moons, Io. Noting discrepancies in the apparent period of Io's orbit, he calculated that light takes about 22 minutes to traverse the diameter of Earth's orbit.[4] However, its size was not 2012-11-22T08:40:22.057-05:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/Light-34749.aspx Other names Carbonic acid gas Carbonic anhydride Carbonic oxide Carbon oxide Carbon(IV) oxide Dry ice (solid phase) Properties Molecular formula CO2 Molar mass 44.01 g mol-1 Appearance Colorless gas Odor Odorless Density 1562 kg/m3 (solid at 1 atm and -78.5 °C) 770 kg/m3 (liquid at 56 atm and 20 °C) 1.977 kg/m3 (gas at 1 atm and 0 °C) Melting point -78 °C, 194.7 K, -109 °F (subl.) Boiling point -57 °C, 216.6 K, -70 °F (at 5.185 bar) Solubility in water 1.45 g/L at 25 °C, 100 kPa Acidity (pKa) 6.35, 10.33 Refractive index (nD) 1.1120 Viscosity 0.07 cP at -78.5 °C Dipole moment zero Structure Molecular shape linear Thermochemistry Std enthalpy of formation ?fHo298 -393.5 kJ·mol-1 Standard molar entropy So298 214 J·mol-1·K-1 Hazards MSDS External MSDS NFPA 704 020 Related compounds Other anions Carbon disulfide Carbon diselenide Other cations Silicon dioxide Germanium dioxide Tin dioxide Lead dioxide Related carbon oxides Carbon monoxide Carbon suboxide Dicarbon monoxide Carbon trioxide Related compounds Carbonic acid Carbonyl sulfide Supplementary data page Structure and properties n, er, etc. Thermodynamic data Phase behaviour Solid, liquid, gas Spectral data UV, IR, NMR, MS Y (verify) (what is: Y/N?) Except where noted otherwise, data are given for materials in their standard state (at 25 °C, 100 kPa) Infobox references Carbon dioxide (chemical formula CO2) is a naturally occurring chemical compound composed of two oxygen atoms covalently bonded to a single carbon atom. It is a gas at standard temperature and pressure and exists in Earth's atmosphere in this state, as a trace gas at a concentration of 0.039 per cent by volume.[1] As part of the carbon cycle known as photosynthesis, plants, algae, and cyanobacteria absorb carbon dioxide, light, and water to produce carbohydrate energy for themselves and oxygen as a waste product.[2] But in darkness photosynthesis cannot occur, and during the resultant respiration small amounts of carbon dioxide are produced.[3] Carbon dioxide is also produced by combustion of coal or hydrocarbons, the fermentation of liquids and the breathing of humans and animals. In addition it is emitted from volcanoes, hot springs, geysers and other places where the earth’s crust is thin; and is freed from carbonate rocks by dissolution. CO2 is also found in lakes at depth under the sea, and commingled with oil and gas deposits.[4] The environmental effects of carbon dioxide are of significant interest. In the earth's atmosphere, it acts as a greenhouse gas which plays a major role in global warming and anthropogenic climate change. Also a major source of ocean acidification is CO2 2012-11-22T08:34:18.727-05:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/Carbon-dioxide-34748.aspx Positions in Hospitals The extensive decree of the hospital is determined by the Board of Directors, which is also called the Governing Board or the Board of Trustees. Other responsibilities of the Board of Directors include the vision of the hospital, goals and objectives, the quality of patient care, and the mission. The Board of Directors possesses the authority for the hospital, including legal issues. The Board of Directors could consist of as many members as 25 or as few as 6 members, ejected every 5 years. The board is made up of the president, secretary, treasurer, and chairman. The board’s duties consist of hiring medical staff, taking care of finances, and planning, which the CEO helps to complete. The executive leadership team must coordinate, plan, and direct healthcare. The CEO is at the top of the chain of command and is also known as the president or the hospital administrator. The job duties of the CEO are very similar to that of the Board of Directors, while the CEO is responsible for implementing the mission. The 2012-10-25T11:49:25.913-04:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/A-Free-Essay-on-Securing-a-Position-in-the-Hospital-34724.aspx Fractional Distillation Of Crude Oil Fractional distillation differs from distillation only in that it separates a mixture into a number of different parts, called fractions. A tall column is fitted above the mixture, with several condensers coming off at different heights. The column is hot at the bottom and cool at the top. Substances with 2012-10-25T10:52:04.487-04:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/Fractional-Distillation-Of-Crude-Oil-34722.aspx The arctic fox lives farther north than any other fox. They are well adapted for the cold harsh weather of the Arctic. The arctic fox can hunt lemming that they can't see beneath the snow, but if the arctic fox can't kill enough to eat, it will settle for leftovers from other animals. Characteristics and Physical Features of the Arctic Fox Identification: Height: Height at shoulder 10-12 in. (25-30 cm.) Weight: They weigh from 6 to 10 pounds. Color: Normally white in winter and brownish grey in summer. Distinguishing Characteristics: The arctic fox has the warmest fur of any mamma, even warmer than the polar bear and arctic wolf. Breeding: Mating occurs in early March and early April. Gestation lasts 52 days. Litters average seven pups but may contain as many as 15 pups. Habitat: Range: Northern and western Alaska and Canada Northern Canada south to northern Northwest Territories, northeast Alberta, northern Manitoba, northern Quebec, Russia, and Greenland; a few records indicate presence farther south. Diet: Arctic fox feed primarily on small mammals, including lemmings and tundra voles. Fox denning near rocky cliffs along the seacoast often depend heavily on nesting seabirds such as auklets, puffins, and murres. Can arctic fox be different colors? Arctic fox can be either gray-blue or white. The blue coloration is not as common as the white. Young of each color may occur in the same litter. How do arctic fox stay camouflaged in the summer if they are white? As summer begins, the arctic fox sheds its white coat for a brown one, perfect cover for summer. The change back to a winter coat occurs in September and October. By November the white winter coat is complete. Foxes of the blue coloring remain dark or charcoal colored all year but become a little lighter in winter. How do arctic fox find food if there are no birds or lemmings? Arctic fox are scavengers, and will eat almost anything, including what polar bears have left behind when they have feasted. Also, when food is plentiful they will bury it for later. How has the arctic fox adapted to the Arctic? The arctic fox's adaptation to its subzero habitat include a compact body with short legs, short ears, dense fur, and thickly haired foot pads, which insulate against the cold and provide traction on ice. How do arctic fox use things other animals have made? Arctic fox sometimes will enlarge ground squirrel burrows with several entrances and use the burrows for dens. How 2012-10-14T07:18:32.23-04:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/A-Free-essay-on-the-Arctic-Fox-34694.aspx Irreversible changes A change is called irreversible if it cannot be changed back again. For 2012-10-14T06:42:14.7-04:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/Reversible-and-irreversible-changes-34691.aspx You probably know you need to eat protein, but what is it? Many foods contain protein (say: pro-teen), but the best sources are beef, poultry, fish, eggs, dairy products, nuts, seeds, and legumes like black beans and lentils. Protein builds up, maintains, and replaces the tissues in your body. (Not the tissues you blow your nose in! We mean the stuff your body's made up of.) Your muscles, your organs, and your immune system are made up mostly of protein. Your body uses the protein you eat to make lots of specialized protein molecules that have specific jobs. For instance, your body uses protein to make hemoglobin (say: hee-muh-glow-bin), the part of red blood cells that carries oxygen to every part of your body. Other proteins are used to build cardiac muscle. What's that? Your heart! In fact, whether you're running or just hanging out, protein is doing important work like moving your legs, moving your lungs, and protecting you from disease. Different Kinds of Protein Protein from animal sources, such as meat and milk, is called complete, because it contains all nine of the essential amino acids. Most vegetable protein is considered incomplete because it lacks one or more of the essential amino acids. This can be a concern for someone who doesn't eat meat or milk products.But people who eat a vegetarian diet can still get all their essential amino acids by eating a wide variety of protein-rich vegetable foods. For instance, you can't get all the amino acids you need from peanuts alone, but if you have peanut butter on whole-grain bread you're set. Likewise, red beans won't give you everything you need, but red beans and rice will do the trick. The good news is that you don't have to eat all the essential amino acids in every meal. As long as you have a variety of protein sources throughout the day, your body will grab what it needs from each meal. When you eat foods that contain protein, the digestive juices in your stomach and intestine go to work. They break down the protein in food into basic units, called amino acids (say uh-mee-no a-sids). The amino acids then can be reused to make the proteins your body needs to maintain muscles, bones, blood, and body organs. Proteins are sometimes described as long necklaces with differently shaped beads. Each bead is a small amino acid. These amino acids can 2012-10-14T06:36:24.887-04:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/The-Proteins-34690.aspx You've probably seen ads for low-carb foods and diets, but kids and adults need carbohydrates (say: kar-bo-hi-draytz). Most foods contain carbohydrates, which the body breaks down into simple sugars — the major source of energy for the body. Two Types of Carbohydrates There are two major types of carbohydrates (or carbs) in foods: simple and complex. Simple carbohydrates: These are also called simple sugars. Simple sugars are found in refined sugars, like the white sugar you'd find in a sugar bowl. If you have a lollipop, you're eating simple carbs. But you'll also find simple sugars in more nutritious foods, such as fruit and milk. It's better to get your simple sugars from food like fruit and milk. Why? Because they contain vitamins, fiber, and important nutrients like calcium. A lollipop does not. Complex carbohydrates: These are also called starches. Starches include grain products, such as bread, crackers, pasta, and rice. As with simple sugars, some complex carbohydrate foods are better choices than others. Refined (say: ree-find) grains, such as white flour and white rice, have been processed, which removes nutrients and fiber. But unrefined grains still contain these vitamins and minerals. Unrefined grains also are rich in fiber, which helps your digestive system work well. Fiber helps you feel full, so you are less likely to overeat these foods. That explains why a bowl of oatmeal fills you up better than sugary candy that has the same amount of calories as the oatmeal. So which type of carbs should you eat? Both can be part of a healthy diet. How the Body Uses Carbohydrates When you eat carbs, the body breaks them down into simple sugars, which are absorbed into the bloodstream. As the sugar level rises in your body, the pancreas releases a hormone called insulin. Insulin is needed to move sugar from the blood into the cells, where the sugar can be used as a source of energy. When this process goes fast — as with simple sugars — you're more likely to feel hungry again soon. When it occurs more slowly, as with a whole-grain food, you'll be satisfied longer. These types of complex carbohydrates give you energy over a longer period of time. The carbs in some foods (mostly those that contain a lot of simple sugars) cause the blood sugar level to rise more quickly than others. Scientists have been studying whether eating foods that cause big jumps in blood sugar may be 2012-10-13T23:49:18.65-04:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/Carbohydrates-34686.aspx A magnet (from Greek magn?tis líthos, "Magnesian stone") is a material or object that produces a magnetic field. This magnetic field is invisible but is responsible for the most notable property of a magnet: a force that pulls on other ferromagnetic materials, such as iron, and attracts or repels other magnets.A permanent magnet is an object made from a material that is magnetized and creates its own persistent magnetic field. An everyday example is a refrigerator magnet used to hold notes on a refrigerator door. Materials that can be magnetized, which are also the ones that are strongly attracted to a magnet, are called ferromagnetic (or ferrimagnetic). These include iron, nickel, cobalt, some alloys of rare earth metals, and some naturally occurring minerals such as lodestone. Although ferromagnetic (and ferrimagnetic) materials are the only ones attracted to a magnet strongly enough to be commonly considered magnetic, all other substances respond weakly to a magnetic field, by one of several other types of magnetism. Ferromagnetic materials can be divided into magnetically "soft" materials like annealed iron, which can be magnetized but do not tend to stay magnetized, and magnetically "hard" materials, which do. Permanent magnets are made from "hard" ferromagnetic materials such as alnico and ferrite that are subjected to special processing in a powerful magnetic field during manufacture, to align their internal microcrystalline structure, making them very hard to demagnetize. To demagnetize a saturated magnet, a certain magnetic field must be applied, and this threshold depends on coercivity of the respective material. "Hard" materials have high coercivity, whereas "soft" materials have low coercivity. An electromagnet is made from a coil of wire that acts as a magnet when an electric current passes through it but stops being a magnet when the current stops. Often, the coil is wrapped around a core of ferromagnetic material like steel, which enhances the magnetic field produced by the coil. The overall strength of a magnet is measured by its magnetic moment or, alternatively, the total magnetic flux it produces. The local strength of magnetism in a material is measured by its magnetization. History Ancient people learned about magnetism from lodestones, naturally magnetized pieces of iron ore. They are naturally created magnets, which attract pieces of iron. The word magnet in Greek meant "stone from Magnesia", a part of ancient Greece where lodestones were found. Lodestones suspended so they could turn were the first magnetic compasses. The 2012-10-13T23:06:56.91-04:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/Magnets-34682.aspx Newton's First and Second laws, in Latin, from the original 1687 Principia Mathematica. Newton's laws of motion are three physical laws that form the basis for classical mechanics. They describe the relationship between the forces acting on a body and its motion due to those forces. They have been expressed in several different ways over nearly three centuries, and can be summarized as follows: 1.First law: If an object experiences no net force, then its velocity is constant; the object is either at rest (if its velocity is zero), or it moves in a straight line with constant speed (if its velocity is nonzero). 2.Second law: The acceleration a of a body is parallel and directly proportional to the net force F acting on the body, is in the direction of the net force, and is inversely proportional to the mass m of the body, i.e., F = ma. 3.Third law: When two bodies interact by exerting force on each other, these forces (termed the action and the reaction) are equal in magnitude, but opposite in direction. The three laws of motion were first compiled by Sir Isaac Newton in his work Philosophiæ Naturalis Principia Mathematica, first published in 1687.[5] Newton used them to explain and investigate the motion of many physical objects and systems.[6] For example, in the third volume of the text, Newton showed that these laws of motion, combined with his law of universal gravitation, explained Kepler's laws of planetary motion. Overview Isaac Newton (1643-1727), the physicist who formulated the laws Newton's laws are applied to bodies (objects) which are considered or idealized as a particle, in the sense that the extent of the body is neglected in the evaluation of its motion, i.e., the object is small compared to the distances involved in the analysis, or the deformation and rotation of the body is of no importance in the analysis. Therefore, a planet can be idealized as a particle for analysis of its orbital motion around a star. In their original form, Newton's laws of motion are not adequate to characterize the motion of rigid bodies and deformable bodies. Leonard Euler in 1750 introduced a generalization of Newton's laws of motion for rigid bodies called the Euler's laws of motion, later applied as well for deformable bodies assumed as a continuum. If a body is represented as an assemblage of discrete particles, each governed by Newton’s laws of motion, then Euler’s laws can 2012-10-13T09:06:38.08-04:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/Free-Essay-on-Newton-s-Laws-of-Motion-34677.aspx The Curiosity rover is a car-sized, robotic rover exploring Gale Crater on Mars, as part of NASA's Mars Science Laboratory mission (MSL). Curiosity was launched from Cape Canaveral on November 26, 2011 at 10:02 EST aboard the MSL spacecraft and successfully landed on Aeolis Palus in Gale Crater on Mars on August 6, 2012, 05:17 UTC.[5] The Bradbury Landing site[6] was less than 2.4 km (1.5 mi) from the center of the rover's touchdown target after a 563,000,000 km (350,000,000 mi) journey.[7] The rover's goals include investigation of the Martian climate, geology, and whether Mars could have ever supported life, including investigation of the role of water and planetary habitability, as well as preparation for future human exploration.[8][9] Goals and objectives Masthead casts a shadow in this Navcam image on Sol 2 (August 8, 2012) As established by the Mars Exploration Program, the main scientific goals of the MSL mission are to help determine whether Mars could ever have supported life, as well as determining the role of water, and to study the climate and geology of Mars.[9][8][9] The mission will also help prepare for human exploration.[9] Attempting these goals, the Curiosity rover has eight main scientific objectives:[8] 1. Determine the nature and inventory of organic carbon compounds 2. Inventory the chemical building blocks of life (carbon, hydrogen, nitrogen, oxygen, phosphorous, and sulfur) 3. Identify features that may represent the effects of biological processes (biosignatures) 4. Investigate the chemical, isotopic, and mineralogical composition of the Martian surface and near-surface geological materials 5. Interpret the processes that have formed and modified rocks and soils 6. Assess long-timescale (i.e., 4-billion-year) Martian atmospheric evolution processes 7. Determine present state, distribution, and cycling of water and carbon dioxide 8. Characterize the broad spectrum of surface radiation, including galactic radiation, cosmic radiation, solar proton events and secondary neutrons Specifications The Curiosity rover comprised 23% of the mass of the 3,893 kg (8,580 lb) Mars Science Laboratory (MSL) spacecraft, which had the sole mission of delivering the rover safely across space from Earth to a soft landing on the surface of Mars. The remaining mass of the MSL craft was discarded in the process of carrying out this task. • Dimensions: Curiosity rover has a mass of 899 kg (1,980 lb) including 80 kg (180 lb) of scientific instruments.[10] The rover is 2.9 m (9.5 ft) long by 2.7 m (8.9 ft) wide by 2.2 m (7.2 ft) in height.[11] Radioisotope within a graphite shell goes into the generator. • Power source: Curiosity is powered by a radioisotope thermoelectric generator (RTG), 2012-10-13T09:00:33.247-04:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/Curiosity-Rover-34676.aspx My current fitness and nutritional habits are consistent with those of many middle- aged men. Presently am about 15 pounds over my ideal weight. My weight has remained consistent for the last 20 years. My regular diet includes a variety of proteins, including red meats, chicken, and fish. I eat vegetables on a semi-regular basis. However, I do not eat enough fruits, nuts, and legumes. I drink coffee black on a daily. I do not drink carbonated soda. I seldom eat fast foods. I only use olive, and canola oil at home. For the last five years, I power walk four to five times a week during the summer. Other than my summer walking routine, I live a sedentary lifestyle. As a result, and have developed unhealthy belly fat. Obesity has become a growing epidemic in America. “On average, U.S. adults weigh 24 pounds more than they did in 1960 (5), and they are at increased risk for health conditions such as diabetes, cardiovascular disease, and certain cancers Studies have shown a link between obesity and high blood pressure, diabetes, and cardiovascular disease” (CDC, 201, p.42). These statistics affect African Americans at a higher rate. Eighty percent of Black women aged 40 years or older are overweight or obese (Donettelle, 2010, p.282). These numbers are projected to grow worse as American become fatter. I believe that by incorporating three new fitness habits into my lifestyle I can improve my present health. • My first objective is a year round aerobic program that combines power walking and swimming. This would allow me to power walk during the spring and summer, and swim during the colder fall and winter months. This will eliminate six sedentary months. • My second goal is to improve my flexibility by adding yoga as a fitness habit. Yoga incorporates breathing and an array of static stretching exercises expressed as Postures (Donattelle, 2010, p.331). As we grow older, our ability to maintain flexibility with the aid of yoga adds to our health and quality of life. • My third goal is to increase my core strength by adding a strength-training program. I do not need a fitness club to do this. A light to moderate fixed weight training routine only needs several dumbbells. This added 2012-09-26T20:47:18.543-04:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/Nutrition-and-Fitness-Paper-34649.aspx AbstractAn F1 progeny derived from a cross between the apple (Malus x domestica) cultivars Telamon and Braeburn was used to identify quantitative trait loci (QTL) linked to the vitamin C (l-ascorbate [l-AA]) contents of fruit skin and flesh (cortex) tissues. We identified up to three highly significant QTLs for both the mean l-AA and the mean total l-AA contents of fruit flesh on both parental genetic linkage maps, confirming the quantitative nature of these traits. These QTLs account for up to a maximum of 60% of the total population variation observed in the progeny, and with a maximal individual contribution of 31% per QTL. QTLs common to both parents were identified on linkage groups (LGs) 6, 10, and 11 of the Malus reference map, while each parent also had additional unique QTLs on other LGs. Interestingly, one strong QTL on LG-17 of the Telamon linkage map colocalized with a highly significant QTL associated with flesh browning, and a minor QTL for dehydroascorbate content, supporting earlier work that links fruit l-AA contents with the susceptibility of hardfruit to postharvest browning. We also found significant minor QTLs for skin l-AA and total l-AA (l-AA + dehydroascorbate) contents in Telamon. Currently, little is known about the genetic determinants underlying tissue l-AA homeostasis, but the presence of major, highly significant QTL in both these apple genotypes under field conditions suggests the existence of common control mechanisms, allelic heterozygosity, and helps outline strategies and the potential for the molecular breeding of these traits. Vitamin C (l-ascorbic acid [l-AA]) is essential for all living plant tissues. Apart from well-known functions in oxidative stress defense, associated with its antioxidant properties and its abilities to detoxify reactive oxygen species, it also has important roles in the regulation of plant cell growth and expansion, photosynthesis, as well as hormone functions (for review, see Davey et al., 2000; Smirnoff, 2000). Even though nutritional deficiencies are rare in modern western cultures, it is generally recognized that dietary l-AA also has important health benefits for the consumer, and an increased intake of vitamin C has been associated with a decreased incidence of several important human diseases and disorders (Carr and Frei, 1999; Demmig-Adams and Adams, 2002; Hancock and Viola, 2005). Furthermore, in meat-poor diets, dietary l-AA can contribute to the improved uptake of iron and zinc, which are the major micronutrient deficiencies worldwide (Frossard et al., 2000). In apple (Malus x domestica) and 2012-06-20T19:50:00.28-04:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/Genetic-Control-of-Fruit-Vitamin-C-Contents-34594.aspx Type 2 – Diabetes develops when your body does not make enough insulin for its needs. In this article: What is Type 2 - Diabetes? Symptoms Causes Diagnosis Treatment How Chemist Online can help Advice & Support What is Type 2 - Diabetes? Diabetes has two types: Type 2 – Diabetes: This condition occurs in people over 40 years of age and develops gradually over time. Cells resist (or reject) the sufficient amounts of insulin the pancreas creates, and so therefore fail to be stimulated by it. This has a knock-on effect which causes the insulin generating cells in the pancreas to become exhausted and stop functioning properly. Type 1 – Diabetes: Although it is much less common than Type 2 – Diabetes, Type 1 – Diabetes still affects over 2 million people in the UK alone. We get glucose (sugar) from food. It gives us energy and helps our cells to function properly. Type 1 – Diabetes develops when there is an excessive amount of glucose in the blood (and your body stops making insulin which keeps your blood glucose levels under control). Too much glucose can damage your blood cells over time, make you feel ill, and lead to extremely serious medical problems. Type 1 – Diabetes generally occurs in children or young adults. This article will focus upon Type 2 – Diabetes and seek to explain the impact it has on people’s lives. Symptoms Symptoms of Type 2 - Diabetes include: A persistent raging thirst Continually needing to go to the toilet to pass urine Passing urine in unusually large amounts Loss of appetite & weight loss Tiredness Blurred vision Causes Risk factors of developing Type 2 – Diabetes: Increasing age Living a sedentary lifestyle combined with a high-sugar diet Obesity Smoking Excessive alcohol consumption Certain medication Pregnancy (in rare cases) Ethnicity – if you are of South Asian, African Caribbean or Hispanic origin. Note: Some people have a genetic predisposition to developing Type 2 – Diabetes. That is, they have a family history of it and the propensity to developing it is passed down. Diagnosis If you are suffering from the aforementioned symptoms and think that you may be diabetic, arrange to make an appointment with your GP. After taking your medical history, they will ask you some questions about your symptoms and then make a confirmed diagnosis by requesting a urine sample from you. You will then be referred to a specialist diabetes care team. Treatment Despite worldwide medical research into Type 2 – Diabetes, as yet the condition cannot be cured. Try to eat a healthy, well-balanced diet 2012-06-01T07:42:11.747-04:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/Type-2-–-Diabetes-34582.aspx Deforestation is the clearing the land of forest or trees and it is increasing as a global concern. In recent years deforestation has risen to dangerous levels. This reason is mainly due to the fact that most people have no idea what deforestation is. Forests play a pivotal role in the 2012-05-18T03:25:44.453-04:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/deforestration-34567.aspx Anaemia is more common in women. In this article: What is anaemia? Symptoms Causes Diagnosis Treatment How Chemist Online can help What is anaemia? When your blood is unable to carry enough oxygen around your body, anaemia can develop. The deficiency in the oxygen carriage is due to there being too few red blood cells being generated by your body, or through some abnormality with these cells. When this occurs there can be the onset of a range of symptoms. Symptoms Symptoms of anaemia include: Headaches Breathlessness Pallid complexion Dizzy spells, bouts of faintness and overwhelming fatigue An overall feeling of lethargy and a loss of interest in activities that you would normally enjoy Increased heart-rate and sometimes heart palpitations Sore throat, mouth, tongue and gums Brittle nails Tinnitus An inability to taste food and drink as normal Difficulty swallowing Weight-loss Causes As well as iron deficiency anaemia, there are four other ‘main’ types of anaemia: Pernicious anaemia – where not enough Vitamin B12 is absorbed by your body from the food that you eat. Megaloblastic anaemia – also due to a lack of Vitamin B12 as well as your body being unable to absorb sufficient amounts of Folic Acid. With this form of anaemia, your red blood cells are abnormally large. Haemolytic anaemia – where the blood cells break down and trigger a range of unpleasant symptoms. Aplastic anaemia – when your bone marrow fails to produce enough red blood cells, Aplastic anaemia develops. This is a rare condition. This article will focus upon iron deficiency anaemia: the most common type of anaemia and a condition that affects thousands of people across the UK. In fact, iron deficiency anaemia affects up to a third of the world’s population – a staggering statistic. Iron deficiency anaemia is caused by your body struggling to cope with a lack of iron. This loss of iron can be due to your body losing blood (during a woman’s menstrual cycle, for example) and also after sudden weight-loss. For some people, the development of iron deficiency anaemia can be caused by a serious disease, such as cancer. Diagnosis If you are experiencing the aforementioned symptoms and associated symptoms of anaemia, or you think you may have a genetic predisposition to having the condition, (that is, it is already in the family and may have been passed down), then arrange to see your GP. After taking your medical history and asking you some questions about your symptoms (such as when and how often they occur and if they would appear to happen as a result of certain triggers), 2012-05-10T07:50:01.2-04:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/Anaemia-Iron-Deficiency-34559.aspx Nappy rash is an irritation of the skin that most babies get at some point. In this article: What is nappy rash? Causes How Chemist Online can help Symptoms Treatments Seeking advice What is nappy rash? Nappy rash is any kind of irritating skin condition or rash occurring in the nappy area. It usually develops as a result of the baby’s skin being exposed to prolonged wetness, as well as increased skin pH caused by urine and faeces in the nappy. Symptoms The usual symptom of nappy rash is redness in the nappy area. However, this can also spread up to the abdomen or down the legs. The redness may also be inflamed with red spots and sore blotches which can cover a large area. Causes Nappy rash is caused by: A wet or dirty nappy that has been left touching the skin for too long A fungal infection which is a result of dampness under the nappy (and which usually affects skin folds, rather than the buttocks area) A bacterial infection in the nappy area, possibly caused by a tiny scratch on your baby's skin where bacteria can grow easily It is not advisable to use tight-fitting plastic pants. To avoid nappy rash, nappies should be changed frequently. Treatments Nappy rash may clear if the skin is left exposed to the air. If nappy rash develops, lay your baby down on a clean, dry towel for a sensible period of time each day without a nappy on (but do remember to change the towel if it becomes wet). Also without its nappy, let your baby roam safely for a few hours each day, to let the exposed area benefit from warm air. Only wash your baby with water until the rash disappears, as soap may irritate the affected area and make the rash worse. Ensure that you dry your baby thoroughly by patting gently with a dry towel after bathing and washing. Apply a water repellent barrier cream to the skin before putting a new nappy on your baby. (There are many over-the-counter barrier creams and ointments you can buy.) Change the nappy for a fresh one as soon as it becomes soiled. How Chemist Online can help Through this website we have available to buy Bepanthen Ointment which has a dual action benefit, helping to both protect against nappy rash and aid the natural healing of your baby's delicate skin. Also, Drapolene Nappy Rash Mousse is a non-greasy, fragrant and preservative free moisturising formulation that treats and prevents 2012-05-09T07:04:21.623-04:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/Nappy-Rash-34557.aspx Tetanus can be a life-threatening infection. In this article: What is tetanus? Symptoms Causes Diagnosis Effect on your life Treatment How Chemist Online can help Advice & Support What is tetanus? Tetanus is an infection from which everyone should be protected through immunisation injections (as tetanus can be fatal). With tetanus, a bacterium called the Clostridium tetani affects the nervous system, attacking muscles and causing a range of symptoms to develop. In the UK, babies are vaccinated against tetanus before they are four months old. More vaccinations are carried out throughout childhood – protecting the individual from tetanus for life. If you are an adult and are unsure as to whether you are protected from tetanus, arrange an appointment with you GP. They will be able to arrange for you to have a booster injection, if required. Also, if you are intending to travel abroad, check to see if you need a tetanus booster injection prior to departure. Symptoms Symptoms of tetanus include: A general feeling of tiredness Jaw muscle spasms Lockjaw Arching of the back and neck Muscle stiffness and pain around the neck and shoulder area Back pain and stiffness Breathing problems Difficulty swallowing Digestion problems Fever Sore throat Excessive sweating Blood pressure abnormalities Heart palpations and/or irregular heart beat Urination problems (i.e. an inability to pass urine, despite feeling the need to) Causes The Clostridium tetani bacterium is found in soil and animal manure. If you cut or graze yourself and the bacteria enters the wound, it then contaminates it. The aforementioned symptoms of tetanus then develop. You can also get tetanus through sustaining a burn or even through an animal bite. Note: If you think that you (or someone you know) may have become infected with the Clostridium tetani bacterium, do not delay, seek immediate medical attention, even if your wound or graze is only very small. Diagnosis If you are suffering from the aforementioned symptoms, do not wait for an appointment with your GP to become available – go to the A&E department of your local (or nearest) hospital immediately. To medical staff, muscle spasms and stiffness are strong indicators of tetanus. Effect on your life Many people become infected with tetanus through body-piercings or tattoos where the equipment used has not been properly sterilised. Treatment Tetanus infection is generally treated with antibiotics (once your wound has been thoroughly cleaned in hospital). Also, medication called immunoglobulin will be given to you to fight bacterial toxins. Muscle spasms will be treated with muscle relaxant medicines. How Chemist Online can help Through this website we have a range of treatments available to buy which can 2012-05-03T10:54:06.34-04:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/Tetanus-34555.aspx Most stomach ulcers can be cleared up with antibiotics. In this article: What is a stomach ulcer? Symptoms Causes Diagnosis Treatment Advice & Support What is a stomach ulcer? A stomach ulcer can be extremely painful. They generally develop when the membrane that lines the digestive system erodes. This can be due to a range of causes and factors. Before the development of antibiotic treatment, stomach ulcers were life-threatening conditions. The only life-saving treatment available was for large sections of the digestive tract to be removed. Failure to do this would mean the person with the ulcer may die from a haemorrhage. Symptoms Symptoms of a stomach ulcer include: Pain in the upper abdomen Bloating Back pain Other associated symptoms include: Nausea Vomiting Indigestion Heartburn Vomiting blood Passing blood in stools Shortness of breath Belching Pale complexion Loss of appetite Causes Although lifestyle factors such as smoking, excessive alcohol consumption, poor diet and missing meals can all contribute to the development of a stomach ulcer, the core reason they develop is because of a certain type of bacteria. The H. pylori bacteria gradually corrodes the stomach lining. An ulcer forms. Due to the natural acidic content in the stomach and intestine being present, the ulcer is never given respite – there is not enough time for it to heal properly before the H. pylori bacteria begins its corrosive action again. And so the sufferer is in a dangerous cycle of never being able to recover from their ulcer. Note: Some stomach ulcers are caused by non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDS). Diagnosis If you are experiencing the aforementioned symptoms, make an appointment with your GP immediately. The sooner you can receive proper diagnosis and recommendation for appropriate treatment, the sooner you can ‘control’ your ulcer and take steps towards clearing it up. Your GP will take your medical history, ask you some questions about your symptoms, and then carry out a series of tests. These could include a blood test and a stool test in order to check for the presence of the H. pylori virus. To achieve a confirmed diagnosis you will be referred to a specialist where you will be asked to undergo an endoscopy. This is where a medical professional passes a thin flexible telescope down your throat in order to get a clearer picture of the lining of your stomach. Treatment Most stomach ulcers clear up quickly with a course of antibiotics. Lifestyle changes will also be recommended with a strong focus upon diet. Advice & Support Core Tel: 020 7486 0341 Website: www.corecharity.org.uk The Gut Trust Tel: 0114 272 3253 Website: www.theguttrust.org This information and 2012-04-30T10:46:14.673-04:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/Stomach-Ulcer-34552.aspx Multiple sclerosis is a neurological condition which can occur at any age. In this article: What is multiple sclerosis? Symptoms Causes Diagnosis Effect on your life Treatment How Chemist Online can help Advice & Support What is multiple sclerosis? Multiple sclerosis is a disease which affects your muscle control and therefore affects your overall mobility. This is due to problems with your nerves. It is mainly the nerves in your brain and spinal chord (i.e. the process in which nerves send signals or ‘messages’ between your brain and spinal chord and to other parts of your body) which are the root cause of symptoms. Multiple sclerosis can also impact upon your sense of balance and your vision. An autoimmune disease (that is, a disease where the body ‘attacks’ itself), multiple sclerosis develops when the outer casing around your nerves is attacked by your immune system. The medical term for your nerves’ outer casing is myelin sheaths. As your immune system attacks these sheaths they become irreparably damaged (through becoming scarred and hardened), and as a result, the sending of signals around your body is interrupted – the messages you try to send to your muscles and limbs are not received properly. Multiple sclerosis is more common in women than men. Symptoms Symptoms of multiple sclerosis include: Skin numbness A tingling feeling in parts of the skin Vision problems (e.g., loss of vision, blurred vision and/or double vision) Mobility problems Co-ordination problems Loss of sense of touch Speech problems Difficulty swallowing Muscle paralysis Muscle spasms Muscle tremors Limb weakness and pain Dizziness and disorientation Constipation Incontinence Tiredness (and sometimes overwhelming fatigue) Erectile dysfunction in men Cognitive impairment Anxiety Memory problems Also, many people with multiple sclerosis suffer from depression. Please see contact details for the Depression Alliance in the Advice & Support section at the foot of this article. Note: Depending upon the individual, symptoms of multiple sclerosis can vary and range from mild to severe. Causes Despite worldwide medical research, the exact cause of multiple sclerosis is as yet unknown. However, some healthcare professionals suggest that the disease may be caused by environmental factors – your immune system attacks your own body due to there being a virus or bacteria present which your have ‘picked up’ through being in certain environments or disposed to certain substances. Also, it may be possible to have a genetic predisposition to developing multiple sclerosis. That is, you have a family history of it and therefore the heightened risk of you developing the condition has been passed down. However, this is not a common cause. Diagnosis If you are suffering from the aforementioned 2012-04-26T11:16:52.127-04:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/Multiple-Sclerosis-34548.aspx Obesity puts you at serious risk of developing health problems, such as heart disease and even cancer. In this article: What is obesity? Symptoms Causes Diagnosis Effect on your life Treatment How Chemist Online can help What is obesity? Obesity has become an increasing problem throughout the UK in recent years, and is an issue that the Department of Health has prioritised. However, there is much confusion – particularly amongst you people and the middle aged – as to what classifies someone as being obese, rather than overweight. Simply put, if excess body fat is at a level where it affects your actual health, then you are considered to be obese. Obesity can lead to health problems such Type-2 Diabetes, heart disease, extreme breathing difficulties, spinal damages and even some cancers (breast, colon, stomach and kidney cancer). It is not surprising then that obesity is such as major concern for UK health authorities. As well as the health conditions above, if you are obese, associated problems can include: High blood pressure Infertility Aching joints Osteoarthritis Gallstones Sleeping problems Snoring Symptoms As well as being dangerously overweight, associated symptoms of obesity can include: Excessive sweating Fatigue Lethargy An inability to manage tasks and/or activities which require physical activity in sudden bursts Causes Causes of obesity can include: Eating too many calories (fatty foods, sugary drinks…) and not exercising enough to burn them off Medical reasons, such as excessive production of steroid hormones in the body, underactive thyroid, metabolic syndrome and familial obesity Certain medications, such as antidepressants, steroids and blood pressure drugs Diagnosis If you suffering from the aforementioned symptoms and are worried about your weight, then arrange to see your GP. After taking your medical history, they will ask you some questions about your symptoms and lifestyle. Your body mass index will then be checked: About body mass index (BMI) is a measurement use to calculate if you are of a healthy weight in accordance with your height. By dividing your weight (in kilograms) by your height (in metres) then dividing the answer you get by your height again (in metres) you arrive at your body mass index. Your GP may also take your waist measurement. Other tests may include: A blood test (to measure cholesterol and blood glucose levels) Blood pressure test You will then be advised upon sensible lifestyle changes you can adopt, as well as treatment options available to you. Treatment Most people tackle obesity by adopting a healthier lifestyle which includes a combination of a nutritious and balanced diet with regular exercise. However, where this proves unsuccessful treatments may include: Sibutramine medication – this 2012-04-24T05:36:46.027-04:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/Obesity-34546.aspx A friend in need is in deed. Plants and animals are our best friends as they fulfill all our needs. Without them our life would be unthinkable. All our food comes directly or indirectly from plants in form of fruits, vegetables, pulses, rice, wheat 2012-04-20T05:28:51.32-04:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/Plants-and-Animals-are-our-friends-34543.aspx These incandescent light bulbs, though helped the world coming out of darkness but they are constantly destroying the environment. After a lot of research, scientists came out with one good alternative option to these traditional light bulbs. CFL( compact fluorescent light bulbs) are much more energy efficient and do not have any negative effect on the environment like the traditional bulbs. But in spite of knowing all the benefits of these CFL's, people are still not limiting the use of those harmful traditional bulbs. We all know that lighting plays a very important part in our lives. Around 15% of the total electricity produced is used to provide sufficient light. And from this 15% a major part is wasted as it is consumed by the inefficient incandescent bulbs. Since, today there is a great usage of lighting fixtures everywhere, the increased use of incandescent bulbs is adding to climatic destruction like global warming. The major disadvantage of traditional light bulbs is that, they are not at all energy efficient sources and are also effecting the eco system. In addition to that the light produced is too dim. So, these reasons should be sufficient for anyone to limit their usage and help protect the environment as finally we would be the sufferers. According to a research, an incandescent bulb converts only 5% of the energy consumed into light wasting the rest of it whereas a CFL, can almost produce the same amount of light as the energy consumed so saving up to 80% of energy. So, it is clearly evident that CFL is a far better option than the traditional bulbs. CFL's apart from being energy efficient sources, live for a... I n this fast changing world, problems in almost all fields of human endeavor have to be solved and resolved on scientific bases. The influence of decisions based on quantitative information has never been more evident than in the present decade especially with the use of modern technology. Indeed, the growing complexities of the activities and functions of the various fields of endeavor have made the use of statistics imperative. However, one major problem among statisticians, under a given circumstance and budgetary constraints, is the production of reliable data due to built-in biases of the collectors and/or respondents. In many cases, the main cause of failure in any research undertaking is the wrong choice of method in the collection of data. This is especially true in the case 2012-04-18T06:43:28.997-04:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/IS-SCIENCE-A-BONE-OR-A-BANE-34539.aspx Endocarditis is caused by a bacterial infection. In this article: What is endocarditis? Symptoms Causes Diagnosis Treatment How Chemist Online can help Advice & Support What is endocarditis? Endocardium is the tissue that lines the inside of the heart chambers. With endocarditis, a bacterial infection causes the endocardium, heart muscles and valves to become inflamed. It can be a life-threatening condition. Symptoms A heightened awareness of your heart beating is a common symptom of endocarditis. Other symptoms include: Heart murmurs A general feeling of being unwell Muscular aches and pains Loss of appetite (and therefore weight-loss) Tiredness (this can be mild or overwhelming, depending upon the severity of your condition) Breathlessness Feverish symptoms (high temperature, cough, headaches…) Sweating (especially at night) Swollen ankles and/or feet Swelling around the abdomen Dizziness Note: Symptoms generally appear gradually over a period of several months (unless ‘acute endocarditis’ develops, where the onset of symptoms can occur almost overnight). Causes Endocarditis is caused by bacteria entering your bloodstream through activities, such as: brushing your teeth (where poor dental care is present and the bacteria enters through your gums), or simply through chewing food. You can also ‘catch’ the infection through having unprotected sex with someone who has a sexually transmitted disease (STD), such as gonorrhoea or chlamydia. Other causes of endocarditis include: Having intestinal disorders or rheumatic fever in childhood, or as part of the ageing process (where the valves naturally become less flexible or damaged in some way due to becoming weaker). Some people are born with a defective heart valve (a congenital deformity) and develop the symptoms of endocarditis in later life. Diagnosis If you are suffering from the aforementioned symptoms, make an appointment to see your GP immediately. After taking your medical history (particularly in relation to your heart’s health) and asking you some questions about your symptoms, your GP will then use a stethoscope to listen for heart murmurs. You will then be referred to a heart specialist at your local hospital where you will undergo a series of tests (a blood test, echocardiogram, and CT scan). Treatment Most cases of endocarditis are successfully treated with a course of antibiotics. This usually lasts for a minimum of a month and involves a series of injections. Where infection is severe, heart valve surgery may be recommended. How Chemist Online can help Through this website we have a range of treatments available to buy which can help you to maintain a healthy heart. www.chemistonline.co.uk Advice & Support British Heart Foundation Tel: 08450 70 80 70 (Helpline) Website: www.bhf.org.uk Heart UK Tel: 0845 450 5988 (Helpline) Website: www.heartuk.org.uk This information and advice is not intended to replace 2012-04-12T07:41:52.673-04:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/Endocarditis-Heart-Valve-Disease-34534.aspx Varicose veins usually develop on the back of the calf or on the inside of your leg. About 3 in 10 adults develop the condition at some time in their lives. In this article: What are varicose veins? Diagnosis How Chemist Online can help Symptoms Effect on your life Causes Treatments What are varicose veins? Usually blue or dark purple in colour, varicose veins are unsightly veins which appear bulging and twisted. This makes them easy to see, but they may be less obvious if you are overweight due to them being hidden by fatty tissue under the skin. They can be uncomfortable and make your legs ache, with symptoms feeling worse in warm weather or if you have been standing for long periods of time. As well as on the legs, varicose veins can also develop in other parts of your body, such as your rectum, womb, vagina and pelvis. Varicose veins in the gullet (oesophagus) can also occur, but this is rare. Symptoms Typical symptoms of varicose veins are: A knobbly appearance to the skin in the affected area (as if the veins are straining to burst through the skin) Aching legs (which is often accompanied by a tingling sensation) Swollen feet and ankles Dry, itchy and thin skin over the affected vein A burning feeling in your legs (which many sufferers describe as ‘a constant throbbing’). Also, where varicose veins are particularly severe, ulcers may develop. Causes In the human body, blood is pumped from the heart and carried to organs and body tissues through arteries, and back to the heart through veins. Inside your veins there are miniscule valves which open to let the blood through, but then close again to prevent it from going backwards. When these valves weaken (through things like stretching and loss of elasticity), and blood collects or pools in the veins, varicose veins develop. The condition also often develops in people that: Are pregnant Are overweight Have had a previous blood clot (thrombosis) or an injury in a deep leg vein Diagnosis Varicose veins are common and occur more in women than men. If you have varicose veins and they are causing you discomfort, make an appointment with your GP. He or she will ask you questions to establish whether you have a genetic predisposition to developing the condition, and if you have diabetes – this could impact upon your problems with blood flow. After examining your legs (particularly the pattern of the veins while you are in a standing position), and any other effected area, your 2012-04-11T08:39:40.6-04:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/Varicose-Veins-34533.aspx Asthma affects more than 6 million people in the UK. In this article: What is asthma? Symptoms Causes Diagnosis Effect on your life Treatment Advice & Support What is asthma? Asthma is a condition which affects the lungs and makes breathing extremely difficult whenever the onset of an asthma ‘attack’ occurs. The lungs become inflamed causing a kind of narrowing of the airways. This makes breathing more restricted and therefore uncomfortable. With symptoms ranging from mild to severe, asthma generally starts in childhood and then becomes progressively worse as you reach adulthood. In fact, 1 in 20 adults in the UK suffer from asthma, with each person only able to cope with their condition as best they can through a specifically tailored treatment plan for them (as asthma cannot be cured). Symptoms Symptoms of asthma can include: Breathlessness and general breathing problems (these are usually at their worst in the night) A feeling of tightness in the chest Increased heart-rate Wheezing and coughing Agitation and/or restlessness Symptoms of asthma can last for anything between an hour and a period of weeks – with asthma attacks varying in length and severity from one person to another. Causes The precise cause of asthma is as yet unknown. However, a range of triggers that have been suggested and identified as possibly causing the onset of asthma symptoms include: Allergies (e.g., pollen, moulds, house dust mites, and furry pets) Chemicals and fumes (e.g., from solvents) Infections (e.g., colds, cough, flu, chest infections…) Certain medications (e.g., aspirin and beta-blockers) Emotional upset (e.g., stress and/or anxiety) Sometimes the symptoms of asthma can flare up during exercise, or for no apparent reason. Also, you may have a genetic predisposition to having asthma. That is, the propensity to developing the condition is already in the family and has been passed down to you from another generation. Diagnosis If you are suffering from the aforementioned symptoms and think that you may have asthma, arrange an appointment with your GP. After taking your medical history, they will ask you some questions about your symptoms (such as how often they occur and when) and then perhaps listen to your chest with a stethoscope to assess your breathing. If they suspect that you may have asthma, they will examine your breathing in a more in-depth way using something called a PEFR test (peak expiratory flow rate). This is a handheld device which has been specially designed to take a reading of your breathing pattern and behaviour. If there is any doubt at this stage as to whether you are asthmatic, 2012-04-10T10:34:22.493-04:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/Asthma-34532.aspx People of all ages suffer from a common cold from time to time. However, women suffer from common colds more frequently than men, due to playing with and caring for children more and catching a cold from them as a result of close contact. In this article: What is a common cold? Symptoms Causes Diagnosis Effect on your life Treatment How Chemist Online can help What is a common cold? Common colds are contagious. When someone with a common cold sneezes or coughs, the cold virus spreads to those in close proximity to them. The specks of cold virus fluid that ‘shoot’ through the air are breathed in by others, and they too then quickly begin to show signs and symptoms of a common cold. When the upper respiratory tract which is made up of the nose, throat, sinuses, etc., is infected with a common cold viral infection, a range of symptoms occur which combine and basically leave you feeling ‘bunged up’, weak and miserable for a few days. The good news is that most common colds clear up within a week and cannot be regarded as a serious or life-threatening health condition. Symptoms Symptoms of common cold include: Cough Sore throat Blocked up nose (nasal congestion) Sneezing Runny nose Headache Hoarse voice Fever-like symptoms and chills An overall feeling of being rundown, off colour and in need of a few days rest in order to recover Causes The common cold is caused by a virus. In fact, there are as many as 200 different viruses which can cause a common cold to develop. As we have seen, common colds are contagious – you catch them from other people. This does not necessarily mean through direct bodily contact (kissing, breathing in an infected person’s breath due to being in close proximity to them, etc.). If someone with a common cold touches a household object such as a telephone or a kitchen cupboard handle, they can pass on the common cold virus this way, too. If, after touching the ‘infected’ phone or cupboard door handle, you then bring your hand to your mouth or nose, you can then very easily ‘catch’ the common cold virus this way. In fact, catching a common cold is so easy to do; it is not surprising that across the UK millions of people struggle with common cold each year. Diagnosis Most people ‘self-diagnose’ their common cold and take over-the-counter-remedies to help cope with and ease symptoms – until their cold eventually disappears. However, if you are suffering from the aforementioned 2012-04-04T07:06:47.86-04:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/Common-Cold-34530.aspx Most bouts of colic (excessive crying or extreme restlessness by your infant) occur during the evening. In this article: What is colic? Symptoms Causes Diagnosis Effect on your life Treatment How Chemist Online can help Advice & Support What is colic? Colic (a condition where an infant has repeated bouts of crying, sleeplessness and being demanding) is not an indicator that there may be something physically wrong with your child. You child can be perfectly healthy and still display these behaviours. Colic usually occurs in new-born babies, but older infants can suffer from colic, too. The severity of colic in a child can vary from mild to extremely severe. Understandably, when a baby cries for hours on end this can be very difficult for a parent, guardian or carer to cope with. There is help available for people who find it all too much. Between bouts of colic, your baby can be calm and placid, and show no signs of restlessness or distress whatsoever. Symptoms Symptoms usually disappear when the baby reaches four months. The symptoms of colic include: Intense crying for hours on end without there being any apparent cause for upset Restlessness and sleeplessness Arching of the back Drawing up of legs to the tummy A rumbling sound from the baby’s tummy Refusal of food at feeding time(s) Wind Red complexion Causes Despite worldwide medical research, the exact cause of colic is as yet unknown. Some medical professionals suggest that colic may be linked to: Digestive problems caused by breast milk Abdominal pain caused by trapped wind Sensitivity to certain environmental factors (for example, you baby finds it hard to settle at home after leaving hospital) The sensing of anxiety in the atmosphere (i.e. between parents who are struggling to cope and are at a loss as to know what to do when their baby is excessively crying) Smoking during pregnancy Diagnosis Just about every baby in the world suffers from colic. Most parents accept this and wait for the months to pass, looking forward to when the symptoms finally disappear. However, if you are particularly concerned about your baby, arrange an appointment with your GP or a health visitor. After asking you some questions about diet, sleep, bowel movements and, of course, symptoms, they will examine your baby and then suggest ideas you could try. These may include: Bathing you baby in warm water to calm them down Singing softly to your baby Taking your baby for a short and calming walk in the buggy in your local park Propping your baby up, holding him/her, and generally giving your baby increased 2012-04-03T10:27:27.997-04:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/What-is-Colic-34529.aspx Research Essay: The Brain In the 1800s through the 1900s the central theory is that the unconscious mind drives much of human behaviour even though civilised society stresses the importance of overriding primitive impulses with morality and reason. Yet this constant tension between a person’s repressed drives and his expected social actions often causes psychological distress. Freud suggests that one of the ways this tension is resolved is through the fantasy world of dreams. An important distinction between the manifest and latent content of dreams. In his view, the manifest content is the remembered elements of the dream or its apparent narrative. The latent content is the underlying thoughts and wishes the dream represents. Freud argues that this latent content of dreams is based on fantasies related to the emotional experiences of childhood. Through psychoanalysis or “dreamwork,” patients are able to uncover the unconscious wishes or motives that lie behind a particular dream and so gain a greater understanding of themselves. In 1929 Hans Berger develops the first electroencephalograph, an instrument for recording the electrical activity in the brain. Commonly known as the EEG or brainwave test, Berger’s invention is now routinely used as a diagnostic test in neurology, psychiatry and brain research. Present studies agree that the brain is highly specific and divided. Some areas handle speech, others visual, others touch, and much more. Most of the brain works automatically outside of the ability of the individual to control the process of cognition. Research has shown that the brain has grown larger from the tiny reptile brain by overlaying each previous brain set with a new brain capable of new abilities. This is done much like building a house. You may start out with a one room house. As you add on, the one room is not stretched and made larger, more rooms are added and each new room has a specific function such as kitchen, bedroom, playroom, den, etc. Scientists have identified eight such layers, each containing specific capabilities and characteristics. The capability of each brain segment has been mapped and identified. In the present neurobiologists are working on how perception, cognition, and memory are coded and stored within the brain. Recent studies are based on simultaneous monitoring of the activity of hundreds of associated, localized neurons. The functional properties of these groups of neurons have been identified. These studies seem to indicate the theory of distributed coding is the 2012-03-23T11:48:20.017-04:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/The-Brain-34522.aspx Tendonitis means inflammation of a tendon – the tissue that connects muscle to bone. In this article: What is tendonitis? Causes Treatment Symptoms Diagnosis How Chemist Online can help What is tendonitis? Tendonitis is a condition that can occur in any part of the body where muscle connects to bone. When the tendon becomes inflamed – usually due to overuse – tendonitis develops. Tendonitis can be very painful and debilitating, making even simple everyday tasks, such as making a cup of tea difficult. The good news is that with the appropriate treatment tendonitis can heal quickly, often over just a few days. Symptoms Symptoms of tendonitis (in and around the affected area) can include: pain tenderness stiffness swelling redness and lumps along the tendon reduced movement and weakness, and warmth of the tendon’s overlying skin Causes Causes of tendonitis can include: A sports-related injury – such as tennis elbow where, for tennis players, the condition is usually a direct result of repetitively hitting countless tennis balls over many years – possibly from childhood, or as a result of an equipment-related issue, such as: using a tennis racquet that is too big, or playing with tennis strings strung too taut. Tendon overuse during everyday tasks – as a result of lots of writing with a pen or word processor keyboard, ironing a mountain of washing each afternoon, or over-practicing a musical instrument, such as a classical guitar. Increased tendon and muscle activity at an unnatural rate – for example, where an exercise programme is suddenly made more intense in an effort to lose weight or prepare for a marathon, and the tendons are simply unable to cope with the new demands placed upon them. Suddenly pulling a tendon through overstraining, digging or carrying a heavy object (this cannot only cause tendonitis in the hands but also in the shoulders, back and legs). Diabetes – people with diabetes often suffer from tendonitis, but the reason for this is as yet unknown. Infection – through bacteria infecting a skin wound, for example. Rheumatoid Arthritis – where the sheath surrounding the tendon becomes inflamed Through ageing – the elderly often develop tendonitis due to their tendons growing weaker and losing their elasticity as part of the ageing process. Some cases of tendonitis are inexplicable, however, with the person suffering from the condition being unable to account for the cause of their tendon pain at all. Diagnosis If you suffer from any of the aforementioned symptoms and think you may have tendonitis, arrange an appointment with your GP. After taking your medical history and 2012-03-23T11:37:37.16-04:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/Tendonitis-34521.aspx Type 1 - Diabetes occurs when there is too much glucose in the blood. In this article: What is Type 1 - Diabetes? Diagnosis Advice & Support Symptoms Treatment Causes How Chemist Online can help What is Type 1 - Diabetes? Diabetes can be categorised into 2 types: Type 1 – Diabetes: Although it is much less common than Type 2 – Diabetes, Type 1 – Diabetes still affects over 2 million people in the UK alone. We get glucose (sugar) from food. It gives us energy and helps our cells to function properly. Type 1 – Diabetes develops when there is an excessive amount of glucose in the blood (and your body stops making a pancreatic generated hormone called insulin which keeps your blood glucose levels under control). Too much glucose can damage your blood cells over time, make you feel ill, and lead to extremely serious medical problems. Type 1 – Diabetes generally occurs in children of young adults. Type 2 – Diabetes: Type 2 – Diabetes is different because it occurs in people over 40 years of age and develops gradually over time. Cells resist (or reject) the sufficient amounts of insulin the pancreas creates, and so therefore fail to be stimulated by it. This has knock-on effect which causes the insulin generating cells in the pancreas to become exhausted and stop functioning properly. This article will focus upon Type 1 – Diabetes and seek to explain the impact it has on people’s lives. Symptoms Symptoms of Type 1 - Diabetes include: A persistent, raging thirst A need to pass urine frequently Fatigue Weight loss Muscle wasting Problems with vision (images can appear blurred) Constipation Skin infections Itchiness and irritation around the penis or vagina Regular bouts of thrush Causes As we have seen, Type 1 – Diabetes develops when your body stops producing sufficient amounts of insulin to keep your blood glucose levels under control. A lack of insulin means that the glucose is not dispersed naturally and evenly to into your cells through your bloodstream. It is not known why the body fails to produce enough insulin in some people but does in others, although one theory suggests that is may be due to a problem with the immune system – possibly and autoimmune reaction. Other suggested causes of Type 1 - Diabetes include: Viral or bacterial infection Exposure to cow’s milk at a very young age (i.e. during infancy) Environmental problems, such as exposure to dangerous chemical toxins in some foods Also, some people may have a genetic predisposition to developing Type 1 – 2012-03-22T11:27:08.307-04:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/Type-1-–-Diabetes-34520.aspx Myasthenia gravis is a condition which can affect muscles in all areas of the body (weakening them). The problem originates in the body’s nervous system. In this article: What is myasthenia gravis? Symptoms Causes Diagnosis Effect on your life Treatment How Chemist Online can help Advice & Support What is myasthenia gravis? The name ‘myasthenia gravis’ derives for the Latin and/or Greek for grave muscle weakness. It is the body’s voluntary muscles that are mainly affected (rather than the heart, for example). Physical activity worsens symptoms. Symptoms Symptoms of myasthenia gravis include: A feeling of general muscle weakness around the body (however, this is not necessarily accompanied by overwhelming tiredness or fatigue) Muscle weakness around the limbs (impacting upon general mobility, and making even the simplest everyday tasks difficult) Drooping of the eyelids Blurred or double vision A change to the appearance of your smile (changing it from a pleasant expression to one which appears to others as a snarling look) Problems with speech Difficulty chewing Difficulty swallowing Breathing difficulties Neck pain Causes Despite worldwide medical research the exact cause of myasthenia gravis is as yet unknown. However, it is thought that it may be an autoimmune condition (where the body ‘attacks’ itself) which originates in the thymus gland in the chest. Other possible causes/triggers may include: Viruses As a reaction to certain medication A genetic predisposition (this means that there may be a family history of myasthenia gravis that has been passed down to you) Diagnosis If you are suffering from the aforementioned symptoms, make an appointment to see your GP. Myasthenia gravis is usually diagnosed through a blood test. However, where this proves inconclusive, you will be referred to your local hospital for an X-Ray or a CT scan – to examine your thymus gland. If a confirmed diagnosis is made, an appropriate treatment will be recommended to you by a neurologist. Effect on your life To keep the severity of your symptoms under as much control as possible it is essential that you avoid environments where there is an extreme temperature; situations that could induce a high level of stress; any kind of activity that could make you very tired; and also infections of any kind. Treatment There is no cure for myasthenia gravis. However, a range of treatments are available which are intended to help better manage the condition so that you may still live an active, full life. These treatments include: Prescribed drugs – steroids and immunosuppressants Plasmaphoresis treatment – where an attempt is made to eradicate harmful antibodies from your blood plasma using a special filtering machine Surgery – removal of the 2012-03-07T11:20:31.053-05:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/Myasthenia-Gravis-34501.aspx Migraine headaches can affect people of any age. What are migraine headaches? Diagnosis How Chemist Online can help Symptoms Effect on your life Advice & Support Causes Treatment What are migraine headaches? We all suffer from a headache at some point in our lives. Where migraine headaches are different is that the migraine itself is the central cause of the person becoming unwell. You may be in good health overall and not suffering from any diseases or conditions, but the sudden onset of migraine symptoms can still occur, due to what may be a range of possible causes. Symptoms Symptoms of migraine headaches include: sudden headache attacks nausea and vomiting sensitivity to light, loud music and other noise (e.g., crowd noise) disturbance of vision feeling unable to do anything other than go to bed Some people may also experience fever and feelings of drowsiness. Causes Causes of migraine can include: changes in levels of certain chemicals in the brain high blood pressure eye strain hormonal factors (e.g., as a result of being pregnant) certain medications physical and emotional stress smoking and alcohol dietary triggers additives eating meals infrequently Diagnosis If you are suffering from the aforementioned symptoms and are struggling to manage your pain through taking over-the-counter remedies, make an appointment to see your GP. After taking your medical history, he or she will ask you some questions about your symptoms, carry out a physical examination, and then recommend an appropriate course of treatment. Note: If your headache occurs suddenly and severely, seek medical advice urgently, particularly if you have recently received a blow to the head. Effect on your life Most people with migraine say that this condition can be a miserable experience. The sudden onset of symptoms (a migraine attack) can occur without warning and can mean you feel unable to do anything other than go to bed or sit quietly in a dark room until your symptoms ease. Commonly, a migraine can last for up to 72 hours. Treatment As yet, there is no definite cure for migraines, but there are several treatments which can help to reduce symptoms. These include: painkillers anti-inflammatories anti-sickness medicines triptan medicines (these make the blood vessels around the brain contract – easing symptoms) acupuncture, massage, reflexology migraine clinics It can be a good idea to keep a migraine diary to try to track which food, drink and/or activities seem to trigger your symptoms. That way you can organise your life as best you can to try to avoid migraine attacks, and also protect yourself when it comes to making career choices. For example, many people with migraine find their symptoms can be 2012-03-02T10:24:57.88-05:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/Migraine-Headaches-34500.aspx “Engineers Make the World” -Proclaims a sticker at the rear of an automobile – Well that’s true almost. Most of the conveniences that we take for granted today are the gifts from the application of various branches of Engineering. A Bachelors degree in Engineering is considered to be one of the most flexible career options for a science student after 12th STD. Flexible – did we say – Yes!! . Flexible because it offers a great fall back option even if one were to decide to change stream after the formal study. Flexible because it forms a perfect launch pad from which one could cap the degree study with master’s qualifications in technology, management, entrepreneurship etc…. There are more than 30 different majors or branches of study possible at the graduate level in India. At a very broad level, these can be classified as Conventional, Specialized and New Generation Branches. The Branches like Mechanical Engineering, Civil Engineering, and Electrical Engineering etc are known as conventional branches. These branches have been in existence for a long time and were the pillars of many inventions and facilities that the modern world enjoys. Automobile Engineering, Energy Engineering, Polymer Engineering are examples of Specialized branches. A close look these branches will give the clue –these have emerged from more traditional branches because of the specific needs of the industry. Automobile Engineering has grown out of Mechanical Engineering. Polymer Engineering has grown out of a special need of the textiles and allied industries. Energy Engineering has developed into a focus area because of the industry’s increasing concern over how we use up the limited resource we have. New Generation Branches courses that were established relatively recently – in the last fifteen years or so. Examples would be Biomedical Engineering, Biotechnology, and Robotics etc. So what are the fundamental differences between these three broad categories? How does one decide which course of study to pursue? Well – here’s one practical explanation. A mechanical Engineer, when recruited by Maruti Udyog Ltd, is told very clearly what is to be done. And why not? Maruti has been making cars for the last twenty five years and a lot of systems and procedures are in place. To top it these are time-tested techniques from a much disciplined work-culture from Japan. As against it, a Biotechnology Engineer, when recruited by Biocon – the torchbearer of that industry in India would be given 2012-02-22T11:43:16.57-05:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/Engineering-and-Engineers-34494.aspx GORD is a common condition and is one of the most frequent causes of indigestion and heartburn. In this article: What is GORD? Effect on your life Advice & Support Symptoms Treatments Causes How Chemist Online can help What is GORD? GORD stands for gastro-oesophageal reflux disease (also known as acid reflux), and is an unpleasant burning feeling in the chest which rises to the throat. This occurs when stomach acid leaks back up into the oesophagus (the tube that runs from your throat to your stomach). GORD is often a chronic condition. This means that if you suffer from it, you may experience recurring episodes for the rest of your life. Symptoms The main symptoms of GORD include a burning sensation in the chest, and, in severe cases, breathing difficulties and also hoarseness due to the acid reflux irritating the larynx and respiratory tract. Causes When the ring of muscle that sits between your oesophagus and your stomach weakens over time and fails to function as it should then GORD can occur. Acid seeps through the ring up into the throat in a sort of ‘backwards motion’, and can feel uncomfortable. This can happen as a result of excessive alcohol intake, smoking, eating fatty foods, being pregnant, or suffering from constipation. Chocolate, coffee and fruit juices can all aggravate the condition. Also, eating a large meal once a day rather than eating little and often can cause GORD to occur. Effect on your life Many people who suffer from GORD experience a lower quality of life due to their symptoms. For dietary reasons, going to a restaurant can be almost impossible. Sleep disturbances can also occur as well as limitations in physical activities such as playing sports or even bending over to empty the dishwasher or pick up a pen. Treatments Losing weight, avoiding large, high-fat meals (and bedtime snacks), reducing coffee and alcohol consumption, and stopping smoking can all help to ease the symptoms of GORD. For most people, over-the-counter antacid tablets or liquids give fast, short-term relief. If these, as well as lifestyle changes, prove ineffective then make an appointment with your GP. He or she will consider whether stronger medication is required, or if further tests, such as a gastroscopy, should be carried out. How Chemist Online can help We have a range of products available that can help you to tackle GORD: such as Bisodol Indigestion Relief Tablets. These are highly effective triple-action peppermint tablets which aid the relief of acid indigestion. We can also recommend Gaviscon 2012-02-20T12:14:24.24-05:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/GORD-Leading-Cause-of-Indigestion-and-Heartburn-34484.aspx Patient NB is a 21 year-old G1T0P1A0L1. NB delivered a baby girl at 33.1 weeks gestation on 5/3/2011. Her LMP was on 09/13/2010. Her estimated due date was 6/20/11. She is five feet four inches and her weight at delivery was 153 pounds. Her prenatal labs include an ultrasound on 2/11/11 and an AFP, which was not elevated. Her delivery was complicated with preterm labor. She arrived at the hospital completely effaced and 4cm dilated. Delivery was eminent, and at 1219 on 5/3/2011 she delivered her preterm baby girl vaginally. She had an epidural with fentanyl 15 ml/hr for pain relief, and suffered a superficial bilateral vaginal tear from the delivery. Her uterus has remained contracted. Her lochia is rubra small. She does not have a significant history as this is her first pregnancy and delivery. Patient denies drug and alcohol use. Patient denies smoking. She has no history of depression. Her husband is in the military and is stationed in Iraq, but he was able to get discharged for 1 week for the delivery. Patient will be staying with parents in IL, for a few weeks, until the baby is stable and discharged. She will than return to Kansas City, where she lives. In Kansas, she does not have family and has only a very small support system. NB was18 hours post-delivery. Her main concerns at this time were afterbirth pains, especially after pumping and breast pumping instructions. Her baby was premature and was in the NICU, so she was pumping breast milk for the baby. Upon doing her assessment her vitals were as follows: T 98.7, P 88, R 14 and BP 118/72. Her uterus is well contracted, midline, and the fundus is 1cm below her umbilicus. Her lochia is rubra and she complains of after pains. Her breasts were soft but slightly engorged with nipples erect without redness; she is voiding large quantities with each void without discomfort or burning. Her perineum was very slightly swollen and she did have a normal bowel movement on 5/3/11. Her homan’s sign is negative. The baby was being cared for in the NICU, and she appears to be in good spirits as her husband is arriving from Iraq. Baby Synopsis Baby girl B is a preterm infant delivered via vaginal delivery 2012-02-20T12:05:01.677-05:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/Pre-Term-Labor-a-Maternal-Synopsis-34483.aspx Gonorrhea is passed on through having sexual intercourse with an infected person. In this article: What is gonorrhea? Diagnosis Advice & Support Symptoms Treatment Causes How Chemist Online can help What is gonorrhoea? Gonorrhoea is a sexually transmitted infection (STI). Symptoms of the disease may not become apparent for at least 14 days after infection. That is why if you have had sexual intercourse with someone who you suspect may have the disease it is important to make an appointment to see your GP immediately. Alternatively, you can also go to your local Genito-Urinary Medicine (GUM) Clinic or Family Planning Clinic for tests. Symptoms Symptoms of gonorrhoea in women include: a pungent, watery vaginal discharge (this can be green or yellow) a painful burning feeling when passing urine a feeling of needing to urinate frequently abdominal pain pelvic pain irritation and an itching feeling around the anus a discharge from the anus sore throat conjunctivitis (a discharge from the eye) Women with gonorrhoea may also experience bleeding between periods and heavier periods than normal. Symptoms of gonorrhoea in men include: a painful burning feeling when passing urine a feeling of needing to urinate frequently an unusual fluid discharge from the penis (this can be white, green or yellow) redness at the tip of the penis (at the opening of the urethra) abdominal pain irritation and an itching feeling around the anus a discharge from the anus painful testicles an inflamed prostate gland sore throat conjunctivitis (a discharge from the eye) Causes Gonorrhoea is caused by a bacterial infection (the germ gonococcus) usually found in semen or vaginal fluids, and is passed on during unprotected penetrative vaginal or anal sex. The infection can also be spread by oral sex, and also by the sharing of sex aids and vibrators. Note: Where gonorrhoea is passed on through oral sex, this can cause an infection of the mouth. Diagnosis If you suffer from the aforementioned symptoms (or if you have no symptoms but suspect that there is risk that you may have gonorrhoea), arrange an appointment with your GP. After taking your medical history and asking you some questions about your symptoms, he or she will examine the affected area and recommend an appropriate treatment. Treatment Gonorrhoea is usually successfully treated with a course of antibiotics. Note: If you are diagnosed with gonorrhoea ensure that your partner is also examined by their GP. They too will be prescribed antibiotics. A preventative measure you can take to protect yourself from catching gonorrhoea is to always use condoms. How Chemist Online can help Through this website we have a range of condoms available to buy, such as: Durex 2012-02-17T10:51:52.237-05:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/Gonorrhea-and-How-it-Infects-Humans-34482.aspx Human cloning is a big issue in the science world. When people think of human cloning they think of the positive aspects of the issue. Having a cloned superstar around, being able to have a person reborn after a tragic death and even as far as using a cloned person for spare parts. Cloning could affect the human race. Although there are good reasons why cloning should remain legal, there are just as many reasons why this procedure could have negative affects. Health risks can be very serious when attempting to clone a human being. Disastrous mutations and abnormalities could occur in the cloning process. Emotional effects may also be a consequence to cloning that could lead to negative family problems. One example is the possibility of family separation. On the other hand there could be positive benefits to cloning humans. In my opinion a strong ban should be put on human cloning. Science has advanced so far that tampering with human lives is now a concern. Doctor Patrick Dixon stated that he was e-mailed by a young lady that asked if it was possible to have her dead father cloned(17). The answer to that question is “yes“. A dead person can be cloned. This is an example of why there are people that would like to see human beings cloned. According to author Philip Cohen, “all that is needed to clone a person is a few living cells left behind on a drinking cup, or exchanged in a handshake”(2). If an individual had enough money and a few live cells they could re-create any person they wanted to. According to Dr. Aaron Hawley, “a clone is an organism that has the same genetic information as another” (26). There are some positive aspects to cloning human beings. At this time only six percent of Americans think it would be a good idea to clone humans. Some of their reasons are very strong. Examples of a few of the reasons included by Dr.Dixon are recovering someone that has passed on, attempts to improve the human race, assisting medical research, and just plain curiosity (21). These reasons would have a strong impact on human beings as a whole. From a positive point of view, yes, we would benefit from most of these examples. The fact is that only wealthy people would be able to provide the money to have a human cloned. The rich 2012-02-16T23:52:18.8-05:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/Human-Cloning-Should-it-be-Legal-34481.aspx You can significantly reduce the risk of developing diabetes if you adopt a healthy lifestyle which combines a balanced diet with regular exercise. In this article: What is diabetes? What are risk factors for diabetes? How to reduce the risk of developing diabetes How Chemist Online can help Advice & Support What is diabetes? Diabetes can be categorised into 2 types: Type 1 – Diabetes: This type of diabetes affects over 2 million people in the UK alone, and generally occurs in children and young adults. It develops when there is an excessive amount of glucose in the blood (and your body stops making a pancreatic generated hormone called insulin which keeps your blood glucose levels under control). Type 2 – Diabetes: This type of diabetes is different because it occurs in people over 40 years of age and develops gradually over time. Cells resist (or reject) the sufficient amounts of insulin the pancreas creates, and so therefore fail to be stimulated by it. This has knock-on effect which causes the insulin generating cells in the pancreas to become exhausted and stop functioning properly. How to reduce the risk of developing diabetes The most common link to developing diabetes is obesity. By adopting a healthier lifestyle through the combination of maintaining a nutritious and balanced diet with regular exercise, you can reduce your risk of developing diabetes hugely. Other measures you can take to reduce your risk of developing diabetes include: Seek regular screening – Have your blood sugar levels checked regularly (you can buy monitoring kits from us – see How Chemist Online Can Help section below), or arrange an appointment with your GP where you can talk over your concerns and ask that they carry out appropriate tests to measure your blood sugar levels at regular intervals. Consider reducing your refined carbohydrate intake – Although carbohydrates are an important part of your daily diet, there can be a danger of overdoing your carbohydrate intake in an effort to maintain a healthy diet and to keep your blood sugar levels under control. This is because many people confuse ‘normal’ carbohydrates with refined carbohydrates (such as cakes, bread…). Refined carbohydrates can only boost your blood glucose levels and put you at risk of developing diabetes, so it is best not to eat them to excess. Lift weights as part of your exercise routine – Developing muscle mass will help you to burn off fat. So, as well as doing cardiovascular–orientated exercises in the gym (using 2012-02-15T09:40:40.903-05:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/Risk-Factors-for-Diabetes-34480.aspx Dandruff often occurs after puberty, between 20–30 years of age. In this article: What is dandruff? Causes Treatments Symptoms Effect on your life How Chemist Online can help What is dandruff? Dandruff (also called scurf) is a scalp disorder which can vary in severity. It is basically flaky dead skin which collects in the hair. It tends to affect 2012-02-14T12:02:28.23-05:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/When-does-Dandruff-Occur-34479.aspx Glaucoma is an eye disease which affects about 2 per cent of the UK population over 40. In this article: What is glaucoma? Diagnosis Advice & Support Symptoms Treatment Causes How Chemist Online can help What is Glaucoma? There are several types of glaucoma, but the most common form of the disease in the UK is chronic-simple (or chronic open-angle) glaucoma. The condition affects your vision and becomes progressively worse with age. People of African origin are much more likely to develop glaucoma than Europeans. You are also more likely to develop the disease if one of your siblings has it. Symptoms Symptoms of glaucoma include: gradual loss of side vision (or peripheral vision) headaches painful eyes (due to the rapid surge in pressure around the eyeball) the impression of halo like shapes around lights redness of vision (particularly where peripheral vision is blurred) Note: These symptoms may not be advanced to the same stage in both eyes. Causes Glaucoma develops as a result of the pressure inside the eye becoming higher than normal, and also where the natural fluids which flow in and out of the eye become blocked (these fluids are there to ensure the eyeball retains its orb-like shape, and to lubricate it so that it does not become too hard or soft). All this can damage the optic nerve at the back of the eye and impact negatively upon your vision. Diagnosis The problem with diagnosing glaucoma is that there are no symptoms to this condition until the disease has reached a considerably advanced stage. As glaucoma develops, you will develop blank patches in your vision which are basically unnoticeable because to cope with this development the brain tries to compensate by ‘filling on the gaps’. Your central vision is affected as these blank patches gradually enlarge and progress towards it. When you go for an eye test, your ophthalmologist will carry out a general test which will highlight whether you are suffering from glaucoma, and to what stage the disease has advanced. The diagnostic tests are carried out by: measuring the intraocular pressure around your eye (to see if it is unnaturally raised) inspecting the optic nerve head at the back of the eye to see if any changes or damage has occurred performing visual field tests to accurately measure to what extent your peripheral and central vision is affected (measured as a percentage) Treatment Treatment of glaucoma usually involves prescribed eye-drops, such as beta-blockers and alpha agonists which help to reduce the amount of fluid your eyes produce. Other treatments include: laser treatment – where 2012-02-03T10:36:57.93-05:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/Glaucoma-and-the-United-Kingdom-34465.aspx Depression affects 2 in 3 adults at some point in their lives. In this article: What is depression? Causes Treatments Symptoms Diagnosis Advice & Support What is depression? Depression is a mental illness which can affect anyone and strike at any time. A distressing condition of which experiencing an abnormal state of sadness is the core symptom, depression can be a hugely debilitating illness. Until recent years, it has also been much misunderstood, with sufferers often being told by family, friends and colleagues to ‘pull their socks up’, or to ‘just snap out of it’. Thankfully, due to greater awareness about depression, these days sufferers are not treated in such a stigmatised way and are able to make use of a range of treatments and self-help options which have all been proved effective in coping with and even overcoming the illness. Types of depression Often labelled by healthcare professionals as the ‘common cold’ of psychological problems, depression is a mood disorder. It is the most common affective disorder which accounts for 50 per cent of all psychiatric hospital admissions. Depression tends to run in families and symptoms are similar across cultures, genders and ages. This suggests that biological mechanisms play a strong part in the development of depression. The two main types of depression are Uni-Polar (persistent low moods) and Bi-Polar Disorder (or Manic Depression) which consists of alternating bouts of long depression and mania. Symptoms Symptoms of depression include: Low mood Loss of interest in life Loss of enjoyment Lack of motivation, energy, appetite and ability to concentrate Sleeping problems People with depression can also experience physical symptoms such as aches and pains, heart palpitations, headaches and chest pains. Where depression is particularly severe, sufferers may resort to suicide. Worryingly, having come to the decision to commit suicide, the sufferer can experience an improvement of mood – masking their intentions to those around them (who may have been able to help them) through appearing ‘on the mend’. Causes The cause of depression is not known. However, many clinical psychologists worldwide suggest that depression may develop where an individual: suffers a loss of status (such as losing a job, or relationship partner or a bereavement) perhaps has a genetic predisposition to developing the illness (one of their parents or grandparents suffered from depression and so the vulnerability to the next generation developing the illness is ‘passed down’) is under a lot of stress (through being under pressure to meet a target at work, for example, or through struggling to cope with paying household 2012-02-01T10:28:43.95-05:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/Adult-Depression-34453.aspx Psoriasis is a skin condition which affects about 2 in 100 people at some time in their life. In this article: What is psoriasis? Diagnosis Advice & Support Symptoms Treatment Causes How Chemist Online can help What is psoriasis? Psoriasis is a chronic but non-contagious skin condition which can affect all areas of the body, but usually develops on the scalp, lower back, elbows and knees. With psoriasis, the skin becomes red and patchy because the skin cells struggle to reproduce quickly enough (human skin layers reproduce up to every 28 days). These ‘flare-ups’ of psoriasis can occur randomly and are therefore unpredictable. However, there are triggers (please see Causes section below) which can bring about a sudden bout of symptoms. Severity of symptoms can vary from person to person. Symptoms Symptoms of psoriasis include: small patches of red, scaly skin on the body itching burning bleeding Note: These symptoms can also affect your fingers and toes. Causes Although one school of thought suggests that the cause of psoriasis may be linked to a problem with the immune system (or to a certain form of arthritis), the exact cause of psoriasis is something that has baffled GPs, dermatologists and other medical professionals for some time. This means that the condition is unpreventable. What is known is that there are a range of triggers which can prompt the onset of symptoms. For example: chest infection sore throat stress sunburn smoking excessive alcohol consumption insect bites certain prescribed and non-prescribed medications an injury to the skin (such as a cut, graze or other wound) Note: Some people may also have a genetic predisposition to developing psoriasis (i.e. it is in the family, or passed down) Diagnosis If you suffer from the aforementioned symptoms, arrange an appointment with your GP. After taking your medical history and asking you some questions, he or she will examine the affected area and recommend an appropriate treatment. If your psoriasis is particularly severe, you may be referred to a dermatologist who will carry out further tests. Treatment There is no cure for psoriasis, but there are several treatments which can reduce symptoms. For example: Over-the-counter remedies (e.g., lotions or creams) Prescribed topical lotions and creams, such as: Dithranol, Tazarotene, corticosteroids, and vitamin D analogues Injected or oral medication that has been developed specifically to trigger reduction in the production of skin cells Sometimes, light therapy or phototherapy is also used to treat the affected area(s) – on a regular basis and under medical supervision, the skin is exposed to ultraviolet light. How Chemist Online can help Through this website we have a range 2012-01-31T08:29:10.183-05:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/Psoriasis-a-Skin-Condition-34451.aspx The pain caused by tennis elbow normally lasts for 6 to 12 weeks. In this article: What is tennis elbow? Diagnosis How Chemist Online can help Symptoms Effect on your life Advice & Support Causes Treatments What is tennis elbow? Tennis elbow is basically an inflammation of the tendons around the elbow area usually caused by twisting and over-strenuous use of the forearm and the muscles around the elbow joint. It can be extremely painful, even when doing simple things like shaking hands, washing dishes, using a mobile phone, or turning a door handle. The scientific name for the injury is lateral epicondylitis which means inflammation to the outside of the elbow bone. It usually occurs in adults, with approximately 5 in 1000 adults developing the condition in the UK each year. Tennis elbow usually affects the elbow of the dominant hand (i.e. the hand you use the most). So if you’re right-handed, it will usually be your right elbow that causes you pain once your symptoms develop. Symptoms Typical symptoms of tennis elbow are: Pain, tenderness and inflammation on the outside of the elbow, and Pain on the inside of the elbow – also known as Golfer’s Elbow These symptoms will usually last for up to about 3 months. However, in severe cases, the pain can continue for several years. You may also experience swelling around the elbow area (due to the tendons being inflamed), as well as stiffness. People with tennis elbow can develop the condition through activities they perform frequently in their jobs, such as: using a power drill or a screw driver, ironing and repeatedly turning the dials on industrial washing machines in a laundry room, or performing IT tasks like data entry at a computer keyboard all day. Causes For tennis players, the condition is usually a direct result of repetitively hitting countless tennis balls over many years – possibly from childhood. However, tennis elbow is not just caused by playing tennis. Any activity which involves excessive and repeated use of the muscles that straighten the wrist can put an unnatural strain on the tendons, injuring them, and leading to tennis elbow. The tendons suffer tiny tears as a result of this over-straining, and, because the tendons are not given enough time to heal properly, they tear again and rough tissue forms. As well as racquet sports, other sport and leisure activities which can lead to tennis elbow include swimming, bowling and volleyball. Diagnosis If you are experiencing the aforementioned symptoms, then make an appointment with 2012-01-30T10:08:00.963-05:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/Tennis-Elbow-34449.aspx Oesophageal cancer can be successfully treated if diagnosed in its early stages. In this article: What is cancer? What is oesophageal cancer? Symptoms of oesophageal cancer Causes Diagnosis Effect on your life Treatment Advice & Support What is cancer? Cancer is a disease where abnormal cells in the body begin to grow, divide and reproduce in an uncontrollable way. These abnormal cells then invade and destroy healthy tissue, including organs. What is oesophageal cancer? The pipe down which food is carried from your mouth to your stomach is called your oesophagus. Oesophageal cancer is where cancerous cells develop in your oesophagus, (in its lining or mucus-forming glands), forming a cancerous tumour. Although not a common form of cancer in the UK, oesophagus cancer is on the increase. Symptoms of oesophageal cancer Symptoms of oesophageal cancer include: Difficulty and pain when swallowing A general feeling of discomfort and pain in and around your throat Skeletal pain around the shoulder blades Back pain Breastbone pain (and sometimes rib pain) Weight-loss Nausea and vomiting Heartburn Hoarse voice Note: Some people with oesophageal cancer may also cough up blood. Causes Causes of oesophageal cancer include: Smoking Excessive alcohol consumption Obesity As part of the ageing process Environmental factors (e.g., exposure to dangerous chemicals and pollutants) GORD (acid reflux from the stomach) About GORD: GORD stands for gastro-oesophageal reflux disease (also known as acid reflux). It is an unpleasant burning feeling in the chest which rises to the throat. This occurs when stomach acid leaks back up into the oesophagus. When the ring of muscle that sits between your oesophagus and your stomach weakens over time and fails to function as it should then GORD can occur. Acid seeps through the ring up into the throat in a sort of ‘backwards motion’, and can feel uncomfortable. Although GORD can be a cause of oesophageal cancer, this is rare. Diagnosis A diagnosis of oesophageal cancer can be based upon an individual’s symptoms, physical examination results and screening test results. Also, if you suffer an injury of some kind, cancer can be detected through abnormalities brought to light through an X-ray. If you are suffering from the aforementioned symptoms, arrange an appointment with your GP immediately. They will take your medical history, ask you some questions about your symptoms, and then carry out a short physical examination. Primarily, your GP will be looking for a lump in your abdomen (this can indicate that a cancerous tumour has formed). You may then be referred to a cancer specialist at your local (or nearest) hospital. There, a biopsy (the surgical removal of a small 2012-01-27T08:42:39.05-05:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/Oesophageal-Cancer-34447.aspx Conjunctivitis is an infectious eye condition caused by a virus. In this article: What is conjunctivitis? Diagnosis How Chemist Online can help Symptoms Effect on your life Causes Treatment What is Conjunctivitis? Infective conjunctivitis (inflammation of the conjunctiva – the thin skin that covers the white part of the eye and inside of the eyelids) causes your eye to become red, itchy and watery. Although the condition can sometimes be caused by an allergy to pollen, animal fur and some cosmetics, it is generally caused by infection. Conjunctivitis can affect people of all ages, including small children. Symptoms Although your vision will not be affected as such, symptoms of conjunctivitis include: an itchiness in the eyes as they become red and sore due to the infection a burning feeling in the eyes swelling in the upper eyelids watery eyes (and also a kind of milky coloured discharge) a ‘glueyness’ around the eyes and eyelids area a feeling of your eyes sticking together after sleep cold-like symptoms, such as sore throat, fever and headaches, and a sensitivity to light Causes Infective conjunctivitis is caused by: viruses bacteria, and sexually transmitted infection, such as chlamydia Diagnosis Your symptoms should clear up after a couple of weeks. However, if they persist arrange an appointment with your GP. After taking your medical history, he or she will ask you questions about your symptoms and then assess your eyes by carrying out a short examination. It is unlikely that you will be referred to a specialist unless your symptoms are particularly severe. Note: Sometimes the symptoms of conjunctivitis can be almost exactly the same as blepharitis, so your GP will need to examine your eye to rule this condition out. Other such conditions include acute glaucoma, keratitis and iritis – all serious eye conditions that can cause permanent damage to the eyes. Effect on your life As well as causing the aforementioned symptoms, conjunctivitis can be very inconvenient, making carrying out everyday tasks at home and at work difficult. It is also a contagious condition, so you must take extra care not to share towels, flannels, bedding or utensils with others in your home or at work. Upon waking you will need to gently clean away the sticky, crusty substance in your eye lashes with cotton wool soaked in water. If you have conjunctivitis you should not wear contact lenses until your symptoms have completely cleared up. Try not to rub your eyes as this can prolong the healing process by worsening your symptoms. Treatment Infective (and bacterial) conjunctivitis is usually cured by a course of prescribed eye 2012-01-26T11:06:47.787-05:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/Conjunctivitis-34446.aspx Bowel cancer can occur at any age, but it can be treated if diagnosed in its early stages. In this article: What is bowel cancer? Symptoms Causes Diagnosis Effect on your life Treatment Advice & Support What is Bowel Cancer? Cancer is a disease where abnormal cells in the body begin to grow, divide and reproduce in an uncontrollable way. These abnormal cells then invade and destroy healthy tissue, including organs. The third most common cancer in the UK, bowel cancer (cancer of the bowel, also sometimes referred to as colorectal cancer) develops where the large intestine becomes cancerous – a lump develops in the lining of the bowel. Symptoms Symptoms of bowel cancer include: Bleeding from your cancerous tumour (apparent in your faeces/stools where it is also accompanied with a mucus) Greater or less frequency of bowel movements Diarrhoea-like motions and/or constipation A feeling of bowel movement incompleteness after going to the toilet (leading you to feel you may have to go again shortly afterwards) Abdominal pains (stomach cramps – usually as a result of a cancer-caused colon blockage. This blockage can also trigger nausea and vomiting.) Feeling generally unwell Spasms of breathlessness Loss of appetite and weight loss Causes Despite in-depth medical research worldwide, the exact cause of bowel cancer has not yet not been established. However it is suggested that you may have in an increased risk of bowel cancer if: A genetic predisposition to developing bowel cancer is confirmed You are suffering from another intestinal-related condition, such as ulcerative colitis You have an unhealthy lifestyle – the combination of a poor diet with a lack of exercise Diagnosis A diagnosis of bowel cancer can be based upon an individual’s symptoms, physical examination results and screening test results. If you are suffering from the aforementioned symptoms and suspect that you may have bowel cancer, arrange an appointment with your GP. After taking your medical history (and asking you about your family history with regard to health), they will ask you some questions about your symptoms and then carry out a physical examination. If they think that you may have developed bowel cancer then you will be referred to a specialist for tests in order to establish a confirmed diagnosis. Effect on your life Being diagnosed with bowel cancer can be extremely traumatic. However, through consultations with trained cancer healthcare professionals you will be encouraged to ask any questions, even if you fear they may seem trivial to someone else. Bowel cancer nurses are trained and attuned to responding to your questions. They will also 2012-01-24T08:19:43.767-05:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/Bowel-Cancer-34445.aspx Heart attacks are more common in men than women. In this article: What is a heart attack? Diagnosis Advice & Support Symptoms Treatment Causes How Chemist Online can hep What is a heart attack? A heart attack can be an extremely traumatic experience not only for the person having the attack, but also for those around them at the time. Simply put, a heart attack occurs when the coronary arteries (blood vessels) leading to the heart become blocked. Not enough blood, oxygen and nutrients reach the heart, and the heart ‘panics’ as a result, with part of the heart muscle dieing and a whole range of symptoms occurring throughout this process. Symptoms Symptoms of a heart attack include: Severe chest pain (accompanied by a kind of tightening or crushing feeling that comes on suddenly and stops you in your tracks, or is preceded with symptoms of angina) A feeling similar to that of acute heartburn Pain spreading through other parts of the body (the arms, neck, back and jaw) For some people (particularly the elderly or those with diabetes) there may be no symptoms at all – the attack has occurred without your actual knowledge. If this is the case, the ‘evidence’ of your heart attack is highlighted through an electrocardiograph test (ECG) after the event – please see Diagnosis section below. Note: After a heart attack, some people develop depressive illness during their long rehabilitation process, usually due to the incapacitation over this time. (Please see contact details for the Depression Alliance at the Advice & Support section at the foot of this article). Causes Causes of heart attacks can include: smoking high blood pressure high blood cholesterol being diabetic obesity poor diet (which is high in saturated fats) lack of exercise, and simply as a result of getting older (in the UK, men over 45 and women over 55 are more likely to have a heart attack) Some people may also have a genetic predisposition to developing a heart disease and then suffering from a heart attack as a result. (This is means that heart disease is already in the family – the susceptibility to having a heart attack is passed down.) Diagnosis If someone is seriously at risk of having a heart attack, this is usually diagnosed through: Blood tests Monitoring of heart rate Measuring of blood pressure A 5-minute electrocardiogram (ECG) – to locate blocked or partially blocked coronary arteries. The ECG also traces the electrical activity of the heart – where tiny electrical signals are produced with each heart beat. Treatment Treatments following a heart attack 2012-01-09T08:33:10.16-05:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/Heart-Attack-34414.aspx You can catch chickenpox at any age, although it is most common in children. In this article: What is chickenpox? Symptoms Causes Diagnosis Treatment How Chemist Online can help What is chickenpox? Chickenpox is a red rash which can appear on most areas of the body (after infection). It is very uncommon for an adult or child to have chickenpox more than once. Once infected by the chickenpox virus (and after an incubation period of about 3 weeks), a nasty rash develops. Many children who catch chickenpox find the sudden onset of the rash frightening and upsetting. It is very important, therefore, to reassure your child that just about every child in the UK has chickenpox at some stage of their childhood, and that the rash will clear up completely after a week or so. However, the rash may leave scabs. Symptoms Symptoms of chickenpox include: A rash in the form of crops of red spots all over the body – these can be extremely itchy and it can be difficult to stop a child from scratching themselves (particularly at night) Headache, fever and sore throat A general feeling of being unwell Some back pain Overall muscular and skeletal pain (this can range from mild to severe) Irritability Low mood Anxiousness Causes Chickenpox is caused by a highly contagious virus called the varicella-zoster virus. If someone with the virus coughs or sneezes in your presence, then there is a good chance that you will become infected. The virus can also be passed on through the sharing of clothes. Diagnosis The chickenpox virus can be diagnosed through a blood test. Treatment Although there is not actual cure for chickenpox, it is a good idea to drink plenty of fluids (to avoid dehydration) while you are coping with the condition and waiting for it to clear up. Your immune system will need time to combat the infection, but during this time you can ease associated symptoms (such as headache, fever, muscle and skeletal pain, etc.) through taking over-the-counter painkillers (see How Chemist Online can help section below). To ease the itchiness of the rash, it can be a good idea to try calamine lotion. Your GP may prescribe antihistamine tablets (these can reduce the itchiness of the rash and help aid restful sleep). How Chemist Online can help Through this website we have a range of treatments available to buy which can help ease the symptoms (and associated symptoms) of chickenpox in adults, including paracetamol and ibuprofen. If you are purchasing for your child, please always opt for the mild 2012-01-05T07:49:09.063-05:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/Chickenpox-34413.aspx Why get fit and healthy? Helping to bring balance to your life Have more energy Being around someone who is buzzing with energy is infectious, isn’t it? That is because energy is like electricity – it transmits to others and has an effect on their overall state, too. When we are energised we tend to find small everyday niggling problems, issues and fears don’t seem so important or worrisome. By becoming energised our outlook has altered for the better and we are somehow more able to see the bigger picture and find a more positive perspective – something we also transmit to family members, friends, work colleagues, and/or even complete strangers. Powerful stuff! Thorough reading this article in Zone 1 of the Centre you will gain a deeper understanding into what body and mind energy actually is; what happens physically and mentally when we are energised; how to have more energy through adopting a healthier lifestyle which combines a balanced diet with regular exercise; how to help others have more energy, and much more. All this will allow you to take control of your own energy levels, and to benefit enormously from the huge impact having more energy can have on your life both now and in the future. In this article: What is energy (in relation to the body & mind)? Why do we sometimes suffer from a lack of energy? What would be a good starting point for having more energy? How can getting fit help? How can weight-loss help? How can others help? As well as adopting a healthier lifestyle, what else can I do? How can I help others? Summary & Suggestions for further learning through this website What is energy (in relation to the body and mind)? When we feel sluggish and find it difficult to summon enough energy to face carrying out activities that we know we really should, then we are really saying that our physical and mental ‘batteries’ don’t have enough power left in them at that particular time of the day or week to carry out the task or activity in a positive or ‘vital’ way. You could even think of your body in the same way as you would a car: If there is not enough fuel in the tank, and if the parts that make up the whole are not being properly maintained, then the overall system is not going to run properly. The crucial ‘combined fuel’ that humans need is a 2012-01-03T09:55:56.047-05:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/Health-Fitness-Centre-ZONE-1-34412.aspx Carpal tunnel syndrome is a painful and inconvenient health condition which is caused by pressure on the nerves around the wrist joint. In this article: What is the carpal tunnel? What is carpal tunnel syndrome? Symptoms Causes Diagnosis Effect on your life Treatment How Chemist Online can help Advice & Support What is the carpal tunnel? The carpal tunnel is the ‘passageway’ which lies between the carpal bones and a ligament called the retinaculum that lies across the front of the wrist. What is carpal tunnel syndrome? Carpal tunnel syndrome develops through too much stress being placed upon the median nerve in the wrist. The median nerve connects to your hand and is the ‘controlling nerve’ when it comes to feeling and sensation in the fingers and thumb. Symptoms The general symptoms of carpal tunnel syndrome include: A painful, tingling sensation in the wrist Weakness in the forearm Hand weakness and a tingling sensation there A feeling of burning in the hand and wrist (and sometimes in the forearm) An intermittent searing pain shooting down your back from your neck and shoulders Symptoms of carpal tunnel syndrome can range from mild to severe. Causes Carpal tunnel syndrome can occur as a result of: A hand or wrist injury of some sort Playing too much tennis (or another racquet sport, such as badminton or squash where there is continual stress and pressure placed upon the forearm, wrist and hand) Rheumatoid arthritis Bone cancer Repetitive use of a computer keyboard, mobile phone or other device where continuous pressing down of the fingers (and therefore wrist and wrist/hand muscle movement) is involved. Although there is no clinical evidence as such where computer use being a cause of carpal tunnel syndrome is concerned, it is vital that you adopt a correct posture when working at a keyboard or keyboard-activated console of some sort. Diagnosis If you are suffering from the aforementioned symptoms and think that you may have carpal tunnel syndrome, arrange an appointment with your GP. After taking your medical history, asking you some questions about your symptoms, and carrying out a short examination, your GP will make a decision as to whether you need to be referred to a specialist (a neurologist) at your local hospital. There, a confirmed diagnosis can be made based upon the results of a nerve conduction test. Effect on your life Although carpal tunnel syndrome can make using your hand and wrist difficult to use in the day-in-day-out (even when carrying out the lightest of tasks), your symptoms may be at their worst at night and therefore cause 2011-12-30T04:58:58.47-05:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/Carpal-Tunnel-Syndrome-CTS-34410.aspx Impotence – a man’s inability to maintain an erection – is not an inevitable part of aging. In this article: What is impotence? Effect on your life Advice & Support Causes Treatment Diagnosis How Chemist Online can help What is impotence? Impotence is where a man cannot develop and/or maintain an erect penis for sexual performance. Although impotence is a common complaint and can occur at any age, it is most commonly older men that suffer from the condition. The good news is that, although there are treatments for impotence, the vast majority of men find they are able to improve and overcome their condition through sensible lifestyle changes. Causes Impotence can be caused by: heart disease diabetes damage to nerves or blood vessels thyroid or kidney problems hormonal problems high blood pressure smoking excessive alcohol consumption overwork and tiredness side-effects of medication Psychological conditions which can also cause impotence include: Stress and anxiety Relationship problems Depression Boredom with sex Diagnosis If you struggle with maintaining an erection for satisfactory sexual intercourse, and this condition continues for several weeks, then make an appointment with your GP. After making an assessment of your overall medical condition, he or she will discuss your erectile dysfunction problems with you and then advise on a number of different tests and treatments, and also possibly refer you to a suitable therapist if appropriate. Effect on your life Due to being embarrassed about their condition, men with impotence commonly struggle with it for years without seeking medical advice or assistance. However, if you are finding it difficult to maintain an erection for satisfactory sexual performance then it is best to seek help quickly, as this could erode quality of life for you and your partner, and, in some cases, lead to relationship breakdown. Also, the situation can become a vicious circle as worrying about your condition could be contributing to the problem. Treatment Treatments used to help men overcome impotence include: Effective tablet treatments Psychosexual counselling Injections into the base of the penis Surgery (in rare cases) There are also ways you can help yourself: Lose weight by taking regular exercise and eating a balanced diet Stop smoking Reduce stress by practising relaxation techniques Get plenty of rest How Chemist Online can help Through this website we have available to buy a range of treatments which can help with impotence, such as Sen morinda+13 – a well-known Chinese formula which has been used for decades by Chinese men to increase libido and overcome impotence. www.chemistonline.co.uk Advice & Support Sexual Dysfunction Association Tel. 0870 77 43 571 Website: www.sda.uk.net British Society for Sexual Medicine Tel. 01543 432757 / 432622 Website: www.bssm.org.uk This information and advice is not intended 2011-12-21T05:14:14.197-05:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/Impotence-AKA-Erectile-Dysfunction-34401.aspx Research shows that up to 50 per cent of people suffer from bad breath at some point in their lives. In this article: What is bad breath? Effect on your life Advice & Support Symptoms Treatments Causes How Chemist Online can help What is bad breath? Bad breath is a condition where you have an unpleasant smell from your mouth which is noticeable not only to yourself but also to others whenever you speak, yawn, kiss or simply breathe out. While it’s true that we are all prone to suffering from bad breath first thing in the morning due to saliva drying up as we sleep, bad breath as an actual medical condition is where your breath’s odour is so severe that it impacts upon your daily life and becomes an embarrassing complaint. That said, in some cases sufferers have bad breath but are oblivious to the fact. This is usually because they are so used to the smell of their own bodies. Symptoms The main symptoms of bad breath are a dry mouth and teeth; thick saliva and a constant need to clear your throat; mucous or a burning tongue; a constant sour taste which can also seem metallic in your mouth; and also a white coating on the tongue. All this can result in a fruity smell coming from your mouth; a fishy type of smell; and, in the severest of conditions, a faeces-like smell which can result in people backing away from you or turning their heads away. Causes Bad breath is usually caused by gum disease, cavities, smoking, sulphur-producing bacteria in the tongue and throat, poor oral hygiene, alcohol, foods high in protein, sugar or acid, and where the sufferer is also afflicted with an acid reflux condition (GORD). Effect on your life Bad breath can impact upon a person’s self-esteem and self-confidence, leading them to avoid many social occasions and also things like close contact both at work and at home. Many sufferers tell of developing a social inferiority complex due to the suspicion that their work colleagues and friends may be commenting upon their appalling breath behind their backs. Treatments Good oral hygiene is usually the key to tackling bad breath and reducing its symptoms. This can include things like regularly flossing and brushing the teeth, as well as using mouthwashes and toothpastes which are formulated to be particularly effective. If you find that over-the-counter remedies are not effective for you, then make an appointment with your doctor. He or she 2011-12-19T07:56:01.65-05:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/Bad-Breath-AKA-Halitosis-34398.aspx Alopecia areata causes patches of baldness to develop in both men and women. In this article: What is hair loss (alopecia areata)? Symptoms Causes Diagnosis Effect on your life Treatment How Chemist Online can help Advice & Support What is hair loss (alopecia areata)? The hair loss caused by alopecia areata (a chronic, inflammatory condition which affects the head’s hair follicles) is not necessarily permanent. Also, the condition is not in any other way harmful to your overall health. Note: Some men with alopecia areata also develop patches of baldness in the beard area or even on the eyebrows. However, this is not a common symptom. Symptoms Symptoms of alopecia areata include: Patchy hair loss (on the head). The patches are usually about the size of a 10p piece. Red, scaly skin in the affected area (in rare cases) Brittle and/or split nails Patches of whiteness to the skin beneath the nails These symptoms can range from mild to severe, depending upon the individual. Causes Despite worldwide medical research, as yet the exact cause of alopecia areata is unknown. However, analysis of patients has brought to light that the vast majority of sufferers who develop the condition do so due to an imbalance to the immune system. An autoimmune condition develops where the body ‘attacks itself’. Other possible causes include: An allergic reaction to a certain trigger which causes alopecia areata to develop Eczema Mood disorders, such as anxiety or stress Trauma (having been directly involved in an accident of some sort which has led to both physical and emotional trauma) With general baldness in men, this is usually a hereditary condition (i.e. it runs in the family). Diagnosis If you are suffering from the aforementioned symptoms, make an appointment to see your GP. After taking your medical history and asking you some questions about your symptoms, your GP will then examine the affected area before recommending an appropriate course of treatment. You may be referred to a dermatologist (a skin specialist) at your local hospital. Effect on your life Many people with alopecia areata feel self-conscious and embarrassed about their condition, and seek to cover their head through wearing a hat, cap or headscarf. However, the patchy hair loss is not always permanent. Treatment Although there is not a complete cure as such for alopecia areata, there are treatments available which are intended to help hair grow back in the affected area. These are generally steroid creams and lotions. Where the condition is particularly severe, ultraviolet light treatment (at your local hospital) may be tried. How Chemist Online can help Through 2011-12-12T10:44:32.65-05:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/Alopecia-Areata-AKA-Hair-Loss-34385.aspx Urinary incontinence is a common condition in the elderly. In this article: What is urinary incontinence? Symptoms Causes Diagnosis Effect on your life Treatment Advice & Support What is urinary incontinence? More common in women than men, urinary incontinence is where urine leaks out of the vagina or penis unintentionally. This can happen at any time of the day or night and can be both embarrassing and inconvenient for the individual with the condition. The amount of leaked urine can range from a few tiny droplets to an involuntary flood, depending upon the severity of the condition. The good news is that, in the vast majority of cases, urinary incontinence can be appropriately treated and cured. Symptoms Symptoms of urinary incontinence include: Passing urine when you don’t want to Urine leakages triggered by sudden body movements, such as coughing and/or laughing Bloated bladder (a feeling of pressure on the bladder, even though you have just visited the toilet) The sudden urge to pass urine Problems emptying the bladder fully, even though you have already passed a large amount of urine Note: Many people with severe urinary incontinence develop depressive illness due to struggling to cope with their condition. Please see contact details for the Depression Alliance in the Advice & Support section at the foot of this article. Causes Urinary incontinence is generally an expected part of the ageing process – the pelvic floor muscles gradually become weaker with the passing of the years. However, other causes of urinary incontinence can include: Urine infection Diabetes Bladder problems (i.e. the nerves in and around the bladder) If you have recently had a baby As a result of reaching the menopause If you have Parkinson’s disease or a stroke Diagnosis If you are suffering from the aforementioned symptoms, arrange an appointment with your GP. They will take your medical history and ask your some questions about your symptoms. A urine sample may be taken, to check for possible infection. You may then be referred to an urologist for further tests. Once a confirmed diagnosis of urinary incontinence has been made, an appropriate treatment will then be recommended to you. Effect on your life For most people with urinary incontinence, their condition can be embarrassing and inconvenient. The sudden urge to pass urine (through urge incontinence) can make life very difficult. Needing to find a toilet in an emergency can obviously have an adverse effect on your work, social and family life. You may find that wearing special underwear called incontinence pants (normal pants but with a plastic pad inside) helps to absorb the leaking 2011-12-09T05:04:48.203-05:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/Urinary-Incontinence-34380.aspx Symptoms of autism usually become apparent before a child is three years of age. In this article: What is autism? Causes Treatment Symptoms Diagnosis Advice & Support What is autism? Autism is a behavioural condition which is much more common in boys than girls. There may be no indication at birth that the infant is autistic, but signs and symptoms may quickly become apparent after the child’s first year, particularly where there is a focus upon mother-child attachment and interaction, and the differences in infant behaviour compared to others at that stage in their development. There has been a significant increase in the number of children with autism in the UK over the past decade. The precise reason for this has not been established. Symptoms Symptoms of autism can vary from child to child, and include: A disinterest in others or in making friends A detached demeanour which makes the autistic child come across as unapproachable and aloof Little or no appreciation of or sensitivity to the feelings or concerns of others Difficulty in expressing themselves Using an odd choice of words, continuously repeating words or phrases, and a tendency to come out with inappropriate remarks or comments in situations where those present would find this strange and even offensive Unusual mannerisms and body movements (e.g., waving arms around aggressively or in a playful manner, hand-flapping and sudden turning of the head) Apoplectic anger in response to the disruption of their particular routine Self-harm – banging their head against a wall or slapping themselves in the face, again as an angry response to a situation that frustrates them or where their routine has been interrupted by another person Obsessive behaviour Rocking back and forth over and over again, and other repetitive behaviour(s), such as: the constant opening and closing a door, or relentless rearranging of cutlery on a table, for example. Note: An autistic child can display all these behaviours or just some of them, depending upon the severity of their condition. Causes Despite intense research by clinical psychologists and other healthcare professionals worldwide, the exact cause of autism still remains unknown. There has been some suggestion in the British media that the MMR vaccine may play a part in a child developing the condition, but this is not a definite cause as there is no solid evidence supporting this suggestion. Other suggested causes include: Genetics – some children may have a genetic predisposition to being autistic. That is, a family member from a previous generation suffered from autism and so the vulnerability to the 2011-12-05T10:42:49.76-05:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/Autism-in-Children-34373.aspx Cytomegalovirus is one of the world’s most common viral infections and is transmitted through close bodily contact between people. In this article: What is acquired cytomegalovirus? Symptoms Causes Diagnosis Treatment How Chemist Online can help Advice & Support What is acquired cytomegalovirus? Acquired cytomegalovirus is a viral condition which is so common, it is estimated that up to 80 per cent of all adults in the UK who are middle-aged or older become infected with it at some point in their lives. Note: An ‘acquired condition’ is one that is contracted for the first time. Acquired cytomegalovirus is caused by a virus which is part of the herpes group or ‘family’ or viruses. The condition can be difficult to spot or diagnose as the symptoms are few (unlike other viral infections, such as genital herpes, for example…). Other types of cytomegalovirus are: Recurring cytomegalovirus – where a previous dormant cytomegalovirus reoccurs as a result of your immune system becoming weakened for some reason. Congenital cytomegalovirus – where the infection develops in pregnancy (the unborn baby being affected). This article will focus upon acquired cytomegalovirus. Symptoms Symptoms of acquired cytomegalovirus include: Swollen glands Fever Fatigue Muscle pain Aching joints Loss of appetite (and therefore weight-loss) Cough and sore throat Headaches Symptoms can range from mild to severe and can last for up to 14 days. Note: For the vast majority of people with acquired cytomegalovirus there will be no noticeable symptoms. Causes Acquired cytomegalovirus is generally passed on through human bodily contact and is spread through bodily fluids, such as: saliva, semen, urine, vaginal fluids, breast milk, blood and even tears. You can become infected through sexual intercourse, kissing, by being in the company of an infected person who sneezes or coughs, or through having a blood transfusion. Also, if your immune system has become weakened through becoming infected with HIV, or you have received treatment for cancer (i.e. chemotherapy), you may be more susceptible to developing acquired cytomegalovirus. Diagnosis If you are suffering from the aforementioned symptoms, make an appointment to see your GP. After taking your medical history and asking you some questions about your symptoms, you will then be asked to have a blood test. Where a confirmed diagnosis of acquired cytomegalovirus is made, an appropriate course of treatment will be recommended to you. Treatment There is no actual cure for acquired cytomegalovirus. Symptoms should pass in a few days. Drink plenty of water, to prevent dehydration. This will also help to relieve flu-like symptoms (fever, headache and sore throat). How Chemist Online can help Through this website we have a range of treatments 2011-12-01T08:18:01.17-05:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/Acquired-Cytomegalovirus-34371.aspx IBS is a chronic digestive system disorder which affects 10 20 per cent of the UK’s population. In this article: What is IBS? Diagnosis How Chemist Online can help Symptoms Effect on your life Advice & Support Causes Treatments What is IBS? IBS is one of the most common gastrointestinal conditions. It is twice as common in women as it is in men. Statistics show that IBS commonly affects people between the ages of 20 and 45, but children and people over 45 can also suffer from IBS. Gathering reliable statistics about IBS can be difficult, however, because many sufferers feel embarrassed about their condition and so fail to report their symptoms to their GP. Symptoms IBS symptoms include abdominal pain (sometimes crippling), a feeling of bloatedness, soreness, wind, diarrhoea and constipation. The severity of these symptoms can fluctuate – being much more troublesome at times than others. In fact, there may be periods when you experience no symptoms whatsoever. Causes There is normally no obvious cause. In fact, the exact cause of the condition is still unknown. It often begins during a period of emotional stress – during times of depression or anxiety, for example – with symptoms worsening in stressful situations. From a physiological perspective, IBS can sometimes develop through exaggerated contractions of the muscles in the intestinal walls; after a gastrointestinal infection; through certain food intolerances; a lack of dietary fibre; and through eating meals at irregular intervals. Diagnosis There is no clear test to determine if you are suffering from this condition. However, your GP will look for signs of typical IBS symptoms and also ask you to undergo a physical examination. Effect on your life There is no known cure, so IBS is something that you need to come to accept and learn to live with. You may find that you have to use the toilet 4 or 5 times in the morning, due to the feeling of not quite emptying yourself each time you go. This, as well as abdominal pains and the need to regularly use the toilet through the rest of the day, can have an adverse effect on your work, social and family life. Treatments Once you have been examined by your GP, the best approach to coping with the condition is to manage the symptoms as best you can. Try to avoid stress, take regular exercise, maintain a diet where wheat products, fat-rich foods (such as dairy foods) and red meat are avoided (to aid digestion), and which includes plenty 2011-11-30T05:44:04.117-05:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/Irritable-Bowel-Syndrome-IBS-34367.aspx Stress is a major reason for people taking time off work. In this article: What is stress? Symptoms Causes Diagnosis Treatment How Chemist Online can help Advice & Support What is stress? Simply put, stress is a feeling of being under intense pressure. It can be extremely damaging to your health. Symptoms Symptoms of stress include: Heart palpitations coupled with a sudden or gradual feeling of panic Irritability Disturbed sleep Increase in smoking and alcohol consumption Overeating (this is sometimes known as comfort eating), or lack of appetite (depending upon the individual) Reduced libido (lowered sex drive) Tiredness, lethargy and an inability to concentrate Nail biting, skin problems (e.g. eczema, acne…) Increased sensitivity to casual remarks and/or criticism (or perceived criticism) of some kind Causes There are many causes of stress. These include: Problems in a relationship (marriage, father/son, mother/daughter, etc.) Feeling financially insecure and therefore worried all the time Being under overwhelming pressure to meet a deadline at work Working too many hours and being given too much responsibility in the workplace Struggling to cope after a drop in income which has perhaps resulted in you having to accept a lower standard of living than you are used to Being housebound or in some other way incapacitated after a physical illness or surgery Diagnosis Many people (particularly men and older people) are reluctant to admit that they are feeling stressed and so fail to seek proper help and advice from trained professionals. This can be a serious mistake and can also be life-threatening. If you are feeling stressed, or are suffering from the aforementioned symptoms of stress (but don’t realise that those collected symptoms are in fact a stress indicator), then arrange an appointment with your GP. After taking your medical history and asking you some questions about your symptoms, your GP will then recommend an appropriate course of treatment. Treatment Generally speaking, stress is treated by: Teaching you relaxation techniques Attending an anxiety management course Counselling (with a trained professional who is experienced in getting to the root of what may be causing your stress) Where stress is particularly severe, your GP may recommend prescribed medication, such as beta-blockers (which can significantly ease anxiety), and tranquillisers (e.g., diazepam). How Chemist Online can help As we have seen, an associated symptom of stress is disturbed sleep. Through this website we have a selection of sleeping aids available to buy. www.chemistonline.co.uk Advice & Support International Stress Management Association Tel: 07000 780 430 Website: www.isma.org.uk Anxiety Care Tel: 020 8262 8891 Website: www.anxietycare.org.uk British Sleep Society Website: www.sleeping.org.uk This information and advice is not intended to replace the advice of your GP or chemist. Chemist Online is also 2011-11-29T07:17:13.363-05:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/What-is-Stress-34365.aspx Cold sores are highly contagious. In this article: What are cold sores? Symptoms Causes Diagnosis Treatment How Chemist Online can help Advice & Support What are cold sores? Cold sores are caused by a virus called the herpes simplex virus (HSV-1). It is impossible to prevent cold sores, but most cases are mild and clear up after a week or two. Thats said, many people find them unsightly and so those with cold sores can be self-conscious or even embarrassed about them. Symptoms Symptoms of cold sores include: Blister-like lesions around the mouth An accompanying sore throat Swollen glands Fever-like symptoms In children under five, where a cold sore develops this may be accompanied by a range of associated symptoms which can include: Nausea Headaches Fever Dehydration Sore throat Swollen glands Causes Cold sores are usually passed on from one person to another through close contact, such as kissing. The sores are highly contagious and it is not uncommon for an entire family to develop cold sores after a family gathering, such as a wedding, birthday party or christening where relatives greet each other and part by kissing. It only takes one person infected with the herpes simplex virus in the group for the virus to spread. This is why; if you do have a cold sore (or several) it is best to avoid close contact with others unless your symptoms have completely cleared up. Other possible causes of cold sores include: An injury to the mouth Menstruation Sudden emotional upset (through being involved in a traumatic event or receiving bad news, for example) Being under continual psychological stress – this can be as a result of having to reach a sales target at work, for example, or through worrying about family finances at home Overwhelming tiredness and fatigue Cold sores can also develop as a result of having oral sex with someone who has genital herpes. Diagnosis Most people self-diagnose cold sores and are able to treat their symptoms with over-the-counter remedies. However, if you are particularly concerned about your cold sores, or you have several of them, arrange to see your GP. After taking your medical history and asking you some questions about your cold sores and associated symptoms (such as, when did your cold sore(s) develop and how often do they occur…) your GP will examine the affected area. If your cold sores are particularly severe you may be asked to agree to a blood test in order for the diagnosis to be confirmed (i.e., that the herpes simplex virus is present and therefore the underlying cause of 2011-11-29T07:11:46.523-05:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/Cold-Sores-What-are-they-34364.aspx Emergency contraception (sometimes known as the morning-after pill) may prevent pregnancy if taken within 72 hours of sexual intercourse. In this article: What is emergency contraception? Where to get it Side-effects Advantages & disadvantages When to take it How Chemist Online can help with contraception and pregnancy testing Who should take it How it works Advice & Support Who should not take it Reliability What is emergency contraception? If you have had unprotected sex, or there was mistake with contraception which could mean that you may be pregnant, then one possible solution is emergency contraception – a single emergency hormonal contraception pill, or a copper IUD (a small device made of copper and plastic) which is fitted in the womb by a doctor or nurse. Advantages and disadvantages The advantages of emergency contraception are that it is: proven as being highly effective, and free from your GP, Family Planning Clinic and some pharmacies The disadvantages are that: if not used correctly, it may not work there may be side-effects such as nausea and vomiting you will not be protected from sexually transmitted diseases, such as Chlamydia, Gonorrhoea and Herpes. Who should take it Most women can take emergency contraception. Who should not take it If you are already pregnant, please consult a medical professional before taking emergency contraception. There should be nothing to prevent you from taking the morning-after pill, but it is best to be on the safe side overall. Where to get it Emergency contraception is available without charge from your GP, local Family Planning Clinic and some pharmacies. When to take it You should take the morning-after pill as soon as possible after unprotected sex. How it works The morning-after pill releases the hormone progestogen which can prevent or delay ovulation, and also prevent implantation of an egg which has already settled in the womb. Reliability For most people, emergency contraception is highly effective, (but it should only be used in emergencies) and regular planned contraception is more reliable overall. The sooner you take emergency contraception after having unprotected sex, the higher your chance of avoiding pregnancy will be. Side-effects Although uncommon, side-effects of emergency contraception can include: nausea and vomiting headache abdominal pain tiredness and fatigue dizziness (and in some cases, mild disorientation) breast tenderness, and irritability How Chemist Online can help with contraception and pregnancy testing Through this website we have a range of contraception options available to buy, such as Durex Elite and Pasante Xtra Sure condoms. www.chemistonline.co.uk You can also purchase pregnancy tests from us, such as Clearblue Pregnancy Test and First Response Pregnancy Testing Kits. Advice & Support Family Planning Association (fpa) Helpline: 0845 122 8690 (9am-6pm Monday-Friday) Website: www.fpa.org.uk bpas (British 2011-11-25T10:54:24.317-05:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/Emergency-Contraception-34356.aspx Cancer Today, millions of people are living with cancer or have had cancer. Cancer is the second leading cause of death in the United States. Cancer kills one in four Americans and is the leading cause of death for women aged 40 to 79 and men aged 60 to 79.There is 1.4 million new cases of cancer diagnosed each year in this country, and about 570,000 Americans will die of this disease. However what is cancer? How does it start? And what types of treatments is there? Cancer is many diseases that characterize the cells that grow unruly. Numerous types of cancer can construct into a tumor which is a mass of tissue formed by growth of cancerous cells. Cells from a tumor can separate and move to another place in the body where then it lives and multiplies which is a process called metastasis. Not all cancer cells become life threatening and spread. There are a few that do not form masses for example leukemia which affects the blood. The cells of the body constantly reproduce themselves. As new cells become present, old cells release so that the body could remain healthy. Matching this process are the genes that hold the nucleus of all cells. These genes contain DNA strands, which acts like molecular plans, providing instructions on everything from hair color to metabolism. They also produce a protein which tells the body when to grow or not. Consistent cell death is the process known as apoptosis. When this process is functioning normal it helps the body continue to balance new and old cells. Cancer is falsification of this process. What was once well-ordered became disordered and uncontrolled. Normal cells reproduce at a steady pace where cancer cells reproduce much quicker. Normal cells will keep balance between new and old cells but cancer cells will never die. Many cells eventually will produce so that the body will form tumors, and while normal cells will stay cancer cells will travel. The complication begins with the DNA; the genetic material contained within normal cells will suffer from permanent change or mutation. A genetic mutation is responsible for inheriting the series of events that cannot be slowed or prevented which can lead to cancer. Cancer sometimes can run in certain families, but most cancers are not noticeably linked to genes of inherits. Cancer is a common disease 2011-11-09T16:09:58.453-05:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/Cancer-the-Modern-Day-Killer-34333.aspx This paper will discuss volcanoes, where they exist, how they are formed, and how eruptions are caused. Introduction: For the people who live near them, volcanoes occupy a large part of the history and mythology. The ancient Romans told of Vulcan, the god of fire and metals who kept his blacksmith shop beneath certain mountains. The Hawaiians believed that Pele, the hot-tempered goddess, was responsible for the formation of their islands. When Pele argued with her sister, her foot-stamping would cause earthquakes, then she would use her magic stick to dig out the craters from which the lava flowed (Mayberry 1997). However, science was slow to catch up to the importance of volcanism in the evolution of the Earth. In the 18th century, there was a major school of thought that held that molten rocks and volcanoes were merely accidents caused by burning coal seams. Geologists today realize that the process involved in the creation of a volcano is complex and profound, resulting from the thermal evolution of planetary bodies and plate tectonics. It is difficult for heat to escape from large bodies by conduction or radiation. Instead, partial meltdowns and the buoyant rise of magma are major contributors to the process of heat flux from inside the Earth. Volcanoes are the surface manifestation of this thermal process, which starts deep inside the Earth, and which hurls its results in the form of ash and fire, high into the atmosphere (Decker and Decker 1981). What is a Volcano? The term volcano can refer either to the landform created by the solidified lava and fragmented volcanic debris that build up near the vent, or to the vent itself, from which the magma erupts to the surface. For example, one could refer to the large lava flows that erupted from the Kilauea Volcano in Hawaii, with the word volcano meaning a vent. However, one could also say that Kilauea is a gently sloping volcano of modest size as volcanoes go, and in this case the reference would be to the landform. By a broad definition, all igneous rocks come from volcanoes. If igneous rocks harden from magma that has not gotten to the surface, they are referred to as intrusive igneous rocks, and this process is called plutonism. Igneous rocks that cool and harden at the Earth’s surface are called extrusive igneous rocks, and are unequivocally products of volcanism. Types of Volcanoes: Volcanoes can be 2011-10-31T22:31:02.49-04:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/Volcanoes-Where-they-Exist-and-how-they-are-have-Formed-34274.aspx This essay provides a course outline by answering 11 questions regarding teaching math at the seventh-grade level. Teaching Math I Introduction This paper doesn’t follow our usual format; instead, it answers specific questions regarding teaching math to seventh-graders. In working on the outline, I’ve also tried to be aware of the commonalities among math, science and technology, and provide meaningful “real life” responses. As a general observation, it seems that many of the resources I’ve found tend to tie these three disciplines together. II Questions 1: What should be taught to satisfy the requirements at various levels? What are students interested in? What should they already know? What materials are needed to organize a unit? Describing state and local standards obviously depends on the location of the school. Searching for “standards seventh-grade math proficiency” has brought 3,800 hits; I’ve compared the first three and found many commonalities. Perhaps the most interesting is that heavy emphasis is put on the idea of solving real world problems. Math is no longer an abstract concept, but is linked to science and technology, with problems designed to show why math is a strong tool in other disciplines. The sources also mention that students will be expected to use calculators and computers in their courses. Specific competencies that students must demonstrate to satisfy local requirements in these systems include working with integers, fractions, and ratios; solving algebraic equations; analyzing and graphing data; solving geometrical problems; and understanding measurements. Space makes this a very incomplete list; the students are facing a very rigorous curriculum in these three schools. (The three are Olentangy, Riverdeep and Yokota, and their complete URL’s are listed in the reference section. Yokota is a school for American dependents whose parents are stationed in Japan.) Since it’s a populous state, I’ve looked at California’s standards. There is a tremendous debate going on because the state standards are less challenging in their use of creativity and initiative than some of the local standards. That is, California seems to have gone “back to basics,” such as learning multiplication tables by rote and doing long division by hand, rather than setting problems that reflect real world situations. At any rate, California expects its seventh-graders to demonstrate number sense; knowledge of algebra and functions; knowledge of measurement and geometry; statistics, data and probability; and mathematical reasoning ability. 2011-10-31T01:14:24.02-04:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/Teaching-Seventh-Grade-Math-34247.aspx This essay describes the changes that take place in a woman’s body during pregnancy, and whether or not she should sleep on her stomach. I Introduction The development of human embryos is well documented. This paper discusses the development of the fetus, the changes that the woman’s body goes through and what changes in shape will occur during the pregnancy; it also includes research about the risks (if there are any) of pregnant women lying on their stomachs. II Trimesters Pregnancy is usually described in terms of trimesters—three three-month periods of time that together cover the entire length of the gestation period. Examining each will give us a way to understand the entire pregnancy. The following comments are for what is considered a “typical” or “normal” pregnancy, but every woman is different and every pregnancy is different. The entire pregnancy usually has a duration of approximately 40 weeks. The first trimester is week 1 through week 12. During this time, the woman will either stop menstruation or what periods she does have will be very light; her breasts will enlarge; the volume of blood circulating doubles; and the uterus enlarges to approximately three times its normal size. The first trimester is also the time during which most women (if they are going to have it at all) experience “morning sickness.” The name is a misnomer, because the nausea and vomiting that sometimes occur during pregnancy can happen any time of the day or night. They can also last throughout the entire pregnancy, and not just during the first trimester, unfortunately. In addition to these changes, many women suffer from constipation and heartburn; some have bleeding at the time they would normally have had their period; and many feel fatigued. Although many changes are occurring in the body, outwardly there is little sign that the woman is pregnant; she usually doesn’t start to “show” until sometime in the second trimester. In the second trimester (week 13 – week 26), many of the discomforts of the earlier part of the pregnancy will have passed. (Usually morning sickness stops at this point.) However, other unpleasant things happen; again, these are common to many women, but certainly not all. Most experience water retention (edema), particularly in the feet and ankles; walking may become difficult. Some women have nosebleeds and nasal congestion, and hemorrhoids and varicose veins may develop. 2011-10-31T00:51:39.053-04:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/Metamorphosis-Human-Pregnancy-34245.aspx This essay examines the changes throughout the life cycle of flowers, frogs and butterflies. I Introduction These papers overall consider the themes of pregnancy and the changes in a woman’s body, and the metamorphosis of living things. Pregnancy, in one sense, is such a metamorphosis: the woman’s body is the cocoon from which new life emerges. Let’s explore the changes in insects, frogs and flowers as examples of metamorphoses in nature. II Discussion Metamorphoses in nature are amazing: caterpillars become butterflies; tadpoles become frogs; and seeds become flowers. These changes are amazing, for they involve not only rapid growth, but complete transformations from one physical form to another. When trying to describe the cycles of nature, there’s no real way to determine a starting point. But since it seems logical, we’ll look at the butterfly’s life cycle as beginning with the egg. The eggs are laid by the female on the appropriate plant, in and about five days a tiny wormlike caterpillar hatches. The caterpillar immediately begins eating the plant food on which it has hatched; it also sheds its skin, usually four times, a process called ecdysis, The caterpillar at this point is transformed into a creature called a pupa, which spins a cocoon for the final transformation. The cocoon may seem lifeless, but inside the caterpillar is in the process of becoming a butterfly. The caterpillar literally liquefies and is reassembled into one of the most gorgeous creatures in nature. The four stages are quite distinct: egg, caterpillar, pupa, butterfly. In each, the insect eats different foods and has a distinctly different appearance. (“The Amazing Life Cycle of the Butterfly,” PG). This process is entirely dissimilar from that of mammals, where one knows a kitten will become a cat; a puppy a dog; and a baby a human. Here, there is no corresponding physical resemblance between the developmental stages. The same type of oddly dissimilar physical stages occurs in the development of frogs. Frogs are amphibians, a class of animal that spends part of its time in the water and part on land. Like butterflies, frogs lay eggs, only the female lays the in the water. When they hatch, the tiny creatures are known as tadpoles, and they breathe through gills as fish do. As the tadpoles mature, they grow legs, and begin to develop lungs 2011-10-31T00:50:25.427-04:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/Metamorphosis-Metamorphoses-in-Nature-34244.aspx This paper discusses the prevention of fibroid tumors in African-American women, and concludes that as of yet, there is no effective means of prevention. The reason for the lack of preventive methods is that the cause of the tumors is unknown, and thus no preventive measure can be devised. The paper is divided in four sections: purpose of study; methodology; highlights of results; and implications and directions for further research. There is also a brief conclusion. The purpose of the study is to determine if there are methods available to prevent fibroid tumors. The methodology used is an on-line search of medical websites and journal databases. The highlights of the research include the fact that although the cause of these tumors remains unknown, there is an increasing body of evidence to suggest that both hormonal and genetic factors play a part in their development. Furthermore, there are differences in the hormonal and genetic factors of African-American women as opposed to other groups. These differences imply the direction of further research and are stated as being important markers for further study in the final section. Outline I Purpose of Study – The purpose of the study is to see if there are ways to prevent fibroid tumors. II Methodology – The method used is on-line research of medical websites and journal databases. III Highlights of Results – Findings indicate no cause is known for fibroid tumors, but hormonal and genetic factors may play a part. IV Implications and Directions for Further Research – Hormonal and genetic factors differ among various ethic groups, suggesting that it may be possible in future to separate African-American women from the other groups as a “break out” group for further study. V Conclusion VI References Please note: I was unable to find statistical data, graphs, charts or pictures for this paper. I Purpose of Study The purpose of this study is to determine if there is any information available about methods, if such exist, for preventing fibroid tumors in African-American women. II Methodology In general, books are not good sources for projects such as this. Instead, I’ve used the Internet and the on-line database at the San Diego Public Library. In each case I used the search parameter “prevention AND fibroid w1 tumors AND African-American AND women.” I asked the library database to search for peer-reviewed articles containing full text availability. If I found the article on the Internet, I made 2011-10-26T23:21:02.527-04:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/Prevention-of-Fibroid-Tumors-in-African-American-Women-34154.aspx This paper discusses the chemistry of the human cell. (3 pages; 5 sources; MLA citation style) I Introduction The cells of the human body are complex structures that perform the chemical reactions necessary to sustain life. This paper briefly describes cell chemistry. II Discussion A cell has three main components: the cell membrane, the cytoplasm (the substance of the cell—water, salt and “macromolecules”); and the nucleus. The cell membrane is comprised of lipids and proteins; it gives the cell its shape, protects the contents, and “controls what goes in and out of the cell.” (“Inside the Living Cell,” PG). (An indication of the importance of this transmission is the fact that this year’s Nobel Prize in Chemistry went to Dr. Peter Agre and Dr. Roderick MacKinnon for their work with the “channels” in cell membranes.) (“Nobel Prize in Chemistry Winners,” PG). Human cells are really chemical engines; they perform the chemical reactions necessary to sustain life. In this process, there are only six “major players”: carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, sulfur, and phosphorus. It is carbon that is the major “building block” here, because it is a “unique element” that can combine with many other atoms to form strong, stable chemical bonds. It can take many forms, making long chains that double back on each other, for instance; it provides a “skeleton” that other atoms bond to. The gigantic molecules formed when atoms of hydrogen, oxygen and others bond to the carbon skeleton are called “macromolecules”, and lipids and proteins are both macromolecules formed by this process. (“The Chemistry of the Cell,” PG). As we’ve seen, they are found in the cell walls, where they help with transmission of materials to and from the cell. Macromolecules are made up of “smaller, repeating submits” that are known as “monomers.” These monomers are always similar in chemical structure, though they are not always identical. (Simple sugar is a monomer.) In a process called “polymerization,” the monomers are joined by a series of chemical reactions. The result of these reactions is the formation of large, complex molecules known as polymers. Lipids are polymers; examples are fats, oils and wax. (“The Chemistry of the Cell,” PG). Polymerization allows for a tremendous range of chemical diversity in living things, in much the same way that the alphabet, though limited to 26 letters, can create 2011-10-26T13:14:25.29-04:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/Cellular-Chemistry-34109.aspx This paper defines the Human Genome Project and discusses some of the ethical and social issues associated with genetic modification. (3+ pages; 2 sources; MLA citation style. I Introduction The Human Genome project is an on-going attempt to understand the basic building blocks of the human organism. This paper defines the genome and some of the potential ramifications of the project. II Discussion A genome is “the sum of all the DNA in an organism”. (“Human Genome Project”, PG). The DNA itself includes the genes, which in turn carry the information necessary to make certain proteins. The proteins in their turn determine such things as physical characteristics, some behavioral characteristics, and how well the organism will be able to fight disease, among other things. (“Human Genome Project,” PG). The genome contains four chemical bases, which are abbreviated A, T, C and G. It is the order in which these bases occur that determines what species the organism is. The human genome has “3 billion pairs of bases.” (“Human Genome Project,” PG). The Human Genome Project ‘s goals are to “identify all the approximate 30,000 genes in human DNA”, determine the 3 billion chemical base pair sequences in human DNA; create databases to store this information; develop improved tools for data analysis; “transfer related technologies to the private sector” (the HGP is run by the government); and “address the ethical, legal and social issues … that may arise from the project.” (“Human Genome Project Information,” PG). The “ethical, legal and social issues” are abbreviated ELSI, and are of concern to project workers, enough so that special attention is paid to them. It takes little reflection to imagine some of the problems and concerns that are inherent with this technology. For example, genes control physical and behavioral development, and the ability to fight disease, among other things. Would it be ethical to genetically modify the disease-fighting genes so that the individual would be able to fight off the AIDS virus, for example? What about parents who want blue-eyed blonde children? Is it ethical to modify the genes controlling genetic make-up so that such children will be born? If genes control some types of behavior, perhaps science could modify them so that violent tendencies are curbed before they begin. Or perhaps science could create genetically enhanced students who love to study and retain what 2011-10-26T12:14:57.953-04:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/Human-Genome-Exploration-34074.aspx Global Warming By Adeel Salman The numbers are striking! No region of the world will be unaffected if Global Warming continues to increasingly grow. The issue is extremely interesting, scary and a bit of a shock as to how much we have abused and taken advantage of this Earth. First of all, it is important to know that the "greenhouse effect" is not a bad thing in itself. In fact, this planet would be a life-less waste land without its natural green housing. There are a collection of gases called "greenhouse gases," which are water vapor, carbine dioxide, ozone, methane, nitrous oxide, and chlorofluorocarbons (CFC). Without the natural greenhouse effect, the surface temperature of our planet would be an average of -18°C (zero degrees F). The mixture of these gases have remained pretty much stable over the centuries and have kept us all living. But here we are in the late nineties, and we are not so stable anymore. Our activities and what we use to perform our activities is increasing year-to-year, many of them doubling and tripling. It's a case of the amount of gases that Earth produces naturally vs. the amount of gases produced manually by us. There are many reasons why. Let me ask a few questions. Do you drive? How about using those disposable diapers that never disintegrate? Do you smoke? How about garbage or junk burning? Do you BBQ? Where do you work? Do you have an air-conditioner? Do you separate your garbage, use hair spray, spray deodorant, spray paint, flea spray, perfume, kitchen spray cleaner, bleach in your laundry, bleach in your hair, use a freezer, use an air conditioner in your car, use your fireplace, have a growing collection of newspaper and magazines, throw away food, use paper and plastic food containers, use bug spray, use lawn pesticides etc… The effects of the huge overuse of these items of luxury plus all the other unmentioned items and activities plays havoc on our atmosphere. We didn't worry about this 100 years ago, and the industrial revolution is the culprit for a large part of this. The reason for this is a little thing called Carbon dioxide. Where is the C02 (Carbon dioxide) coming from? Fossil fuel burning (75%), land clearing & burning (25%), as well as car exhaust and coal burning and methane gas. This stuff stays in the atmosphere for 50-200 years. Here is how it 2009-03-03T13:42:30-05:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/Global-Warming-by-Adeel-Salman-33993.aspx The possibilities are endless it seems. Today’s scientific knowledge and technology is ever advancing and increasing. Science and technology has become a bigger part of our everyday lives today than most people might realize. With magazines like “Popular Science” or “Scientific American” being published every month packed full of the latest cutting edge technology and scientific discoveries, it’s easy to see that the realm of science and technology is a major factor in the modern world we live in. However, the field of science today has morphed to some degree from what it was like say, three hundred years ago when Isaac Newton explained the basics of motion. Today, science is less a means by which we gain an understanding and appreciation of the world around us, as it is an application of that knowledge to utilize and employ the world around us for our benefit. These applications, we call technology. Science has made the impossible possible, and technology has allowed things to be done that no one had ever dreamed could be done. It’s about pushing the limits. That leads us to ask the obvious question, when should the limits no longer be pushed? Simply because we can do something, does that mean we should? By asking these questions, a whole other domain is opened up called ethics. A discussion of ethics and ethical behavior will often quickly find its way to a discussion about the relationship between religion and ethics. Science, ethics, and religion are an interesting combination but an important and relevant one today. Biotechnology, the fusion of biology and technology, is a field that often falls under criticism from ethical and religious points of view. Most notably, debates of the ethical or unethical nature of abortion, cloning, and stem cell research have arisen. In order to form a knowledgeable and well-informed conclusion about the ethics of modern biotechnology, it is necessary to study the extent of interplay between these three factors in today’s modern biotechnology and what their relationship has been historically. First of all, a clear definition of the three terms at hand may shed some helpful light and provide a solid foundation. By definition, ethics is an attempt at creating a system of morals that define our perception of right and wrong. Ethics becomes 2009-01-25T04:13:09-05:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/Science-Ethics-and-Religion-33947.aspx Global warming is a “heated” topic in modern society. It is a constant struggle to stop the unstoppable. Climate change has always happened, is happening, and will persist to happen until the end of the earth. The constant flux is due to the earth’s irregular motion around the sun. Fortunately for the rest of you, I have devised the plan of action that we 2008-12-27T20:38:35-05:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/Global-Warming--33928.aspx Meiosis is a two-part cell division process in organisms that sexually reproduce. 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It was shown that not 2008-11-01T09:42:03-04:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/Watch-waist-about-this-its-all-about-appearance-and-health-33831.aspx Chinese researchers have found further evidence that plants emit significant quantities of methane - a potent greenhouse gas. But the latest findings also show that methane emissions depend not just on the species of plant, but the conditions in which they are 2008-09-08T21:38:57-04:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/Grasslands-Emit-Greenhouse-Gas-33700.aspx Editorial: Liquid asset One third of the world's population already lives in water-scarce areas. And stocks of water are dwindling: not only because a burgeoning population needs to quench its thirst, but also to meet increasing agricultural demands for crop growth. Add to that the water demands of low-carbon alternatives to fossil fuels, including biofuels and hydrogen (see Chemistry World , May 2008, p12), and industry's insatiable appetite for water, and it's clear demand is rapidly overwhelming supply. Many predict that the major conflicts of the coming century will be fought over water. And the unpredictable impacts of climate change mean that we cannot simply rely on surface water resources to continue to be replenished by rain. Time to compromise The issue is not just quantity, it's quality. Urban pressure on water supplies means more and more people are quite literally tapping the same sources - and also that water treatment has to cope with a swathe of previously undiscovered pollutants (see p48). Many of these, including active pharmaceuticals, simply slip through traditional water treatment systems. More advanced purification systems are already in existence that are capable of removing almost all of them, but at what cost? There are questions to be answered about the impact of new pollutants before money is spent on removing them. Only the best scientific advice will aid the development of good water management, which, in some cases is going to prove very expensive indeed. There will often be simpler solutions: it cannot be sensible for people in many developed countries to continue to use high quality, drinkable water to flush toilets and water lawns while more than one in six people throughout the world have no access at all to safe, clean drinking water. The scientific community must play a key role in deciding in which direction the money flows (see p44). In the aquatic environment, we have already seen the effects of some wastewater compounds on ecosystems - certain hormones that we regularly flush away, for example, have been found to affect the development of fish, and to reduce their rates of reproduction. We have a moral obligation to monitor these effects and their causes closely. Only through rigorous and well coordinated environmental monitoring can we really know which compounds pose a serious threat to ourselves and our environment (see p54). Less is more The appetite for water is most 2008-09-08T21:38:12-04:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/Chemistry-article-retel-2-33699.aspx Gold's magic number 20 August 2008 A new gold catalyst developed by UK chemists can catalyze hydrocarbon oxidation, using O2 as the only oxidant. But catalyst particle size is critical - above 2nm diameter, the catalyst loses all activity. The catalyst was developed by Richard Lambert and colleagues at the University of Cambridge, who used styrene oxidation as a test reaction. The team found that the reaction didn't require any additional oxidants such as peroxides. Oxygen molecules adsorbed to the gold particles, and then dissociated to give single oxygen atoms that initiated the styrene oxidation. 'Styrene is a very good test molecule which can be handled easily,' says Marc Armbrüster, who also works at the University of Cambridge and collaborates with the group. Oxygenated hydrocarbons are also valuable intermediates for industry. 'The prospect of selective oxidation using molecular oxygen without the addition of additives over a new catalyst is exciting,' comments Jeroen van Bokhoven, from the Institute for Chemical and Bioengineering at ETH Zurich, Switzerland. 'There seems to be space for trying the catalyst out on more systems and for improving the selectivity,' van Bokhoven adds. The catalyst consists of 55-atom gold clusters, which form nanometer-sized particles on inert supports. The Au55 particles are so-called 'magic number' clusters that contain exactly the right number of atoms for very stable geometries, making them ideally suited to catalysis. However, the particle size of the catalyst is critical. While 1.4nm diameter particles were effective and robust catalysts, particles 2nm or larger have no catalytic activity. The researchers used x-ray photoelectron spectroscopy to show that the nano-clusters have a different electronic structure to bulk gold. 'As the particles become smaller, their electronic structure changes significantly,' explains Armbrüster. The organic reactant only weakly adsorbs to the catalyst, so that its electronic structure is not perturbed. 'We don't know exactly how the catalyst works but we really want to understand what is going on,' says Armbrüster. 'We think that quantum chemistry might be the easiest way to find out what is happening,' he adds. 'We also need to do further lab work, for example to discover the catalyst's lifetime and to establish the influence of different loadings of the catalyst.' The research team hopes that its gold clusters will provide a route to the synthesis of robust gold catalysts with practical applications for synthetic chemistry. 'We are quite some way off an industrial catalyst, but we see no barrier to gold clusters 2008-09-08T21:36:50-04:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/Chemistry-Article-Summary-33698.aspx Stem Cell Research: Pro’s, Con’s and development over the years Process Paper For National History Day, we chose our topic of Stem Cell Research for many reasons; it is a highly controversial topic, a very close to heart topic, a very interesting topic and it has lots of conflicts, each with a compromise. Our topic is highly controversial because of all the different aspects of the research itself and all the ways they are being viewed. For example, the moral battle over stem cell research is the most common debate. Many people believe that because a human embryo, a living, unborn child, is being destroyed in the process of isolating stem cells, that the research is wrong. However, many others believe that because the research could save lives and help devastated families, it would be unethical to merely dispose of them. Conducting our research was a fairly simple undertaking; five resources were used: Internet, interviews, classroom texts, newspaper articles and books. For the internet, we were able to find websites pertaining to stem cell research history and we used fertility clinic web pages to look at what current research was being conducted with private funding. We were also lucky enough to contact Richard Galli, author of Rescuing Jeffrey, a memoir about his son’s dive into paraplegia, and acquire a chance to interview them both. Additionally, we interviewed a biology teacher at our school to learn more about what stem cells are. Also attained from a biology class were texts explaining what stem cells are and where they were first isolated. Newspaper articles also gave us information as far as history because articles from many years ago about, then, current breakthroughs, could be read, giving us a firsthand look at what America saw at those times. Our presentation type is a documentary and we chose this for many reasons; firstly, resources to make a documentary (film equipment, editing software) are easy to access and work with- even digital cameras are able to record videos as well as take useful pictures. Secondly, we both have prior knowledge on how to use these resources- computers come with programs that give users the opportunity to create and edit their own videos. Thirdly, a documentary is the best fitting way to display our information; a documentary shows many pictures which is a good milieu for substantial dialogue. Lastly, a documentary gave us the ability to show 2008-09-04T23:45:56-04:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/Stem-Cell-Research-Pros-Cons-and-Developements-Over-the-Years-33691.aspx Mitosis Root tip microscope lab Biology PROBLEM: What are the phases of mitosis in a root tip? HYPOTHESIS: Using a prepared onion root slide and a microscope, can you identify, label and count cells undergoing mitosis? METERIALS: -Microscope -prepared slide of an onion root tip PROCEDURE: 1. set up a compound light microscope and turn it ob 2. place a slide containing an onion root tip under the microscope 3. locate the growth zone, which is right above the root at the root tip 4. focus on low power and then switch to medium or high power, use the pictures of the stages of mitosis to identify the stages on the microscope slide 5. count the number of cells 2008-09-04T23:35:09-04:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/Mitosis-Root-Tip-Microscope-Lab-Paper-33680.aspx Genetic disorders: Bipolar Disorder Sunday, March 23, 2008 Research paper Bipolar disorder, also known as manic depression disorder, is a serious two-faced mental illness that affects approximately two million people all across America today. Bipolar is characterized by a cycle of mood swings between elation (mania) and extreme depression. (www.managingbipolar.com) Mania is the euphoric phase that is characterized by an exhilarated or irritable mood that generally lasts at least one week. A manic episode is represented by change from normal feelings to having feelings that often interfere with work, school and personal relationships. Usually, Mania is the first episode in males. Some people experiencing a manic episode require hospitalization to return to a normal level of functioning, others require anti psychotic medications such as Quetiapine, Olanzapine or chlorpromazine. Symptoms of Mania include: excessive talking/pressured speech, an inflated self-esteem, decreased need for sleep, distractibility, irritability and excessive involvement in activities with pleasurable activities or high potential for destructive consequences. (www.mayoclinic.com) When people in a manic state experience the symptom of racing thoughts or ideas, they feel like they are tuned into two or three sets of televisions on at once which may cause a person to switch a topic from on conversation to another or become greatly confused and agitated. When a manic person has inflated self-esteem, they feel as though they could do things that they, normally, would never be able to accomplish, such as winning the Olympic gold medal or become the President of the United States of America or more simply, fly when jumping out of a building. The decreased need for sleep is the most common symptom of the manic period. A person experiencing mania may only get a few hours of sleep every night or not get sleep at all and claim to feel refreshed and energized. There are three stages of mania that starts with hypomania. During the hypomania stage, the bipolar patients say that they are energetic, and assertive. The hypomania state seems as though the patients are addicted to their mania. The second stage to mania is shown by a loss of judgment and an irritable mood. The third stage is evident when the patient experiences delusions and behavior becomes hyperactive. The other phase of Bipolar Disorder is the depressive phase. A depressive episode is characterized by a depressed mood or a loss of interest 2008-09-04T23:34:24-04:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/Genetic-Disorders-Research-Paper-on-Bipolar-disorder-33679.aspx Rutherford was aware of the nuclear energy trapped in the atom. He thought the energy could not be utilised efficiently and he hoped that methods would not be discovered until man was at peace with his neighbors. Discuss. In this essay I am going to discuss Rutherford’s impact on science and nuclear energy. Also share some of my opinions about the usage of nuclear power. Ernest Rutherford was a physicist and a Nobel Prize winner in chemistry. He became known as the ‘father’ of nuclear physics. He is best known for being the first man to split the atom and the discovery of the proton. Another important fact about Rutherford’s scientific career was that he mentored 9 students who went onto win Nobel Prizes later on in their life. He has left behind quite a legacy too; an element is named after him also a crater on Mars and the moon are named after him. I think what he said about the use of nuclear technology was very insightful as what he foresaw happening if the technology was indeed harnessed was correct. He was right to say that the energy could not be ‘utilised efficiently’ as they ended up making a devastating bomb and led to the end of the second world war but the peace was short-lived as it transformed into the cold war which involved a nuclear arms race where America and the Soviet Union made nuclear bombs bigger and better. But luckily this mass pile up of nuclear explosives did not result with a war because attacking the opposing country would mean that the destruction of the attacking country also, this was called mutually assured destruction (MAD). My stand on nuclear energy is that I disagree with the use of it. Nuclear energy is not a good choice as an energy source because of the various disadvantages of this source of energy. One of the problems with nuclear power is that the difficulty with the management of radioactive waste is still unsolved and this highly dangerous material has to be carefully looked after for more then 8000 years which could be hazardous for future generations as well unless we can come up with some solution in the near future. Also there is the prospect of an accident which would be very dangerous for the surrounding populated areas (for example: The Chernobyl accident in April, 1986, in Russia). Moreover the technology used for 2008-08-06T05:20:37-04:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/Argument-Against-Nuclear-Power-and-Biography-of-Rutherford-33657.aspx GENERAL RELATIVITY IS DEAD Milan Meszaros Alpha Group Laboratories Society, Inc. Abstract The intent of the present study is to analize standard cosmology in an immanent mathematical-critical way. First of all, the fundamental statements of this cosmological model will be investigated themselves as well as their relevation to the theory. Further aims are to reveal the interdependence of different physical disciplines, confrontation of various observations, to elucidate the correlations between observed data and theory and, finally, to analyze this cosmology from the point of view of self-consistency. The study discusses the status of the standard modell. ---------------------------------------------------- 6. SUMMARY By placing sandard cosmology on a postulational basis, we have managed to point out many intriguing inconsistencies. In the absence of the application of the axiomatic method, these contradictions have remained hidden. Within the framework of theory there exist six different and equal in importance differential equation systems to determination of dynamical parameters u, p, and R in the Robertson-Walker universe. The section of sets of solutions of these differential equation systems is the empty set (see Paradox 1). So the behavior of the Robertson-Walker universe is not determined uniquely by the theory (see Paradox 2). Contrary to generally accepted dogmas, there exist three independent equations (central equation system) which determine unequivocally (u, p, R) without supposing the state equation. Thermodynamically the solutions of the central equation system are false. (See Contradiction 1.) The "not false" solutions contradict the system of axioms. This is why standard cosmology does not have a single solution compatible with its postulational basis. (See Contradiction 2.) The Hubble law v=Hx is not equivalent to the general speed formula V(t): H(t)X(t) as a consequence of mutuality of the model and measurement and observation. Furthermore, the general speed formula and the universal relation of the redshift v(t)R(t):= const cannot be deduced from the theory. Finally, there are many arguments against the standard model. The origins of the Hubble law and the 3K blackbody radiation are unclear; moreover, these are not evidence of standard cosmology. As a consequence of the violation of causality, it is probable that not one single relativistic model can be adapted to this situation. So the big bang, or "big crunch," means "the collapse of conceptual categories," but not the gravitational collapse of the universe. The question is thus raised: What is the 2008-06-26T09:39:10-04:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/General-Relativity-is-Dead--33621.aspx The Chaos Theory Where Chaos begins, classical science ends. Ever since physicists have inquired into the laws of nature, the have not begun to explore irregular side of nature, the erratic and discontinuous side, that have always puzzled scientists. They did not attempt to understand disorder in the atmosphere, the turbulent sea, the oscillations of the heart and brain, and the fluctuations of wildlife populations. All of these things were taken for granted until in the 1970's some American and European scientists began to investigate the randomness of nature. They were physicists, biologists, chemists and mathematicians but they were all seeking one thing: connections between different kinds of irregularity. Physiologists found a surprising order in the chaos that develops in the human heart, the prime cause of a sudden, unexplained death. Ecologists explored the rise and fall of gypsy moth populations. Economists dug out old stock price data and tried a new kind of analysis. The insights that emerged led directly into the natural world - the shapes of clouds, the paths of lightning, the microscopic intertwining of blood vessels, and the galactic clustering of stars. The man most responsible for coming up with the Chaos theory was Mitchell Feigenbaum, who was one of a handful of scientists at Los Alamos, New Mexico when he first started thinking about Chaos. Feigenbaum was a little known scientist from New York, with only one published work to his name. He was working on nothing very important, like quasi periodicity, in which he and only he had 26 hour days instead of the usual 24. He gave that up because he could not bear to wake up to setting sun, which happened periodically. He spent most of time watching clouds from the hiking trails above the laboratory. To him cloud represented a side of nature that the mainstream of physics had passed by, a side that was fuzzy and detailed, and structured yet unpredictable. He thought about these things quietly, without producing any work. After he started looking, chaos seemed to be everywhere. A flag snaps back and forth in the wind. A dripping faucet changes from a steady pattern to a random one. A rising column of smoke disappears into random swirls. The Chaos Theory is also called Nonlinear Dynamics, or the complexity theory. They all mean the same thing though a scientific discipline which is based on the study of nonlinear systems. To 2008-05-22T08:16:14-04:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/Chaos-Theory--33600.aspx Alcohol and drugs--including marijuana, nicotine, and certain medications--can temporarily reduce sperm quality. Also, environmental toxins, including pesticides and lead, may be to blame for some cases of infertility. Drugs and Surgery Depending on what the tests turn up, different treatments are recommended. Eighty to 90 percent of infertility cases are treated with drugs or surgery. Therapy with the fertility drug Clomid or with a more potent hormone stimulator--Pergonal, Metrodin, Humegon, or Fertinex--is often recommended for women with ovulation problems. The benefits of each drug and the side effects, which can be minor or serious but rare, should be discussed with the doctor. Multiple births occur in 10 to 20 percent of births resulting from fertility drug use. Other drugs, used under very limited circumstances, include Parlodel (bromocriptine mesylate), for women with elevated levels of a hormone called prolactin, and a hormone pump that releases gonadotropins necessary for ovulation. If drugs aren't the answer, surgery may be. Because major surgery is involved, operations to repair damage to the woman's ovaries, fallopian tubes, or uterus are recommended only if there is a good chance of restoring fertility. In the man, one infertility problem often treated surgically is damage to the vas deferens, commonly caused by a sexually transmitted disease, other infection, or vasectomy (male sterilization). Other important tools in the battle against infertility include artificial insemination and the so-called assisted reproductive technologies. (See "Science and Art.") Fulfillment Regardless Lisa became pregnant without assisted reproductive technologies, after taking ovulation-promoting medication and undergoing surgery to repair her damaged fallopian tubes. Her daughter is now 4 years old. "It was definitely worth it. I really appreciate having my daughter because of what I went through," she says. But Lisa and her husband won't try to have a second child just yet. "At some point you have to stop trying to have a baby, stop obsessing over what might be an unreachable goal," she says. When having a genetically related baby seems unachievable, a couple may decide to stop treatment and proceed with the rest of their lives. Some may choose to lead an enriched life without children. Others may choose to adopt. And no, according to Resolve, you're not more likely to get pregnant if you adopt a baby. Drug Supply Restored The availability of sufficient supplies of the FDA-approved fertility drugs Pergonal, Metrodin, and Humegon, and the recent FDA approval of the fertility drug Fertinex have 2008-05-07T12:02:31-04:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/Alcohol-Drugs-and-Tobacco-and-Their-Effects-on-Pregnancy-33593.aspx Nuclear Energy is produced when atoms split and they produce large amounts of energy. This energy is released in heat form. As atom fragments collide with each other they split again and produce more heat. A nuclear power plant uses the heat energy produced by the split atom to conduct heat. Nuclear energy is created through steam turbines the generate electricity. Nuclear energy benefits in large areas but can produce the worst of things to not just happen to the workers but to the whole city or nation. Advantages for Australia Australia currently receives eighty percent of its electricity by fossil fuels such as coal. With nuclear energy, carbon emissions could drop making global warming less of an issue. Nuclear energy is the best known source of energy that does not harm the environment. Nuclear energy doesn’t pollute the air with no production of carbon dioxide or any sulphur dioxide or nitrogen oxides. Nuclear materials can be used for other sources than just energy. Medical diagnosis and therapy can use nuclear energy to carry out medical procedures. In addition nuclear materials can also be used to kill bacteria, insects and parasites from food. Is could help in Australia’s Agriculture. Nuclear material can also benefit in different areas such as Industry, Space Exploration and Scientific research. Disadvantages for Australia Nuclear power plant remain dangerous, safety is said to be a myth. Nuclear still remains as the most dangerous form of energy. Another Chernobyl accident is possible at anytime to any power plant worldwide. Even after twenty years of the incident people locally are still suffering from health issues. During normal procedures, radioactive materials are continually discharged into air and water. A solution should be devised before nuclear energy is introduced in Australia. How will the radioactive waste be disposed of? Most highly radioactive waste is spent in isolation for up to hundreds and thousands of years. Areas affected by high radioactivity are dangerous and affect many people in cancer and birth defects. There is not a single disposal option of radioactive waste worldwide. Most common radioactive waste in foreign countries is buried underground. Money is a major issue in the production of nuclear power plants in Australia. The cost to establish a power plant is coming out if the normal tax payer’s pocket. Interest rates would rise to continue the production of the power plant. People could become homeless without the money to pay the 2008-04-04T11:13:13-04:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/Nuclear-Energy--33555.aspx I. What is a wave A wave is a disturbance that carries energy through matter or space. II. Most waves travel through a medium i. sound travels as a wave a. the air through which sound travels is its medium ii. earth quakes make waves called seismic waves that travel through earth a. medium- the matter through which a wave travels b. waves that require a medium to travel through are called mechanical waves 1. almost all waves are mechanical waves 2. an exception to this is electromagnetic waves III. Light does not require a medium i. light can travel from the sun to the earth across the empty space ii. this is possible because light waves do not need a medium to t ravel through iii. light waves consist of changing electric and magnetic fields in space a. electromagnetic waves- a wave caused by a disturbance in electric and magnetic fields and that does not require a medium IV. Waves transfer energy i. waves carry energy because they can do work. ii. Ii. The bigger the wave is, the more energy it carries a. A cruise ship moving through water in the ocean could create waves big enough to move a fishing boat up and down a few meters. iii. Tsunami- a huge ocean wave caused by earthquakes a. A tsunami may be as high as 30 meters when it reaches the shore 1. such waves carry enough energy to cause a lot of damage to costal towns and shore lines V. Energy may spread out as a wave travels i. when you are standing next to the speakers at a rock concert, the sound will damage your ears, however if you 100m from them, the sound is not as loud a. this is because sound waves spread out over a larger area ii. When sound waves travel in air, the waves spread out in spheres a. These spheres are similar to the circular ripples on a pond. 1. as they travel outward, the spherical wave fronts get bigger, so the energy in the waves spreads out over a larger area. 2. this is why large speakers and amplifiers are need to fill a concert hall. VI. Vibrations and Waves i. when a singer sings a note, the vocal cords in the singer’s throat move back and forth. a. that motion makes the air in the throat vibrate, creating sound waves that eventually reach your ears. b. The vibration of the air in your ears causes your eardrums to vibrate 1. the motion the eardrum triggers a series of electrical pulses to your brain, and your brain interprets them as sounds. ii. most waves are caused by a 2008-02-04T18:46:30-05:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/Property-of-Waves--33512.aspx {INTRODUCTION} This essay is about blood transfusion, and blood types. Blood is a combination of biological fluid which contains of red blood cells, white blood cells and the fluid known as blood plasma. Red blood cells are the most common type of blood cell and the main objective is delivering oxygen from the lungs to all the organs in your body. White blood cells are cells which defend the body against infectious, disease, viruses and foreign materials. Blood transfusion is the process of transferring blood or blood based products from one person into another person. {RED BLOOD CELLS} The red blood cells are extremely important to the body. The body relies on red blood cells to deliver oxygen to brain tissue, muscle tissue, and all of your organs. Oxygen to your body is like fuel to a car, with out fuel the car will shut down. And the same thing will happen to your body; but with a more fatal result. Un-oxygenated blood becomes darker and looks more purplish than it dues red. {WHITE BLOOL CELLS} The white blood cells play a whole different part in your biological makeup. They are not able to carry oxygen like the red blood cells, but they defend your body agents various threats. You have different types of white blood cells also called Neutrophil, Eosinophil, Basophil, Lymphocyte, Monocyte, and Macrophage. These white blood cells protect your body in differently from each other. Neutrophils: deal with defense against bacterial or fungal infection and other very small inflammatory processes and are usually first responders to microbial infection. Eosinophils: primarily deal with parasitic infections and an increase in them may indicate such. Basophils: are chiefly responsible for allergic and antigen response by releasing the chemical histamine causing inflammation. Lymphocytes: are much more common in the lymphatic system. The blood has three types of lymphocytes. Monocytes: share the "vacuum cleaner" (phagocytosis) function of neutrophils, but are much longer lived than the neutrophils. Macrophage: are able to develop into the professional phagocytosing macrophage cell after they migrate from the bloodstream into the tissue and undergo differentiation. {BLOOD TRANSFUSION} Blood transfusion is a treatment to replace blood (export and import blood from two or more bodies) of the blood lost through injury and surgery. It is needed if you have had significant blood loss or if your body cannot make or is losing an important amount of blood. A person can donate up to one pint of blood at a time. The donor 2008-01-13T20:43:15-05:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/Essay-on-Blood-33497.aspx Parker 1 Our Plastic Prisons In the creation of our beings, we are blessed, and sometimes cursed with features we, as freethinkers, might not otherwise have chosen for ourselves. Certain circumstances however, may arise on the journey known as life, forcing us to reconstruct these features; in an effort to construct normal, healthy, lives. Often, we are compelled to reconstruct these features in an effort to enhance an otherwise normal, healthy life. For the individual unaware of the pros and cons, in to regards to the acquisition of cosmetic surgery and reconstructive surgery; I produce this composition in an attempt to inform you, the reader; as well as to expand upon my limited knowledge of this field. In researching the world of “Plastic Surgery”, we approach a dividing factor. There are two categories into which most operations are labeled. Cosmetic surgeries occur when an individual takes notice of a particular feature on his/her body and makes the decision to alter the imperfection. In humans, it is impossible to find a “flawless” being. Our bodies, in their own right, are not created equal. A certain degree of asymmetry exists within each of us. Symmetry is not a dominant trait in the human race. Take a picture of your face, photographing each side individually. Place each photo side by side. Notice the difference? Each feature, your eyes, your nose, and even your lips take on their own sense of symmetry, or asymmetry if you will. Reconstructive surgery takes place when an individual is blessed with features that hinder his/her ability to lead a normal, healthy, life. Parker 2 Breast augmentation is one of the most frequently requested cosmetic surgeries. Implants are inserted behind the breast tissue of each breast or behind the “pectoralis” a major muscle, helping to increase the size of the breast. Silicone implants are made of thick material and filled with either saline or an antibiotic solution during the operation. Women are classically partial to this type of operation. However, in recent years, males have exhibited an interest in cosmetic operations pertaining to the enhancement of the male physique, thus leading to the procurement of “pectoral implants”. Each sex concludes this course of action for similar reasons. Increased sex appeal, heightened sexual pleasure, as well as a new found sense of confidence, influence an individuals reservations regarding this operation. (Plasticsurgery.org) Augmentation 2007-12-13T13:34:03-05:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/Our-Plastic-Prisons-33466.aspx Biosensors are analytical devices used to measure biological information that converts a bodily response into an electrical signal. Biosensors consist of three major parts, the sensitive biological element (tissue, microorganisms, enzymes etc.), the transducer, and the detector element which works physicochemically. The major component of a biosensor is the transducer, which uses the physical changes of a reaction to produce an effect. Such physical changes could be thermal output, electrical potential change, redox reaction, electromagnetic radiation etc. The triggered electrical output from the transducer can then be amplified, processed, displayed and analyzed. Biosensors are a rapidly expanding field of study with an estimated annual growth rate of 60%, with the majority of the growth coming from the health-care industry. The biosensor concept can be traced back to Professor Leland C Clark Junior, who invented the oxygen electrode in 1956. He wanted to expand the range of analytes that we could measure in the body. His first experiment involved entrapping glucose oxidase enzyme in an oxygen electrode using a dialysis membrane. The observed decrease in oxygen concentration was proportional to glucose concentration. This is the first of many variations of the basic biosensor design that emerged out of Dr Clark's concept. Through the next several decades, the biosensor technology took off radically as a variety of new devices was discovered including enzymes, nucleic acids, and cell receptors. In looking at the historical development of this technology, 1980’s was certainly the inventive decade, with commercialization being the theme in the 1990’s. Biosensors’ primary functions in terms of research and commercial applications are identifying target molecules, identifying the availability of a suitable biological recognition element, and the potential for disposable detection systems to replace sensitive lab techniques. Examples of these functions include monitoring health related targets, detecting pesticides, detecting pathogens, and determining the level of toxicity in an organism or in the environment. The most widespread and commercialized example is the blood glucose biosensor, which uses an enzyme to break down blood glucose. Once broken, the biosensor transfers an electron to an electrode which is converted into a measure of blood glucose concentration. This process is especially important to diabetics to monitor glucose levels in their bodies. However, many biosensors are still not commercialized and most are still single analyte devices. In recent years, the development of biosensors for environmental and clinical applications has gained much interest from researchers, due 2007-11-20T07:29:37-05:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/Microbial-Biosensors-–-Past,-Present-and-Future-33430.aspx Genetic Engineering Genetic engineering has been one of the most controversial ethical issues since 1997, when Dolly the first successfully cloned sheep was presented. Dolly has redefined the meaning of "identical twin"; not only does she look exactly like her mother, she also has the same genetic make up. This experiment was not only impossible but unthinkable, yet, Dr. Ian Wilmut revealed Dolly on February 23, 1997, at seven months old ( Travis 1). On the surface genetic engineering may appear to be the solution to all of society's ills and the world’s problems. In all actuality it may have tremendous and unknown side effects. The issues that surround genetic engineering undoubtedly make it immoral and ethically wrong. Genetic Engineering as defined by Susan A. Hagedorn, is the manipulation of an organism's genetic endowment by introducing or eliminating genes through modern molecular biology techniques. A broad definition of genetic engineering also includes selective breeding and other means of artificial selection ("Genetic Engineering" 1). After hearing of the "creation" of Dolly, Americans soon learned the harsh fact surrounding her creation. Dr. Wilmut's success was preceded by 276 failures. This success rate is nowhere near clinically acceptable. To begin the development of the eggs, technicians shocked the eggs with electric pulses; twenty-nine of the 277 eggs began to divide. The eggs, were then implanted into adult female sheep; thirteen of which became pregnant, and only the one of 277 eggs was born - Dolly ( Wilmut 1). Long-term prospects of mammal cloning remain in question. Cloning is not clinically acceptable for experimentation on humans. In the months following the news of Dolly, President Clinton requested, "a thorough review of the legal and ethical issues associated with the use of this technology... with recommendations on possible federal actions to prevent its abuse" (Shermer 1). The answer is clear-- there is no safe place to draw the line on when genetic engineering is acceptable and when it is not. Governments cannot claim that the uses of mammal cloning are strictly limited to curing disease, because then the question arises as to what is a genetic disease. For example, some may feel comfortable defining a mutation in the cystic fibrosis gene as causing disease if it leads to chronic respiratory infections from birth to death at the age of twenty-five. However, a different mutation in the same gene might cause little or no problem. Is this also 2007-11-16T05:34:47-05:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/Genetic-Engineering-33423.aspx Describe the physics involved in the safety features in cars. Introduction Every minute, on average, at least two people die in a crash. If you read this essay from start to finish, 20 or more deaths will have occurred across the globe by the time you are done. Road traffic injuries represent about 25% of worldwide injury-related deaths (the leading cause) with an estimated 1.2 million deaths (2004) each year as said by the World Health Organization. Car crashes will also injure at least 10 million people this year, two or three million of them seriously. All told, the hospital bills, damaged property, and other costs will add up to 1-3 percent of the world's gross domestic product, according to the Paris-based Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development. For the United States alone, the tally will amount to roughly US $200 billion. This essay will discuss how engineers have been chipping away at these staggering numbers over the past 50 years. History Car safety has been an issue since the automobile was first invented, and was highlighted when Nicolas-Joseph Cugnot crashed his steam-powered "Fardier" against a wall in 1771.One of the earliest recorded automobile fatalities was Mary Ward, on August 31, 1869 in Parsonstown, Ireland. In the 1940’s there was much work being done with safety in airplanes. A lot of this work focused on the take off and landing process, as this was were most plane crashes occurred. This resulted in many improvements with the overall workings of the planes, such as brakes and engines, but also resulted in many safety features being created for the inside of the plane and its passengers. This research was the first of its kind, and many of its results started to flow over into the car-making field, and before long, safety features in cars became an industry of its own. Today there are many new products being developed every day, from night vision technology being built into windscreens, to collision avoidance systems with advanced microprocessors, radars, high-speed ICs, and signal-processing chips that take control of the car if it senses an imminent crash. There are two different types of safety features being produced today, and they can be classified into passive and active safety features. Passive safety features try to limit the damage that a car, and therefore its passenger, will sustain during a crash, and active safety features try to stop the car from 2007-11-11T08:36:57-05:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/Safety-Features-in-Cars--33411.aspx Introduction A Hominid is any member of the biological family Hominidae, or more commonly known as the great apes. Hominids are categorised in these areas, Kingdom: Animalia, Phylum: Chordata, Class: Mammalia, Order: Primates, Suborder: Haplorrhini, Infraorder: Simiiformes, Parvorder: Catarrhini, Superfamily: Hominoidea, Family: Hominidae. The Hominidae family includes humans, chimpanzees, gorillas, and orangutans, as well as many other extinct species. The family has caused much division within the scientific community over the past few decades. Scientists use two main methods of determining the classifications of certain species, and what families they belong in. These methods are Genetics and Morphology. Genetics is the study of the DNA of certain species while Morphology is the study of the outward appearance of the species, including the skeletal structure as well as the social and personal habits. Specifically When this is applied to the Hominids, there appears to be a large contradiction. While there are some similarities between the morphology of Hominids, there is not enough evidence to suggest that they should be classified within the same biological family. However, genetic studies have shown that the DNA of humans and chimpanzees are very similar. In 2003, a study carried out by Morris Goodman of Wayne State University in Detroit found that 99.4 percent of the most critical DNA sites are identical in the equivalent human and chimp genes. The DNA of the two species is close enough to suggest that should definitely be classified within the same family, and it could even be suggested that they belong within the same genus. As a result, the Hominidae family has been subject to multiple revisions and changes. These changes have resulted in a varied use of the term Hominid. This poster should help to clear up the common misconceptions surrounding Hominids by providing a solid understanding of the entire Hominidae family. The Hominoidea Family Tree – Living Members The diagram on the right shows the family tree for Hominids, stemming from the Super family Hominoidea. The Hominoidea Super family contains both the families Hominidae and Hylobatidae. The Hylobatidae family is more commonly known as the lesser apes. The prominent species within the family Hylobatidae are the gibbons. The family is divided into four genera based on their diploid chromosome number, which is in brackets, Hylobates (44), Hoolock (38), Nomascus (52), and Symphalangus (50). Diploid Chromosomes are two complementary chromosomes, with one chromosome being derived from the mother and the other 2007-11-11T06:38:37-05:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/Hominidae-Biological-Family-33408.aspx Albert Einstein Biographical Essay (March 14, 1879 – April 18, 1955) was a German-born theoretical physicist. He is best known for his theory of relativity and specifically mass-energy equivalence, E = mc2. Einstein received the 1921 Nobel Prize in Physics "for his services to Theoretical Physics, and especially for his discovery of the law of the photoelectric effect."[1] Einstein's many contributions to physics include his special theory of relativity, which reconciled mechanics with electromagnetism, and his general theory of relativity, which extended the principle of relativity to non-uniform motion, creating a new theory of gravitation. His other contributions include relativistic cosmology, capillary action, critical opalescence, classical problems of statistical mechanics and their application to quantum theory, an explanation of the Brownian movement of molecules, atomic transition probabilities, the quantum theory of a monatomic gas, thermal properties of light with low radiation density (which laid the foundation for the photon theory), a theory of radiation including stimulated emission, the conception of a unified field theory, and the geometrization of physics. Works by Albert Einstein include more than fifty scientific papers and also non-scientific books.[2][3] In 1999 Einstein was named Time magazine's "Person of the Century", and a poll of prominent physicists named him the greatest physicist of all time.[4] In popular culture the name "Einstein" has become synonymous with genius. Albert Einstein was born into a Jewish family in Ulm, Württemberg, Germany. His father was Hermann Einstein, a salesman and engineer. His mother was Pauline Einstein (née Koch). In 1880, the family moved to Munich, where his father and his uncle founded a company, Elektrotechnische Fabrik J. Einstein & Cie that manufactured electrical equipment, providing the first lighting for the Oktoberfest and cabling for the Munich suburb of Schwabing. The Einsteins were not observant of Jewish religious practices, and Albert attended a Catholic elementary school. Although Albert had early speech difficulties, he was a top student in elementary school.[5][6] Albert Einstein in 1893 (age 14), taken before the family moved to ItalyWhen Albert was five, his father showed him a pocket compass. Albert realized that something in empty space was moving the needle and later stated that this experience made "a deep and lasting impression".[7] At his mother's insistence, he took violin lessons starting at age six, and although he disliked them and eventually quit, he later took great pleasure in Mozart's violin sonatas. As he grew, Albert built models and mechanical devices for fun, and 2007-11-01T22:07:47-04:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/Albert-Einstein-Biography-33378.aspx Introduction Chapter 3, “Capacitance,” contains laboratory experiments designed to explore the relationship between voltage and the amount of charge stored in an object. These experiments involve measuring electrical properties of capacitors in series, in parallel, while charging, discharging, and at varying widths between the surfaces. Hands-on experience and resulting data should provide insight into the nature of capacitance. Theory In order to charge an object, a certain amount of energy is required to transfer charge to that object. The energy per unit of charge is called voltage. Given a certain voltage, charge can be transferred to an object until the amount of energy that is required to add more charge exceeds the energy potential. A derived unit is useful for expressing the capacity of charge (in Coulombs) that can be transferred to an object per unit of voltage (in Volts). Therefore, a unit of capacitance called the Farad exists, and is defined as C = Q/V. A capacitor comprised of two parallel surfaces will have a capacitance equal to 8.85 ρF/m, times the area of one of the plates, divided by the distance between them. When sharing the charge applied to one capacitor with a second capacitor, charge is conserved, therefore Vf * (C1 + C2) = Vi * C1. When discharging a capacitor through a resistor, V(t) = V0 * e-t/RC. When charging a capacitor through a resistor, V(t) = Vf – Vf * e-t/RC. Experiments 3.5.2: Charging a Capacitor This experiment required a 9V battery, a voltmeter, and voltage a follower that were assembled in this way: The battery and voltage follower ground contacts were connected to the volt meter ground, while the voltage follower output was connected to the positive terminal of the volt meter. To measure the voltage across the 0.033 μF capacitor, I connected one end of the capacitor to the positive lead from the voltage follower, and connected the other end to the ground. To charge the capacitor, I touched the positive probe from the 9V battery to the ungrounded side of the capacitor. The voltmeter displayed 8.90 V after removing the battery probe. Therefore, the charge on the capacitor was 0.033 μF * 8.90 V = 0.294 μC. 3.6.1: Measuring Unknown Capacitance This experiment was the same as the previous one, except that after the capacitor was charged, a second one was connected to it in parallel. When 2007-10-24T05:04:31-04:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/Capacitance--33362.aspx Managing Irritable Bowel Syndrome Irritable bowel syndrome (IBS)--also called irritable or spastic colon--is a common functional intestinal disorder characterized by recurrent abdominal discomfort and abnormal bowel function. The discomfort often begins after eating and goes away after a bowel movement. The symptoms can include cramps, bloating, constipation, diarrhea, and a feeling of incomplete emptying. IBS occurs in about one in five Americans, more commonly in women, and more often at times of emotional stress. It usually begins in late adolescence or early adult life and rarely starts after the age of fifty. In severe cases, it can result in missed work days and curtailment of social activities. Although effective help is available, many people with IBS are too embarrassed, pessimistic, or afraid to seek medical care. Even worse, some people who consult a doctor receive insufficient guidance and conclude that nothing further can be done for them. Why Symptoms Occur During normal digestion, foods are broken down in the stomach and small intestine so that their nutrients can be absorbed into the body. Undigested or partially digested portions--mostly in liquid form--then enter the large intestine (colon), where most of the water is reabsorbed. Movement through the intestines results from peristalsis, a wavelike contraction of muscles in the intestinal walls that propel their contents forward. When all is well, the end result is stool that is solid but soft enough to be excreted easily. Diet, eating habits, stress, and various environmental factors can disrupt the normal function of the intestines. If the intestines squeeze too hard or not enough, the partially digested food can travel too rapidly or too slowly through the digestive system. Movement that is too fast will result in diarrhea, because not enough water is reabsorbed. Movement that is too slow can result in constipation, because too much water is absorbed. Overly hard squeezing (spasm) can result in cramps. However, the diarrhea of IBS can also occur without pain. IBS symptoms occur after eating because of the gastrocolic reflex--increased movement of the intestinal contents in response to food entering the stomach. The strength of this reflex can be influenced by the volume and temperature of the food and the number of calories it contains. Large meals (particularly high-fat meals) and large numbers of cold beverages can trigger IBS attacks. Medical Evaluation A thorough history and physical examination should be obtained. The extent of further evaluation depends on the patient's age, general health, and symptoms. If symptoms 2007-10-21T17:36:16-04:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/Irritable-Bowel-Syndrome-IBS-33357.aspx What is an STD/STI? A sexually transmitted infection (STI) is an infection caused by a virus, parasite, or bacterium, and most commonly spread through vaginal, oral, or anal sex. Chlamydia, gonorrhea, and herpes are examples of some of the most common STIs. STD Testing Don't want herpes or other STDs? Get STD Tested and require your partners to get tested. It builds trust while demonstrating a commitment to health. [url=http://www.sxcheck.com/]I recommend getting STD Tested by SxCheck[/url] - they provide same day, confidential testing everywhere in the United States. This site also medicates and makes it easy to share test results online! Here are some statistics: * Approximately one in every three hundred Americans have HIV/AIDS, and 25% don't know it. * Approximately one in every five Americans are infected with genital herpes * Approximately 1/3 of Americans have an STI by the age of 35 * 19 million new infections occur each year, almost half of them among young people ages 15 to 24 * 2.8 million Americans (est.) are infected with chlamydia each year * At least 50 percent of sexually active men and women acquire genital HPV infection at some point in their lives; by age 50, at least 80 percent of women will have acquired genital HPV infection Is there a difference between an STD and an STI? While the term "sexually transmitted disease," or STD, has traditionally been used to characterize many of the conditions described on SxCheck.com, many health care institutions have recently begun phasing out this label in favor of the more accurate "sexually transmitted infection" (STI). The main difference lies in the fact that "disease" implies physical illness or the presence of outward symptoms, which is not necessarily the case with most STIs. In fact, some individuals may be infected for years without ever knowing it. Everything You Need to Know About Herpes: Herpes Genital herpes is a sexually transmitted disease caused by herpes simplex viruses type 1 (HSV-1) and type 2 (HSV-2). Most genital herpes is caused by HSV-2 and results in a disease that infected people carry for life. Almost one quarter of adults in the US are infected. Nationwide, that’s at least 45 million people, or roughly one out of five teenagers and adults. Having genital herpes doubles the risk of getting HIV during unprotected sex. You can get them from having 2007-09-30T03:55:54-04:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/STD-Testing-including-special-information-on-Herpes-33338.aspx GLOBAL WARMING IN NORTH AMERICA The vast North American continent ranges from the lush sub-tropical climate of Florida to the frozen ice and tundra of the Arctic. Within these extremes are two wealthy industrialized countries with diverse ecosystems at risk. Yet the United States and Canada are two of the largest global emitters of the greenhouse gases that contribute to a warming climate. Examples of all 10 of the "hotspot" categories can be found in this region, including changes such as polar warming in Alaska, coral reef bleaching in Florida, animal range shifts in California, glaciers melting in Montana, and marsh loss in the Chesapeake Bay. For North America we have many more hotspots than for some other regions of the world, although impact studies have been emerging in larger numbers in recent years from previously under-studied regions. This higher density of early warning signs in the US and Canada is due in part to the fact that these regions have more readily accessible climatic data and more comprehensive programs to monitor and study environmental change, in part to the disproportionate warming that has been observed over the mid-to-high-latitude continents compared to other regions during the last century, and in part to capture the attention of North Americans who need to take action now to reduce greenhouse gas emissions. EVIDENCE Scientist by far and large accept that Earth’s climate is changing because of the amount of so-called greenhouse gases humans are pouring into the atmosphere. Most of those gases come from fossil fuels, particularly carbon dioxide, or CO2. And much of the scientific community thinks these gases are causing unnatural climatic warming that could have unimaginable effects on life. The consensus agrees that Earth has warmed by 1 degree Fahrenheit over the last century. That doesn’t sound like much, but consider that during the last ice age Earth was just 5 to 9 degrees cooler. And what may be most dramatic in the short run is the idea that changes in climate may also be leading to more severe weather. THEORY, FACT AND EVIDENCE In July 1997, President Bill Clinton launched a global warming awareness campaign, with headlines quoting him as saying it’s “no longer a theory, but now a fact.” But his full sentence reveals an important caveat: “The overwhelming balance of evidence and scientific opinion is that it is no longer a theory but now a fact that global warming is 2007-09-23T16:33:57-04:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/-An-Overview-on-Global-Warming-in-North-America-33331.aspx Based on Casimir theory , bodies can escape the gravity. If we restrict this anti-gravity quality to human body , we can notice this specification in technical used in some martial arts. The body-mind link is able to collapse laws of nature.If we should search for tools to arming mankind to incarnating his dreams in the domain of time travel and reaching the far galaxies and deep space , we can find it inside of human 2007-08-22T02:08:53-04:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/Casimir-s-Theory-Quantum-Parallel-Worlds-33314.aspx Health Assessment Americans always looking for the easy way out are now relying on diet pills to do the work for them. Many folks start taking these pills hoping for the weight to come off with no work needed, and don’t consider the side effects. The most popular drug being touted as the “wonder pills” is called ephedrine. “Ephedrine is an herb that contains a potent substance called ephedrine. It is a thermogenic agent, decongestant,”(Mitchell and Dodson 65). A combination of ephedrine, green tea, and kola nut, are used to increase the metabolic rate thus helping with the weight loss process. Mitchell writes that, “At least forty people have died and more than 800 have become ill after taking diet products that contain ephedrine, including the sudden death of a college student in 1997”(68). Dodson adds that the amount of the drug that is taken also plays a major role in side effects, and in December of 2000 scientist noted, that on the bottles containing the drug ephedrine the amount on the labels were not accurate. They said that the active ingredient varied from the stated amount by twenty percent of more, depending on the brand (69). This over-the-counter drug has many side effects including, insomnia; dry mouth; headache and dizziness; an increase in blood pressure; metabolic rate, perspiration rate, and urine output. In some severe cases they have found it can cause paranoid psychoses, coronary spasm, convulsions, respiratory depression, comma, and death (Mitchell and Dodson 69). After assessing my diet through the process of recording my intake of food over the course of two days and analyzing its nutritional value, relative to my gender, weight, height, activity level and age, I have successfully reached several conclusions about my current dietary habits. Prior to this analysis of my diet, I was unsuspecting of some of my bad habits which were unbeknownst to me at the time and as a result, I was fairly shocked to see the results. Since my assessment in early February, I have maintained a constant focus on everything that goes into my body. In addition to my annual tradition of starting up a more frequent exercise routine around this time of year, I have been exercising portion control with each passing meal. One major aspect of this is that I have been cutting down on my consumption of cheeses. Prior to analyzing my diet, I was unaware that cheeses 2007-07-30T18:23:54-04:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/Health-Assessment--33304.aspx The Jelly Cell is the second task of the Cells unit and is undoubtedly a more enjoyable assessment compared to cells online which was the previous task. Despite this, it is still an important assessment as it contributes five marks to the working scientifically criteria for term two. Because of its significance, a number of standards must be set to ensure the task is done to the best of my ability. Apart from accuracy, neatness, completeness, amount of technical detail, labelling of structures, originality and relationship of knowledge to cell construction, I would specifically like to focus on two main standards. Those are the accuracy of the justification of the model and the similarity between the shapes of the food products chosen to the real organelles. The table below shows the food products that I have chosen for each organelle. Organelle Item used to represent Diagram Reason for selection and function Cell membrane Solid plastic container The cell membrane is a thin layer of protein and fat that surround the cell. It is represented by a transparent plastic container so it is easier to see the organelles inside and more portable. Centrioles Raw spaghetti noodles The Centrioles is a small body located near the nucleus which creates microtubules. This is represented by a group of spaghetti noodles because the stick like shape of the centriole is also found in spaghetti noodles. Chromatin Plum meat The chromatin is found in the nucleus and contains DNA and RNA and various proteins that form chromosomes during meiosis. This is represented by the plum meat found inside the plum just like how the chromatin is found inside the nucleus. Cytoplasm JELLY The cytoplasm is the jelly-like material found around the nucleus. This is represented by the gelatine to fit the task. Golgi Apparatus Dried aniseed The Golgi Apparatus is a sac like organelle that produces the membranes that surround the Lysosome. This is represented by the dried aniseed because this product contains sac-like features like the Golgi Apparatus. Lysosome Peanuts Lysosomes are round organelles that contain digestive enzymes. This is represented by peanuts because they have a roundish feature as well. Mitochondria Cashew The mitochondria are a rod-shaped organelle that converts energy stored in glucose into ATP. This is represented by cashews because they rod-shaped. Nuclear Membrane Plum Skin The nuclear membrane surrounds the nucleus and is represented by the plum skin. This is quite convenient because the skin naturally surrounds the plum so no additional work is needed. Nucleolus Plum seed The plum seed symbolises the nucleolus because the seed is situated inside the 2007-07-19T10:37:31-04:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/Jelly-Cell--33285.aspx Global Warming and Alternative Energy Sources People are inflicting major damage to the Earth’s environment, and if we don’t do anything to stop the destruction soon, the results could be devastating. Most people know about global warming and think it may be a serious problem in the future, but what most people don’t understand is that global warming is happening now. Every day we are feeling some of its destructive power, but we continue on our destructive path. Because of the dangerous effects of global warming, alternative energy sources need to be aggressively pursued. Finding and utilizing alternative energy sources may be the only way to combat the increase of global warming. “Scientists agree that the main reason for global warming is the depletion of the ozone layer surrounding the Earth due to increased levels of carbon dioxide and the increased release of greenhouse gas emissions.” Dr. Robert Watson from The Alliance of Concerned Scientists also adds, “These atmospheric concentrations of emissions are directly linked to human activities.” Fossil fuel emissions from gasoline and oil account for 52% of greenhouse gas emissions while coal burning energy plants and coal burning factories account for another 44% of emissions released (Samuelson 31). Overall, Americans are adding to global warming the most as we continue to be ‘energy hogs’ by driving gas-guzzling SUVs, and being careless with energy draining appliances in our homes. The destruction of forests around the world also adds to the problem by taking away the largest source of CO2 filters. Millions of trees are harvested each year due to increased demand for their byproducts, and, because of this, our environment suffers dramatically (Kenworthy 2). The United States accounts for over 51% of the energy used yearly through out the world. From 2000 - 2004 there was a 100% increase in greenhouse gas emissions in all established nations, and there seems to be no slowing down in the future with a projected 110% energy increase by 2010. At this rate scientists agree the world will be facing an energy crisis by 2020 if new energy sources aren’t found (McQuinn). The results of global warming are undeniably negative for the human race. Over the past ten years, the average surface temperature of earth has risen five degrees. Even though five degrees doesn’t seem like a major change, it has caused a disruption in the Earth’s fragile ecosystem (Watson 3). This increase has 2007-05-10T22:08:21-04:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/Global-Warming-And-Alternative-Sources-33194.aspx Health and Total Well Being • Why is it important to adopt positive health behaviors? • What are some of the influences over our health? Hauora, or total well being, refers to your own state of health encompassing the physical, social, spiritual, mental and emotional dimensions. To a certain level our level of health is entirely under our control and it is our responsibility to make the correct decisions so that we can reach our optimum level possible. Everyone has the right to a high level of health but it is up to you how healthy you are. Making the correct health decisions is vital and although people may not realise it almost everything that we do has an impact on our overall health. Effects may be very minor or very major ones. The four dimensions of your health also interact with each other and influence each other. For example you may have poor social health and not have the skills to make friends easily. This could lead to your feeling sad, lonely and depressed and therefore affect your emotional and mental states of health. An incorrect choice at this stage in your life may not mean a lot now but it can damage your life in the future. For example you may be smoking now and think nothing of it, but as you get older you will start to notice side effects, and your bad decision in the past could lead to illness or even death. Changing your heath habits to enhance your state of health is extremely hard and at times may even seem impossible. But you can combat this situation by assessing your own health and picking out the area most in need of attention. Then, in turn, set a series of short-term goals and identify the barriers (things that could stop you) and your enablers (things that could help you) from achieving your goals. However, some things that are beyond your control may dictate certain choices you have to make in regard to your health. For example, some influences over your health may be a certain medical condition, your likes and dislikes or even your religious beliefs. There are a number of aspects of our lives that positively influence us and our health without us realizing it. We also develop personal strengths that influence our lives and decision making, 2007-04-25T21:12:42-04:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/Health-and-Total-Well-Being-33162.aspx The Importance of Coral Reefs Coral Reefs are one of the world’s most beautiful habitats. They are often called the “rainforests of the ocean,” because they support such a diversity of life. They are massive underwater structures formed by the limestone skeletons of tiny invertebrate animals. These beautiful underwater structures are the largest and most diverse biological structures on earth, take thousands to years to form, yet they are being destroyed at an alarming rate. Coral Reefs are built by accumulated skeletons of tiny animals which are mostly corals and plants. These plants are mostly coralline algae. They are built near the surface in tropical seas. When sunlight reaches the appropriate area, corals will start to grow. Over the years coral builds a reef that fringes the shoreline. This is called a fringing reef. Fringing reefs are separated from the land only by shallow water. If a reef grows farther from land, it is a barrier reef. These reefs are separated from the land by a larger lagoon. The Great Barrier Reef is the largest biological structure on earth covering over 2000 kilometers on the east coast of Australia. Atolls, on the other hand, are formed far offshore and they make a ring-shaped reef that close a circular lagoon. Occasionally a coral reef is lifted from the water making it a coral island. The corals are made up of tiny organisms called polyps that grow together to produce the skeletons. Polyps are made up of two cell layers, the epidermis and the gastrodermis. They contain mesentery filaments to capture food, a pharynx and the columella which is found below the mouth. It is surrounded by a ring of tentacles which it uses to catch food floating in the water. Corals also get their food from single-celled plants called symbiotic algae which makes food from sunlight. The skeletal wall that surrounds the polyp is called a theca. There are two types of coral. The perforate have porous skeletons with connections between the polyps and the imperforate have solid skeletons. Corals have branches and looks just like plants and grow very slowly. If they are broken or killed by pollution, it will take the reef many years to recover. Algae is the plant that makes most of 2007-04-25T19:35:39-04:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/The-Importance-of-Coral-Reefs-33130.aspx Lesson In Physics Archimedes, Sophocles, Hitler, Peter, and Orwell are just some of the few men in history that have tried to predict the future, with may of them predicting the downfall of civilization. But, although many of these great thinkers have come startlingly close to the stark reality in which we live. Many have argued the opinion that our culture most resembles that of Orwell’s creation, but I disagree for a number of very important and relevant reasons. First, Orwell feared that censorship would be rampant in society, with government controlling every single printed piece of paper. This is certainly not so, especially with many journalistic companies printing negative opinions of the government. Plus, why would the government really have to censor articles in this day and age? A poll done by the Associated Press showed that over thirty percent of teenagers thought our current president was Al Gore, and I would bet anything that the typical high school senior has no idea what 1984 and Brave New World are. I fear that within the next two generations the literacy rate will take a dramatic fall off of its current perch, just as Huxley has suggested - people will not want to read anymore. Furthermore, how do most people generally spend most of their time? Pleasuring themselves. Our culture is no longer immersed in trying to better itself. It is mostly concerned with “playtime,” or, if we do better ourselves, it is usually in a form that exerts more physical pleasure. In Orwell’s vision, there was no pleasure. People were driven by fear and unmercifulness. While, in Huxley’s revelation, society was driven by pleasure, much like ours is today. With crack, cocaine, pot, smack, ludes, horse, and Whiffy Puff whipped cream, we are a people that thrives on the “10-minute high.” Just as drugs are to us, soma was to Huxley’s world. Another aspect of Orwell’s world in which we do not share is that of warfare. True, we are always in constant conflict with another country, but do we really purposefully wage war? I do not believe we do. In fact, I would go as far to say that we prevent war more than anything. For example, the spy plane incident in China was not very good. 2007-04-25T19:21:44-04:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/Lesson-In-Physics--33120.aspx Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD) is “a condition that is usually found in children characterized by inattention, hyperactivity and impulsiveness.” Affecting about 35% of the children in the US, this disorder is most often found in adolescences showing signs of aggression, disruptiveness, and the inability to control themselves; symptoms like these can be shown as early as the age of five. Although several treatments are available for ADHD, the three main types people rely on are medication, Biofeedback, and homeopathic remedies. The most common form of treatment for ADHD is medication, which is most frequently prescribed and is made up of stimulant and non stimulant prescription drugs. Stimulants help increase both mental and motor performance and uplift the mood in depressed persons. The drugs achieve this by allowing a child to have the ability to block out irrelevant thoughts and impulses and to focus their attention on what is important. In this way, stimulants help children become more aware of their surroundings and more aware of self control, which is the net result. In short, stimulants benefit children in a focusing sense; “…for about 70% of people with ADHD, stimulant medications improve their symptoms.” This form of medication “also increases the ability to problem solve and to learn,” as well as helping an individual do a better job at choosing what to say or do. This is accomplished because of “less interruptions, fidgeting, and finger tapping” during the school day. Children are also able to improve “their social skills and relationships, along with their attention during sports and other activities.” With stimulants, a child can use their “brake pedal.” In other words, they can slow their mind and thoughts so they can focus on the task at hand. Without stimulants, a child is all “gas pedal”; they cannot focus or organize their thoughts and their mind races from one thing to the next. With the help of stimulant drugs, like Ritalin and Dexedrine, which are both “a form of amphetamine,” children are able to focus during certain time periods. Most stimulant medicines are similar to a time release capsule. Once a medicine is ingested, it will start working about thirty minutes later and last for about four to five hours, depending on its type. Ritalin and Dexedrine have these characteristics. Other capsules, like Concerta, “last for about twelve hours, 2007-04-25T19:04:31-04:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/Treatments-of-ADHD--33116.aspx Acromegaly and its Diagnosis Acromegaly (Greek for “appendage enlargement”) is a rare but very serious disease frequently referred to as “Gigantism” or “Giantism.” It is the direct result of an overproduction and secretion of the adenohypophyseal growth hormone GH. True to its name, the disease is characterized by an enlargement of the organs, bones, and soft tissues, as well as a thickening of the skin and bodily membranes; and is frequently difficult to diagnose, as symptoms often do not appear until middle age. Typically the disease results in heart failure caused by an enlargement of the heart, organ failure due to pressure or thickening of the outer membrane of the organ, or brain hemorrhaging caused by a benign or malignant pituitary adenoma. To date, there are three known forms of the disease: Cushing’s disease, Nelson Syndrome, and Prolactinoma. Each is characterized by different phenotypic attributes commonly linked by an enlargement of all or some particular body parts. Prolactinoma is the most frequently recognized form of giantism. It is characterized by an overall enlargement of the body, and was brought to public attention nearly twenty years ago by pro-wrestler and actor Andre the Giant, who later died of heart failure in the early 1990s. Nelson’s disease and Cushing Syndrome are similar to each other, however there is now controversy as to whether these two diseases are even linked to Prolactinoma since they are not commonly characterized by an overall enlargement of the body, but rather an extreme overproduction of soft and fatty tissue. These diseases cause thickening of the bones, skin, and soft tissue, but often appear after the person has finished growing, making the patient appear overweight and unable to speak and move with fluidity since the tongue and hands are hindered. All three diseases tend to have the same outcome: organ failure or brain hemorrhaging. In the past twenty years, controversy has arisen as to whether there are in fact three forms of the disease, what characterizes differentiation between each one, and how should each be treated accordingly. The problem is until recently, scientists have based their diagnoses almost entirely upon phenotypic characteristics and what is known about pituitary adenomata; only now are scientists beginning to analyze the genes and hormones involved on the micro level. The following articles examine methods in which 2007-04-23T04:14:20-04:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/Acromegaly-and-its-Diagnosis-33102.aspx Bronfernbrenner's Ecological Systems Theory The prevalence of violent crime in North America, including Canada, can be attributed to a deadly combination of cultural values, economic conditions, and biological and environmental factors. These factors are part of Bronfenbrenner’s Ecological Systems Theory, which explains how the interaction of different parts of an individual’s life can shape and form who they are and how they act (text p7). Violent crime, specifically homicide, suicide and accidental death by a gun, are more prevalent among young men between the ages of 15 and 35, than by older men or women of any age (text p. 483-484). The combination of Bronfenbrenner’s micro system (family, peer group, etc.), exosystem (community, education, etc.) and perhaps most of all the macro system (cultural values, economics, etc.) can explain why young men are more susceptible to commit and be a victim of violent crime (text p. 483). Young men are usually brought up in a North American home believing they have to prove themselves as a “man’. The cultural idea of what a “man” should be includes strong, dependable, a protector for the family, etc. This pressure leads many young men to think they need to use their aggressiveness to prove they are a “man”. This could include drive by shootings on rival gangs, fist fights with another young man who resembles an “enemy” to prove their worthiness of the title. These pressures inhibit young men from developing self-restraint, self-respect, and respect for others’ opinions and beliefs (text p. 486). This pressure of the macro system on the micro system explains the never-ending cycle. One man raised by parents influenced by cultural norms, to raise their son to fit the socially constructed form of a man. Then the boy grows up to raise his son(s) in the same socially constructed way, creating violent young men in every generation. One of the more prominent concerns today is the debate around gun control and its relatedness to violent crime. By comparing Canadian and American statistics the different effects of the micro system (family) and exosystem (community) can be seen. In the United States is more accepted by the family, community, and government for civilians to posses a gun for personal and property protection. The Canadian laws prevent citizens from owning handguns unless they belong to a 2007-04-23T03:34:12-04:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/Bronfernbrenner-s-Ecological-Systems-Theory-33083.aspx The Physics of Galileo Galileo a great Italian astronomer, mathematician, and physicist. By his persistent investigation of natural laws he laid foundations for modern experimental science, and by the construction of astronomical telescopes he greatly enlarged humanity's vision and conception of the universe. He gave a mathematical formulation to many physical laws. His mission was to study the chemical composition and physical state of the largest planet in the solar system, its atmosphere, and four of its moons, for almost two years. The spacecraft encountered the asteroid 951 Gaspra on Oct. 29, 1991, and took the first close-up photographs ever of an asteroid in space. On Aug. 28, 1993, it passed by asteroid 243 Ida and took close-up photographs, which revealed that Ida has a tiny moon. Upon arrival at Jupiter, Galileo released a probe into the planet's atmosphere that descended for 57 minutes before it was destroyed by the planet's extreme temperature and pressure. In 1996, Galileo visited and photographed Jupiter's large moons Io, Callisto, and Europa and made flybys of Io, Ganymede, Europa, and Callisto in 1997. Galileo was named for the Italian astronomer Galileo Galilei, who discovered the four great moons of Jupiter that were the major targets of this mission. Galileo initially worked with and established his expertise in the study of terrestrial dynamics. Galileo's beginning experiments with the pendulum, and it's movement, were what later spurred on the very important mid 17th century development of the pendulum clock timepiece by Hautefeuille. If Galileo had only chosen to stick with his primary field of scientific endeavor, then he would have most likely gotten lost among a larger field of astronomers and inventors of his time and age. Galileo ended up fathering a brand new branch of astronomy, laying the building blocks of modern astronomy, and changing his own life and destiny forever. Galileo has often been credited with the invention of the telescope. However, this is not exactly correct. In 1609 Galileo heard of a Dutch spectacle-maker, Hans Lipperhey, who had combined a pair of lenses to magnify distant objects. Galileo then took this idea and created his own telescope for purposes of gazing at the heavens and stars. 2007-04-23T03:32:09-04:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/The-Physics-of-Galileo-33082.aspx The Future of Planet Earth Americans have increasingly divulged themselves in over-consumption. This escalating desire for physical goods is initiating the depletion of our resources and the destruction of our environment. The people of the United States, in their quest for material products, are causing catastrophes, such as the greenhouse effect, hazardous wastes, and a growing number of landfills. This in turn pollutes the planet and catalyzes global warming. Greenhouse effect has been reeking havoc with the natural balance of the planet. The major agents contributing to the greenhouse effect are the product modern society has created for our pleasure. In reality, these products are causing the United States, as well as, the rest of the world, major difficulties. AAA is one company that is using ‘affluenza’ to its benefit. AAA was against the 1990 Clean Air Act, one of the most important environmental laws of the decade. A press release from its government and public affairs headquarters in Washington, D.C., claimed that the bill would “threaten the personal mobility of millions of Americans and jeopardize needed funds for new highway construction and safety improvement” (Rivlin 14). Instead of promoting legislation that would improve the quality of our environment for everyone, AAA would rather build more highways so more people will purchase automobiles and insurance and therefore further pollute our air supply. In addition, the effects of the greenhouse gases in the atmosphere have caused the depletion of the polar ice caps. The greenhouse effect causes the planet to warm, increasing the climate of the Arctic region and causing the glaciers to melt. The main cause for the rapid warming of the Earth is industrial pollution. The United Nations Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change has warned the world of the consequences of pollution such as: the melting of glaciers and polar ice caps, leading to rising sea levels. It predicts more extreme droughts, floods and storms and significant changes in the functioning of critical ecological systems such as coral reefs and forests. Warmer and wetter conditions would increase the spread of infectious diseases such as malaria and yellow fever. And the inundation of low-lying islands and coastal areas could lead to the displacement of hundreds of millions of people. The climate panel’s report says that sea-level rise could cause the disappearance of vast 2007-04-23T03:27:37-04:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/The-Future-of-Planet-Earth--33080.aspx Morality And The Environment Case Study 1.1) Immediate: The immediate issue in this case study is whether or nor Erica Mann who is the coordinator for the western division of the Federal Wildlife Agency and the chairperson for the International Herpetological Society should endorse an artificial habitat proposed for the relocation of the endangered Sonoran Desert Snake. The reason that snake would have to be relocated is because a proposal to build a damn that would ruin the snake’s habitat is being considered. The dam is needed to support Arizona’s agriculture and mining industries. This dam would flood the snakes habitat and eventually force it into extinction. At the same time Erica is aware of the fact that the new environment proposed for the snakes would not necessarily guarantee their survival. In fact the report by the IHS contradicted the report from the FWA and stated that the new habitat would be sufficient for the snake’s survival. Erica is aware of the fact that this report only exists because of political pressures and that it is not entirely accurate or truthful. In fact, Erica herself is being pressured to back the report which she knows is inaccurate. She must decide whether or not she should give in to the political pressure or instead do what she feels is right and save the snake. 1.2) Basic: Can you justify destroying a particular species of animal in the interest of human progress or advancement? Personal Experience 2.1) Personal Narrative: My personal narrative has less to do with the issue of Endangered Species than it does with situation that faces Erica. There is a line in the case study where Erica’s superior encourages her to fight the battles she can win. This is what my personal narrative has to do with. As I have grown up and matured towards adulthood these last eight or so years, I have learned some important life lessons. One particular lesson is that I need to pick my battles. Although I have often been adamant about many different issues, I have learned that I can’t always get what I want and that many times I only waste my own time fighting a battle that can’t be won. Throughout my teenage years I consistently butted heads with my parents over many different things. 2007-04-23T03:15:17-04:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/Morality-And-The-Environment-Case-Study-33076.aspx The Promises of Stem Cell Research From the monks practice of reincarnation to the Native American medicine man, civilization have searched for loop holes to cheat death and have gone to spontaneous measures to improve life. Modern day medicine has saved the life of thousands and given even more a healthier way of living. However, throughout the course of history, the practice of healing has taken a drastic change from a once religious threshold to a more scientific one. People hold more faith in a needle then they do in Allah, Buddha or the Lord. There is no considerable fault in this until we begin to forget our roots, morals and beliefs. Ethics, the reflection of almost all religion, has become jeopardized in the sense of today’s breakthrough medical techniques, to be more specific, stem cell research. Stem cells are the foundation of life, which form in a human embryo four days following conception. Experts suggest that stem cells have the potential to enhance and even save lives, but at the expense of killing an already fertilized organ. Is today’s society willing to put their moral beliefs at risk, to potentially save the life of another? There was a time when the word embryo was related to incidences such as fertility clinic mix ups, and cloning experiment. However, new technology raises a more ethical and political perspective around this comparatively trivial issue. Using spare embryos that were created with the intention of attempting to have a child, is somehow different from creating embryos with the intention of extracting their stem cells. For those who view embryos as human lives deserving of the same respect as a child, research that kills embryos is no more acceptable than would be research that kills adults. The U.S. Roman Catholic Bishops oppose the research as “immoral, illegal, and unnecessary. They say that life is sacred from the moment of conception. The opposite perspectives are those who view embryos as a collection of cells similar to other human tissue, and research is acceptable and relatively uncontroversial. The Presbyterian Church USA approves the research when the goals are, “compelling and unreachable by other means.” Comparing to an abortion, which is legal in most states, embryos even farther along the line are being killed. However, these were 2007-04-19T21:48:07-04:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/The-Promises-of-Stem-Cell-Research-33070.aspx Causes And Effects Of Alcoholism Alcoholism is defined as a primary, chronic disease with genetic and environmental factors influencing its development and manifestations. Alcoholism is often progressive and fatal. That is to say, alcoholism is a pattern of drinking that causes harmful consequences. The many causes of alcoholism run deep into the family genus system and can cause numerous effects to the present family and social status. Alcoholics start out or develop alcoholism with one drink and continue until the point of intoxication. Many cases start with the social drinking status, which then develop into heavy drinking. In addition to social drinking, peer pressure plays a big role in the development of alcoholism. In today’s society, many younger adults are peer pressured into taking that first drink and then continuing drinking while they attend different events and parties. Research has shown that there is a line of hereditary influence. Children with parents that are alcoholics are more likely to become alcoholics than children who have non-alcoholic parents. This means that they have the genes so there is a greater chance that they will end up like their parents. Roberta Caplan states that, “Alcoholism runs in some families and although there is no conclusive of how the alcoholism of family member is associated, studies show that 50 to 80 percent of all alcoholics have had a close alcoholic relative” (Caplan 266). In most cases of alcoholism, the problem occurs when a person cannot cope with everyday life. That person uses alcohol to treat and medicate their problem without realizing the harm that they are doing to themselves. The relation between their problems, jobs, and stress result in them drinking excessively and now knowing when to stop. The alcohol is used as an excessive substitute for dealing with their problems. Alcoholism effects the emotional and physical aspects of the drinker and his environment. One of the effects is a feeling of being “down.” For example, they drink to drown out depressed or anxious feelings. If you have ever been around an alcoholic that has been drinking heavily, you know that they bring down the mood of the people around them. Therefore, the drinker does not only make himself look bad, it makes the others around him less sociable and there 2007-04-19T21:37:10-04:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/Causes-And-Effects-Of-Alcoholism-33063.aspx Alternative Treatment To Drug Addiction Americans have a complicated war other than the one in the Middle East to be concerned about., a war that has gone on much longer -the war on drugs. According to a study at Brown University, if the current rate of people who have been incarcerated for drug violations continues, there will be more Americans in prison than out by the year 2053 (Alter 38). What many people do not realize is that drug addiction is a disease and if not treated properly this disease will continue to spread. When a person is arrested for drug addiction he or she should be treated for their disease rather than put in prison for it. In order to understand addiction a person must understand the effects drugs have on the brain and what outside forces have led the person to use. The brain is a very complex system, which produces various chemicals that can stimulate pain, pleasure, tension, etc. These chemicals, known as neurotransmitters, are responsible for transmitting information between neurons. Neurons are individual cells that distribute the information to receptor-cites, which stimulate a feeling or emotion (Weiten 60,62). Commonly known neurotransmitters are dopamine, serotonin, norepinephrine, and GABA. The brain produces different amounts of each neurotransmitter. If the brain does not produce enough of a certain neurotransmitter the effects could lead to depression, anxiety, attention deficit disorder, (ADD) and other serious complications. When a person uses drugs however, the neurotransmitters become unbalanced. Drugs alter the amount of neurotransmitters released and determine whether the receptor cites accept or block them. For example, cocaine, heroin, amphetamines, and nicotine block the molecule that helps store dopamine. Alcohol on the other hand, releases dopamine (also known as the “pleasure circuit”) serotonin, and GABA. Once a neurotransmitter is released it cannot be reused -therefore it is wasted. “Experiences that used to bring pleasure become impotent” so the addict continues to use the drug to avoid depression and irritability (Begley 42). Some solutions for an addict’s depression are treatment, counseling, medications, and family support. However, if one does not seek treatment or if a facility is not available he or she will most likely end up dead, in prison, or on the streets. Some people feel that financing drug treatment facilities can be rather expensive and time consuming. However, money that has been collected from taxes and the national budget are 2007-04-19T21:09:42-04:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/Alternative-Treatment-To-Drug-Addiction-33046.aspx The Growing Problem of Acid Rain Acid rain is a great problem in our world. It causes fish and plants to die in our waters. It also it causes harm to the human race, because we eat the fish, drink the water and eat the plants that have come in contact with this rain. It is a problem that we must all face together and try to get rid of. However acid rain, on it's own, isn’t the biggest problem. It causes a larger problem such as aluminum poisoning, however, acid rain is very deadly, and the problems of it continuously surround us. Acid rain is all the rain, snow, mist, basically precipitation that falls from the sky onto our planet that contains an unnatural acidic which is caused by today's industries. When products are manufactured, many chemicals are used to create it. However, because of the difficulty and cost of properly disposing of these products they are often emitted into the atmosphere with little or no treatment. And this is where most of the problems begin, but the term, acid rain, was first considered to be important about 20 years ago when scientists in Sweden and Norway first believed that acidic rain may be causing great ecological damage to the planet. The dilemma was that by the time scientist found the problem it was already very large, and detecting an acid lake is often quite difficult. A lake does not become acid over night, it happens over a period of many years, some times decades. The changes are usually too gradual to be noticed early. At the beginning of the 20th century most rivers and lakes, like the river Tovdal in Norway, had not yet begun to die. However by 1926 local inspectors were noticing that many of the lakes were beginning to show signs of death with fish being found dead along the banks of these rivers. As the winters ice began to melt off more and more hundreds of dead fish (trout in particular) were being found. It was at this time that scientist began to search for the reason. As the scientists continued to work they found many piles of dead fish, up to thousands piled together. Divers were sent in to examine the bottom of the rivers. Both live and dead specimens were taken back to labs across Norway. When the 2007-04-19T21:08:42-04:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/The-Growing-Problem-of-Acid-Rain-33045.aspx Pathophysiology Case Study: Preeclampsia Caring for women in pregnancy presents a unique challenge to the healthcare team. Obstetrical nursing requires an in-depth knowledge of the physiological, psychological, and social processes of the high-risk childbearing woman and her fetus during pregnancy. In a community hospital setting, care challenges can be further complicated by the possible limitations of available resources. The following case study will explore the necessary insights and their implications in caring for the high-risk pregnant client in a community hospital setting. J.B. is a 24-year-old, gravida 1, para 0, at 25.2 weeks gestation per early ultrasound. She presented to the Labor and Delivery unit at 09:26 a.m. with complaints of feeling a gush of fluid and vaginal bleeding. Upon arrival, her blood pressure was elevated at 174/109. Her pulse was 98, respirations 24, and temperature 97.6 F (36.4 C). Her weight was 230 lbs. (103.5 Kg) with a reported prepregnant weight of 217 pounds. The fetal heart rate (FHR) was auscultated at 125-130 beats per minute (bpm) with audible decreases heard down to 60-90 bpm lasting 30-40 seconds. Uterine activity was palpated and confirmed J.B.’s complaint of abdominal tightening and cramping. However, due to her obesity and left lateral positioning, it was difficult to obtain a readable tracing on the electronic fetal monitor (EFM). Additionally, her reflexes were +1, clonus absent, 2+ pedal edema, and +1 urine albumin. The tocodynamometer and ultrasound transducers of the EFM were readjusted, but the FHR could not be verified despite several attempts. Labs were drawn for CBC, type and screen, drugs of abuse, and Chem 20 analysis. An IV of lactated ringers was started, oxygen 10L/snug facemask was administered, and the obstetrician was notified to report to the bedside. Other assessment data revealed her abdomen to be tender but soft per palpation, but again due to obesity, it was very difficult to assess timing, duration, and intensity of uterine contractions. The frequency was documented as every three to five minutes. She was leaking small amounts of pink fluid from her vagina and ferning was noted to be positive. Key indicators of the admission assessment data, such as the elevated blood pressure, proteinuria, and edema, pointed to the cardinal symptoms of preeclampsia. Preeclampsia is one of the classifications that falls under the umbrella term of pregnancy induced 2007-04-18T20:10:32-04:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/Pathophysiology-Case-Study-Preeclampsia-33019.aspx Physics of How a Jet Engine Works The idea of utilizing the physical principle of reaction on a large scale by means of rockets is usually attributed to China in the thirteenth century. Not until after the Second World War, however, did rocket technology mature to a state which made the idea of space travel a practical possibility, owing largely to a giant step forward during the war itself. Although earliest models of the steam turbine date back as early as the 17th century, practical applications of the turbine engine had to wait until the turn of the 20th century. Today, the gas turbine engine is the most widespread and most effective method of aircraft propulsion, having almost totally displaced the reciprocating engine, which, up to the 1960s, was the common power source in aviation. There are four types of engines I will be talking about; the turbojet, turbofan, turboprop, or the turbo shaft. The gas turbine represents one of the most technological achievements in aviation, the successful introduction of which made possible a tremendous acceleration of progress in all fields of aviation. Some of the historical milestones that are major steps toward turbine engine development, ending in the use of the gas turbine for aircraft propulsion are as follows: 1687 - the English philosopher and mathematician Sir Isaac Newton formulates three laws of motion which form the basis of modern jet propulsion, according to which: 1) a body remains either at rest, or in motion of constant velocity, unless an external force acts on the body; 2) the sum of forces acting on a body equals the product of the body’s mass times acceleration produced by these forces ( i.e. force = mass times acceleration); 3) for every force acting on a body, the body exerts a force of equal magnitude and opposite direction along the same line as the original force. 1791 - John Barber, an Englishmen, was granted a patent for a gas driven turbine engine which utilized the thermodynamic cycle of the modern gass turbine. The power plant was to be comprised of a gass generator with compressor, combustion chamber and a turbine wheel - components that are fundamental to today’s engine. This engine was never built. 1918 - Sanford Moss, at General Electric in the United States, develops an exhaust turbo-charger for reciprocating 2007-04-18T18:42:24-04:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/Physics-of-How-a-Jet-Engine-Works-33010.aspx Applications of Lasers in Science The light beam produced by most lasers is pencil-sized, and maintains its size and direction over very large distances; this sharply focused beam of coherent light is suitable for a wide variety of applications. Lasers have been used in industry since 1964 for cutting and boring metals and other materials, and for inspecting optical equipment. In medicine, they have been used in surgical operations. Lasers have been used in several kinds of scientific research. Lasers have opened new fields in scientific researches; such as, general and open surgeries, dentistry, urology, veterinary. One important result of laser research is the development of lasers that can be tuned to emit light over a range of frequencies, instead of producing light of only a single frequency. Lasers have also been used in plasma physics and chemistry. About general surgical procedure, it can be performed using lasers. General surgeons use a variety of laser wavelengths and laser delivery systems to cut, paste vaporize or remove tissue. The major use of "laser surgeries" actually use the laser device in place of other tools such as electrosurgical units, surgery probes or microwave devices to accomplish a standard procedure like breast surgery or surgical removal. Yet, lasers allow the surgeon to accomplish more complex tasks, reduce blood loss, decrease postoperative discomfort, reduce the chance of wound infection, decrease the spread of some cancers, minimize the extent of surgery in selected circumstances and result in better wound healing, if they are used appropriately by a skilled and properly trained surgeon. The use of lasers in dentistry has advanced since the first laser was developed in the early 1960s. Early researchers looked to lasers as a potential method for altering the enamel surface making it less susceptible to acid demineralization. It is this demineralization that leads to the development of dental decay. This research has progressed over the years and the future of lasers reducing dental decay seems promising. The development of many different types of lasers during the last 40 years has offered researchers many wavelengths of laser light, which have been investigated by researchers. The most common laser in dental surgery has been the CO2 laser. It is this laser that is used commonly for surgery of the gingival (gum) tissues. Many of the reports suggest that this laser is beneficial because it allows for surgery without much 2007-04-18T15:21:15-04:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/Applications-of-Lasers-in-Science-32997.aspx An occasional patient will ask: "Are x-rays safe?" Others will ask about the amount of radiation. As a radiologist you have a responsibility to give a reasonably honest and understandable answer to the patient. You can certainly explain that diagnostic x-rays are safe. There are no data to indicate otherwise. There is evidence that suggest that such low doses may actually reduce the chance of cancer.1 The question about amount is difficult to answer in an understandable way. First, because it is a rare x-ray unit that has a meter to measure the radiation to the patient and second, because scientific units for radiation dose are not understood. This article is to help you explain radiation to patients in words that they understand. In addition, I present evidence from various human studies to show that low level radiation, comparable to that from a radiograph, may be beneficial and even reduce cancer. Explaining radiation dose to a patient using the BERT concept Answering your patient's question about the amount of radiation would be easy if you knew the effective dose. However, it is unlikely the patient would be satisfied if your answer was "the mammogram will give you an effective dose of about 1 millisievert (mSv)." She probably would understand if you converted the effective dose into the amount of time it would take her to accumulate the same effective dose from background radiation. Since the average background rate in the U.S. is about 3 mSv per year, the answer in this case would be about four months. It is likely that she would understand and be satisfied with your answer. This method of explaining radiation is called Background Equivalent Radiation Time or BERT.2,3 The idea is to convert the effective dose from the exposure to the time in days, weeks, months or years to obtain the same effective dose from background. This method has also been recommended by the U.S. National Council for Radiation Protection and Measurement (NCRP).4 To calculate BERT, I recommend using the average background in the U.S. including contributions to the lung from radon progeny. This is assumed to be 3 mSv/y (300 mrem/y). The background in different parts of the U.S. varies about ± 50% from this value. This uncertainty is unimportant for explaining radiation to patients. The effective dose from common diagnostic x-ray procedures are typically less than the amount of radiation you 2007-04-18T02:35:31-04:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/Are-X-Rays-Safe-32968.aspx The Threats of Lung Cancer Lung cancer is a major problem due to the fact of the popularity of smoking in the United States. Smoking ids the major cause of lung cancer. In fact 8 out of 10 of people that get diagnosed with lung cancer are smokers. Another major problem is that because most cases of lung cancer are discovered in relatively late stages only 10% of all lung cancer patients are cured. “Early detection improves odds, but doctors have little success at screening people.”(News Week 59) The reason it is not detected earlier is because it can take ten to forty years for the cancer cell to become large enough to create symptoms. Lung cancer kills more men and women then any other form of cancer. “It is estimated that by the year 2000, over three hundred thousand people will die from lung cancer in the United States alone”(MedicineNet 1). The United States will spend up to two billion dollars a year to treat lung cancer. This is a real shame considering that lung cancer is one of the easiest cancers to prevent due to the fact that smoking is the major causes of it. It is a will known fact that lung cancer is caused by smoking, but not many people know exactly what it is about cigarettes that causes lung cancer. It is not exactly the smoke it self, it’s the chemicals in the smoke that causes it. Some of the chemicals that cause lung cancer include radon, asbestos, bischolomethylether, nickel, chromates, coal tar, copper radioactive materials and arsenic. There are four types of lung cancers that can form are squamous cell carcinoma, adenocarcinoma, large-cell carcinoma, and small-cell lung cancer. “The major types are small-cell lung cancer and nonsmall-cell lung cancer.”(OnHealth 1) Squamous cell carcinoma commonly starts in bronchi, which is the largest of the bronchial tree. It is the most curable form of lung cancer and is most common in male smokers. Adenocarcinoma is common is women and non-smokers. It spreads in the outer edges of the lung in the smaller bronchioles. Its location makes it very hard to detect. Large-cell carcinoma is not very common form of cancer. It is a large abnormal cell that forms in the outer edges of the lung. Small-cell lung cancer is the most series form of lung cancer. It forms in the central bronchi and spreads 2007-04-18T02:02:15-04:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/The-Threats-of-Lung-Cancer--32952.aspx Effects and Treatment of Rheumatoid Arthritis Rheumatoid arthritis (RA) is more than just arthritis. In deed, many doctors call it “rheumatoid disease” to emphasize its widespread nature. People with RA often describe feeling much as though they have a virus, with fatigue and aching acting on their muscles. It has been estimated that 2 million Americans with 60% of them women, have rheumatoid arthritis (Brewer, Earl J, 2000). The condition usually appears in middle-aged people, in the forties and fifties, although it can begin at any age. Since RA is so common, and because it can sometimes be severe, it is a major international health problem (Lorig, Kate, 1995). It can result in difficulties with employment and problems with daily activities, and can put severe stress on family relationships. In its most severe forms, and without good treatment, it can result in deformities of the joint. In RA, the synovial membrane lining in the joint becomes inflamed. We don’t have a good explanation as to why this inflammation starts, but the cells of the membrane divide and grow, and inflammatory cells come into the joint. Because of the bulk of these inflammatory cells, the joint becomes swollen, and feels puffy (Lorig, Kate, 1995). The increased blood flow that is a feature of the inflammation makes the joint warm. The cells release chemicals (called enzymes) into the joint space and the enzymes cause the further irritation and pain. If the process continues for years, the enzymes may gradually digest the cartilage and the bone of the joint (www.starttrial.com/facts.asp). This then is rheumatoid arthritis, a process in which inflammation of the joint membrane, over many years, can cause damage to the joint itself. SYMPTOMS Rheumatoid arthritis is an unpredictable disease with bouts of illness or remissions occurring for no apparent reason. Many patients say that one of the hardest aspects to cope with is never knowing when the next attack is going to strike. They can go to sleep at night feeling quite well and wake the next morning hardly able to get out of bed (http://www.healthtalk.com) Symptoms can also vary from person to person with some patients experiencing only minor aches and pains, while others are totally debilitated by the disease. Symptoms include: •Mild fever •Aches and pain in and around a joint (joints on both sides of the body are usually equally affected) •Joint stiffness, particularly in the 2007-04-18T01:19:05-04:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/Effects-and-Treatment-of-Rheumatoid-Arthritis-32948.aspx Global Warming and Alternative Energy People are inflicting major damage to the Earth’s environment, and if we don’t do anything to stop the destruction soon, the results could be devastating. Most people know about global warming and think it may be a serious problem in the future. What most people don’t understand is that global warming is happening now, and we are already feeling some of its destructive power. Because of the dangerous effects of global warming, alternative energy sources need to be aggressively pursued. Finding and utilizing alternative energy sources may be the only way to combat the increase of global warming. “Scientists agree that the main reason for global warming is the depletion of the ozone layer surrounding the Earth due to increased levels of carbon dioxide and the increased release of greenhouse gas emissions.” Dr. Robert Watson from The Alliance of Concerned Scientists also adds, “These atmospheric concentrations of emissions are directly linked to human activities.” Fossil fuel emissions from gasoline and oil account for 52% of greenhouse gas emissions while coal burning energy plants and coal burning factories account for another 44% of emissions released (Samuelson 31). Americans especially are adding to global warming woes being ‘energy hogs’ driving gas-guzzling SUVs and cars, and being careless with energy draining appliances in their homes. Deforestization in the US and other countries also adds to the growing problem by taking away the largest source of CO2 filters. Millions of trees are harvested each year due to increased demand for their byproducts, and because of this, our environment suffers (Kenworthy 2). The United States accounts for over 51% of the energy used yearly through out the world. From 2000 - 2004 there was a 100% increase in greenhouse gas emissions in all established nations, and there seems to be no slowing down in the future with a projected 110% energy increase by 2010. At this rate scientists agree the world will be facing an energy crisis by 2020 if new energy sources aren’t found (McQuinn). The results of global warming are undeniably negative for the human race. Over the past ten years, the average surface temperature of earth has risen five degrees. Even though five degrees doesn’t seem like a major change, it has caused a disruption in the Earth’s fragile ecosystem (Watson 3). This increase has caused the melting of the polar ice caps 2007-04-07T19:41:14-04:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/Global-Warming-amp-Alternative-Energy-Resource-Essay-32903.aspx STD Report In this research paper I will discuss what I believe to be the six most known and most common sexually transmitted diseases by telling you each STD’s signs and symptoms, the way they are transmitted, treatments to have the symptoms leave, duration, and curability if any. First of all I would like to say that the surest way to not get one of the sexually transmitted diseases I will be taking about is abstinence. But for some who feel the need, hopefully this paper will help you better understand how important it is to practice safe sex if you are going to. But no matter how cautious you are you are still susceptible to getting one of these many terrible diseases. Keep in mind that many are not completely curable and no only harm you but other you com in contact with; not only sexual partners but if you happen to become pregnant your baby will more than likely have the disease. The STD’s I will be going over are AIDS/HIV, Gonorrhea, Syphilis, Genital Warts/HPV, Chlamydia, and Herpes. AIDS/HIV is most commonly transmitted through specific sexual behaviors (anal, vaginal, or oral sex) or needle sharing with an infected person. At the end of 2003, an estimated 1,039,000 to 1,185,000 persons in the United States were living with HIV/AIDS. In 2005, 38,096 new cases of HIV/AIDS in adults, adolescents, and children were diagnosed in the 33 states with long-term, confidential name-based HIV reporting. It has been estimated that approximately 40,000 persons in the United States become infected with HIV each year. In the United States, HIV infection and AIDS have had a tremendous effect on men who have sex with men. Men who have sex with men accounted for 70% of all estimated HIV infections among male adults and adolescents in 2004. An HIV-infected woman can pass the virus to her baby before or during childbirth or after birth through breastfeeding. Although the risk is extremely low in the United States, it is also possible to acquire HIV through transfusions of infected blood or blood products. There are many signs and symptoms that come with it but the most popular symptoms are depression, diarrhea, thrush, weight loss, lip dystrophy, lactic acidosis, fatigue, sinus infections, nausea/vomiting, and fever. AIDS/HIV is transmitted by sexual contact with an infected person, by sharing needles and/or syringes (primarily for drug injection) with someone who is 2007-04-03T21:42:57-04:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/STD-Report--32892.aspx The health triangle consists of three sides; social health, physical health, and mental health. It is very important to have the sides on you health triangle equal. Without all of the sides being equal it will not only affect that 1/3 but will throw off the other 2/3’s as well. To have a healthy health triangle all sides must be the same. I don’t have a very healthy triangle so this paper is about why my triangle is off and what I am doing to fix it. First part of the health triangle I am going to talk about is the social health side. Social skills are determined by how well you get along with people, how many friends you have and how long you have had them. I lack in this side because, although I have three very good friends that I have been out with on a regular basis for years now, I have trouble getting along with people. I tend to not put up with people’s “stupidity” and even though they might be great and fun I can’t get over their “stupidity”. I also secretly hold grudges. I am working on trying to improve this side by learning to forgive and coping with differences. As far as physical health goes this side is barely there. I have a terrible immune system and seem to be always sick. Getting enough exercise after getting better and then putting my grades back up is difficult for me. I also take anti depressant medication whose side effect is weight gain and drowsiness. (Explained in the next paragraph. Shows how each side of the triangle can affect one another.) I plan to change my physical triangle by not only scheduling my time better but by enrolling in a gym that I will do with my mom for support. I have also talked to my doctor about my physicality and have switched to a medication with barely any side effects at all. Hopefully my physical side will become more even with my two other sides. Mental health deals with the way you look and feel about yourself, how much you can cope with daily demands and how much stress you have, your ability to process information. I can’t really tell you how strong my mental side of my triangle is. On one hand I am taking College Biology, College English, College Algebra 2/ Calculus, a Library Media 2007-04-03T21:33:55-04:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/Health-Triangle--32888.aspx An American Artist In Paris, France In this art exhibition of, “ Paris and the Country Side, Modern life in Late -19th- Century France,“ artists and their selected works present a change from the highly polished style of the Neoclassicism, the Romantic, the mythological, and the historical subjects of pre-ninetieth Century art. Many artists of 19th Century Impressionism are presented in this wonderful exhibition, including an American woman artist, Mary Cassett. For the exhibition, three particular works of Cassatt were chosen for their subjects, style and personal expression in the art of French Impressionism. Mary Cassatt’s simple pastel of, “Simone in a Plumed Hat, 1903” Pastel over counterproof, 24 1/8 x 19 5/8, Scott M. Black, collection. “The Bath, 1902,” Oil on canvas, The Walters .# “Sara in a Green Bonnet, 1901” Oil on canvas, 16 ½ x 13 5/8, Gift of John Gellatly, National Museum of American Art, DC. # Mary Cassatt and her associates are the great masters from the impressionist era with their characteristic styles, techniques, and visual approaches to the political changes of their time. The impressionists would revolutionize a two hundred year tradition of the classical art form in the heart of the French Academy, and the Salon of official exhibition, which, cultivated the art of the French academic system. This major 19th Century French Exhibition presents, Mary Cassatt and her contemporaries, Claude Monet, Pierre Renoir, Camille Pissarro, Paul Cézanne, Georges Seurat, Edgar Degas and other artists The Impressionists reinvented not only landscapes and urban scenes but also more traditional subjects, such as portraits of people and the leisure life of Paris. Mary Cassatt’s portraits of children, mothers, and women, reflect a moment in time, innocence, and a glimpse into the family life of Paris, France. Cassatt’s pastel of “Simone in a Plumed Hat” shows a richness of an era in the attire worn by Simone, adorned in a high-style blue bonnet, atop of the girls flawless blonde hair. The artist sets the portrait of Simone at a slight right angle with the young girls wistful long look into an unknown audience, that captures the viewers eye and attention to the simplicity of the artists portrait. A large part of the paintings for the Modern Life in Late 19th Century France, focused on the life style of woman, as found in James-Jacques-Joseph Tissot’s L’Ambitieuse, 1909 (Political Women), Oil on Canvas, 56 x 2007-03-26T14:10:26-04:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/An-American-Artist-In-Paris-France-32872.aspx The Fight Against Global Warming Imagine that all the coastal areas in the world were completely submerged in water and the national parks and rangelands of the world were nothing but barren disasters. This scenario will become a reality if global warming continues to occur. Ecosystems will be severely damaged due to the change in weather it causes. Studies show that the change in weather can also spread contagious diseases that are carried by mosquitoes and other virus carrying animal that dwell in warm areas. The cause of this? The rising amount of heat trapping air pollutants, more specifically, carbon dioxide, nitrous oxide and methane. If the effects of global warming continue it will prove to be disastrous. Global warming is a fairly newly discovered problem, considering it will take decades to accurately measure the effects of it. Over the last century the average land surface temperature has risen .8-1.0°F. The cause of global warming is known as the “Greenhouse Effect”. The greenhouse effect is when the air pollutants prevent the suns energy from escaping back into outer space, thus creating the greenhouse effect. Each year people put six billion tons of carbon dioxide and other greenhouse gases into the air. 32 percent of carbon dioxide comes from cars and other forms of transportation. Carbon dioxide doubled the beginning of the pre-industrial revolution era to the end of the 21st century. The International panel on climate change has concluded that the surge in greenhouse gases will cause the fastest rate of warming to occur in the past 10,000 years. Other organizations have predicted that the level of arid deserts will increase and the amount of forests will decrease dramatically over the next 100 years. One less prominent but more threatening type of gas are the chlorofluorocarbons. They cause the ozone layer that shields the earth from the harmful rays of the sun to become thinner. Damage to the ozone layer has been so great that a hole in the ozone appears over the Antarctic each year. Chlorofluorocarbons are also believed to have a part in global warming. Recent studies have shown that there is likely to be an overall trend towards increased precipitation, evaporation, more intense rainstorms and drier soils. Changing regional climate could alter forests crop 2007-03-20T03:26:55-04:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/The-Fight-Against-Global-Warming-32840.aspx Regulating Human Cloning in the Future The cloning of human beings has been an issue that many people believe strongly in. The cloning of animals such as cows and sheep have already been successful, and many people think that the cloning of human beings is just the next step. This, however, has not gone over well with the government of the United States. Recently, a hearing has been underway to decide whether cloning should be legal in the United States. In fact, President George W. Bush has said that he will do everything possible to ban human cloning. The issue here should not be whether human cloning should be legal, because it should. The government should instead implement rules and regulations to regulate and police cloning research and development. Cloning is not a horrible science experiment, but a monumental scientific development. Many people look upon the idea of human cloning with fear and disdain. Many do not realize that the cloning of human beings could be beneficial to the human race. Many researchers involved in cloning experiments believe that cloning could offer a way for infertile couples and other couples a way to reproduce, when they otherwise could not. Cloning could offer the gift of life to those who might not be able to obtain it by other means. No one is saying that this would be the best way to reproduce, but it could be a valid option to those who wish. Another case in which human cloning may be acceptable could involve a child who needed an organ such as a kidney, or bone-marrow transplant. If cloning were an option, the parents could choose to clone the child in order to produce another who could donate whatever is needed. This is a possible option and does not mean that it would be an actual implication of cloning. Human cloning also offers a possibility that until very recently seemed very far fetched. Cloning offers the possibility of allowing those who are dead, in a sense, be born again. In fact, many people believe that this may be the best way human cloning technology could be used. Families could bring back a dead family member or relative. This idea already appeals to many families who have invested money and time into this new possibility. One couple who lost their baby in a botched surgery, has already donated 2007-03-19T13:49:57-04:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/Regulating-Human-Cloning-in-the-Future-32822.aspx Hepatitis B Analysis Essay General Information In the general population, hepatitis B is considered primarily a sexually transmitted disease. It is also transmitted in blood and, prior to the availability of hepatitis B vaccine, health care professionals such as doctors, nurses, and emergency personnel were at risk for contracting hepatitis B. Because it is easily transmitted by blood (one virus particle can cause disease), intravenous drug users who share needles and syringes are at extremely high risk. The other common mode of transmission is from hepatitis B infected mothers to the fetus prior to birth. There are many different viruses that cause hepatitis including hepatitis A, hepatitis C, Delta factor hepatitis, and hepatitis E. The initial course for hepatitis A and B may be similar but it is hepatitis B that can have long term consequences. Once infected with the hepatitis B virus, approximately 10% of the people develop a chronic permanent infection. In this group, a small proportion of people will develop slow but progressive liver damage leading to cirrhosis or Hepatocellular cancer . Hepatitis B is thought to be the leading cause of liver cancer in the United States. Hepatitis B has a long incubation period, occasionally taking up to 6 months to manifest itself. Symptoms Early symptoms may be a variety of skin rashes and achy joints. Systemic symptoms include fever, malaise, and abdominal pain or discomfort. Ultimately the yellow color of jaundice appears, first in the whites of the eyes and then the skin. Jaundice is usually associated with dark urine and light or clay colored stools. Hepatitis B is a serious disease and death rate during the acute stage is approximately 1%. The overall incidence of reported hepatitis B is 2 per 10,000 individuals, but the true incidence may be higher, because many cases do not cause symptoms and go undiagnosed and unreported. Pregnant women are now routinely screened for hepatitis B and, as it is a reportable disease, more accurate figures are available. One in 1,000 pregnant women are chronic carriers of hepatitis B. Prevention You can protect children from hepatitis B by getting them vaccinated with three doses of hepatitis B vaccine. Newborn babies whose mothers either are infected with the hepatitis B virus or have not been tested should get their first shot within 12 hours of birth, the second shot at 1-2 months 2007-03-08T00:29:40-05:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/Analysis-Essay-on-Hepatitis-B-32777.aspx Science, DNA Testing and Modern Crime Solving After a long day at work, you decide to crash on the couch and watch a little television. After flipping through the channels, you notice the impressive line-up of police, courtroom, and medical dramas. Finally, you settle upon an episode of Law and Order. Tonight’s episode is about a young girl who was raped and murdered. In the end, extensive D.N.A. testing reveals the true killer, and the case is solved. Like many other prime time television series, the characters in Law and Order always manage to crack the code and solve the crime. Unfortunately, the real-life police dramas are not always solved within the hour…but perhaps the director failed to include this information in the script. In many trials, D.N.A. tests are no longer considered substantial evidence. Though many support the use of this specific technology in the courtroom, others doubt the accuracy of D.N.A. testing. As more television series bring attention to the matter, it is evident that the issue is open for debate. Now more than ever, it is necessary for the public and the professionals to research the topic and form an opinion based upon the background of D.N.A. testing, a logical explanation of the testing process, and the advantages and disadvantages of D.N.A. testing. Before the O.J. Simpson trials and The Clinton hearings, one never would have imagined that a bloody glove and a blue dress could be the key to solving these multi-million dollar investigations. Yet, common items, such as the ones brought into question in both the Simpson and the Clinton cases, have long been used as a tool in fighting crime. Ironically, this system known as D.N.A. fingerprinting was originally developed for a different purpose. In 1985, an English geneticist, Alec Jeffreys, developed the testing to expose the presence of genetic diseases. Over the next three years, while Jeffreys fine-tuned the testing process, he discovered that the same technique could be used to identify criminals and settle paternity suits. As Jeffrey’s D.N.A. test gained more recognition, he patented the technology along with Lister Institute and established Cellmark Diagnostics. For many people their only exposure to a lab environment came in high school. Consequently, for those of us who found the idea of mixing chemicals and dissecting animals too much to digest, we have respect for the lab technicians who submit themselves to a daily 2007-03-06T22:48:05-05:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/Science,-DNA-Testing-and-Modern-Crime-Solving-32760.aspx Research on the Bubonic Plague Plague, was a term that was applied in the Middle Ages to all fatal epidemic diseases, but now it is only applied to an acute, infectious, contagious disease of rodents and humans, caused by a short, thin, gram-negative bacillus. In humans, plague occurs in three forms: bubonic plague, pneumonic plague, and septicemic plague. The best known form is the bubonic plague and it is named after buboes, or enlarged, inflamed lymph nodes, which are characteristics of the plague in the groin or neck or armpit. Bubonic plague can only be transmitted by the bite of any of numerous insects that are normally parasitic on rodents and that seek new hosts when the original host dies. If the plague is left untreated it is fatal in thirty to seventy five percent of all cases. Mortality in treated cases is only five to ten percent. The origin of the bubonic plague is unknown but it may have started in Africa or India. Colonies of infected rats were established in Northern India, many years ago. Some of these rodents had infected traders on the route between the Middle East and China. After 1330 the plague had invaded China. From China it was transferred westward by traders and Mongol armies in the 14th century. While these traders were traveling westward they followed a more northerly route through the grasslands of what is now Russia, thus establishing a vast infected rodent population there. In 1346 the disease reached Crimea and found its way to Europe in 1347. The outbreak in Europe was a devastating one, which resulted in more than 25 million deaths-about twenty five percent of the continent's whole population. After that the plague reappeared irregularly in many European cities until the early 18th century, when it suddenly stopped there. No explanation has ever been given for the plague's rapid disappearance. The first symptoms of the bubonic plague are headache, vomiting, nausea, aching joints and a feeling of ill health. The lymph nodes of the groin or of the armpit or neck suddenly start to become swollen and painful. The pulse and respiration rate of a bubonic plague victim is increased, and the victim will become listless and exhausted. The buboes will swell until they are approximately the size of a chicken egg. If a case is nonfatal than the temperature will begin to fall in 2007-03-05T14:24:31-05:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/Research-on-the-Bubonic-Plague-32744.aspx DNA Gel Electrophoresis Research The main objective of this lab was to identify unknown plasmids by observation of their genotype and phenotype. We observed the plasmids phenotype by using it to transform bacteria. When the plasmid is in a bacterial host the antibiotic resistance gene can be expressed and impart resistance to the host. We also analyzed the genotype of the unknown plasmid by performing a variety of molecular genetic techniques such as predigestion, electrophesis in argose gel, staining with ethidium bromide, and finally a photograph of the gel, in order to compare the plasmid to a standard, to in turn deterimine the plasmids actual size and the sizes of its digestion fragments. By performing these experiments we found that our unknown plasmid in the blue tube was resistant to pKAN. We also found that the unknown plasmid when compared to a standard closely matched the size of digestion fragments, of pKAN, therefore our unknown plasmid was pKAN. Introduction There is growing concern that the control of infectious diseases is threatened by the upward trend in the numbers of bacteria that are resistant to multiple antibiotics in the medical armamentarium. Resistance costs money and human lives. Resistant infections are associated with increased morbidity, prolonged hospital stays, greater direct and indirect costs, prolonged periods during which individuals are infectious, and greater opportunities for the spread of infection to other individuals (2). In many developing countries, the availability and use of antibiotics are poorly controlled, which results in a high rate of resistance, particularly to the older antibiotics (2). The procedure used in our interpretation of Bacterial Transformation, is one that has a larger impact than our simple usage for finding unknowns when compared to knowns. This importance lies mainly in the medical field and more specifically in gene therapy. Using procedures, like this, Many human genes have been cloned in Escherichia coli or in yeast (4). This has made it possible - for the first time - to produce unlimited amounts of human proteins in vitro. Cultured cells (E. coli, yeast, mammalian cells) transformed with the human gene are being used to manufacture: insulin for diabetics, human growth hormone (GH), erythropoietin (EPO) for treating anemia, granulocyte-macrophage colony-stimulating factor (GM-CSF) for stimulating the bone marrow after a bone marrow transplant, adenosine deaminase (ADA) for treating some forms of 2007-03-05T14:22:19-05:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/DNA-Gel-Electrophoresis-Research-32743.aspx Diabetes Research Non – Insulin – dependent diabetes mellitus is the name given to a disturbed chemical balance in the body, which can affect a number of different organs. The word diabetes comes from a Greek expression meaning, “siphon”. (Nova) It refers to the increased urination and thirst that occurs in newly diagnosed cases. These symptoms are due to the high sugar (glucose) content in the urine. The sugar drags water out with it, the body gets dry and you feel thirsty. All this follows an excessive build-up of glucose in the blood, because there is not enough insulin in your body to deal with it. Cases of diabetes have been discovered dating back as far as 1550 BC. in Egypt, where archeologists have studied scrolls named Ebers Papyrus that describe symptoms of diabetes. (Nova) Non – insulin - dependent diabetes mellitus (NIDDM) is also known as maturity onset diabetes. (Colliers) This name can be misleading even though it increases with age NIDDM is also found in teenagers and young adults. Non – Insulin dependent diabetes mellitus is also commonly known as type II diabetes. In the Early stages of diabetes, there may be no symptoms at all. As glucose levels rise higher the following may occur. The person may have blurred vision. A person may have a severe or chronic infection, because the high glucose levels affect the blood’s defense system against infections. A person may have to urinate more frequently. This causes the person to feel thirsty. Excessive urination also results in the loss of essential chemicals, producing cramps, tiredness, weakness, and weight loss. (Medical Science Bulletin. statistics) Genetics appears to play a part in how type II diabetes develops. Type II appears to “run” in families and it is most likely due to the inheritance of certain genes. If a person with type II diabetes has an identical twin, there is a 60 to 75 percent chance that the person will develop diabetes. (Research Activities) More evidence of the gene play comes from study on minorities. Compared to whites, African Americans, Asian Americans, Hispanic Americans (except Cuban Americans), and Native Americans all get type II diabetes more often. Native Americans have the highest rate f type II diabetes in the world. (Research Activities) Researchers have not 2007-03-05T00:12:57-05:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/Diabetes-Research--32724.aspx Element 112, also called ununbium (Uub), chemical element with atomic number 112. It is produced artificially by nuclear fusion (in which an element with larger atoms is produced by fusing together smaller atoms from other elements). Each ununbium atom has a very large nucleus, or central mass, containing positively charged particles called protons and neutral particles called neutrons. The large number of particles in the nucleus makes the atom unstable and causes the atom to split apart into smaller components soon after it is created. Scientists gave ununbium its temporary name according to a system that uses Latin prefixes for the atomic number (un = 1, un = 1, bi = 2), followed by the suffix -ium or -um. The element will eventually be given a more conventional permanent name by its discoverers. Ununbium was first discovered in 1996 by scientists at the Heavy-Ion Research Laboratory in Darmstadt, Germany. Ununbium has the atomic number 112, which means that each Uub atom contains 112 protons in the nucleus. Scientists at the Heavy-Ion Research Laboratory created an atom of ununbium that contained 165 neutrons, labeled ununbium-277 (112 protons + 165 neutrons = ununbium-277). Ununbium was created by nuclear fusion of the smaller elements lead (Pb) and zinc (Zn). Because the ununbium nucleus contains so many particles, ununbium is unstable and undergoes spontaneous fission, a process in which the atom breaks into smaller œdaughter components. When the atom splits, it releases energy in the form of electromagnetic waves and electrically charged bits of matter. This energy is known as radiation (see Radioactivity). Ununbium-277 has a very brief life span of .00048 seconds. By 1998 ununbium-277 was the only confirmed isotope of Element 112. Other isotopes of element 112 would be forms of the element with the same number of protons in the nucleus, but a different number of neutrons. Ununbium belongs to Group 12 (IIb) on the periodic table, which also contains the naturally occurring elements zinc (Zn), cadmium (Cd), and mercury (Hg) (see Chemical Element). Relative to other metallic elements, zinc, cadmium, and mercury have high boiling points and low melting points. Zinc, cadmium, and mercury are all reactive with oxygen (O), sulfur (S), and the halogens (Group 17 or VIIa). Because elements in the same group, or column, on the periodic table often share similar properties (a pattern known as the periodic law), scientists expect ununbium to share properties with other Group 12 2007-02-22T06:20:59-05:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/Defining-Element-112--32690.aspx Automobile emissions and their effects on our environment and our health has been a widely debated topic over the last few decades. The automobiles we use today emit large quantities of toxins that deteriorate the quality of air we breathe. Concerns over this phenomenon rose among very few people over half a century ago. Nowadays, concerns for the environment are commonly held, and everyone needs to be aware of the impacts our environment faces. The last century has witnessed a huge growth in the automotive and oil industries. This growth in automobile usage and fossil fuel consumption has also contributed to the deterioration of the air we breathe and the environment that we live in. The most common fuel in transportation is gasoline, which release harmful toxins into the atmosphere when it is combusted to run motors (Clean Air.) Our environment is constantly irritated by large quantities of poisons released from the tailpipes of our vehicles. A poisonous mix consisting of a combination of unburned Hydrocarbons, Carbon Monoxide and Nitrogen Oxides is choking the atmosphere. Pollution has cast its ominous shadow across the world. Two of the pollutants that are emitted by automobiles are hydrocarbons (unburned fuel) and nitric oxide. When these pollutants build up to sufficiently high levels, a chain reaction occurs from their interaction with sunlight in which the NO is converted to nitrogen dioxide (NO2). NO2 is a brown gas and at sufficiently high levels can contribute to urban haze, hence the smog that laypeople in big cities complain about. However, a more serious problem is that NO2 can absorb sunlight and break apart to produce oxygen atoms that combine with the O2 in the air to produce ozone (O3). Ozone is a powerful oxidizing agent, and a toxic gas. In North America elevated levels of tropospheric ozone cause several billion dollars per year damage to crops (45 million/per year in Ontario), structures, forests, and human health. It is believed that the natural level of ozone in the clean troposphere is 10 to 15 parts-per-billion. Due to the increasing concentrations of hydrocarbons and NO2 in the atmosphere, scientists have found that ozone levels in "clean air" are now approximately 30 parts-per-billion (Atmospheric Chemistry). Even if the sky above you seems to be clear and blue, smog is everywhere. “It is a choking sensation every time one ventures out into the streets” (Smog). What we typically call smog 2007-02-17T17:05:13-05:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/A-Cleaner-Breath-32640.aspx Sleep: A Dynamic Activity Until the 1950s, most people thought of sleep as a passive, dormant part of our daily lives. We now know that our brains are very active during sleep. Moreover, sleep affects our daily functioning and our physical and mental health in many ways that we are just beginning to understand. Nerve-signaling chemicals called neurotransmitters control whether we are asleep or awake by acting on different groups of nerve cells, or neurons, in the brain. Neurons in the brainstem, which connects the brain with the spinal cord, produce neurotransmitters such as serotonin and norepinephrine that keep some parts of the brain active while we are awake. Other neurons at the base of the brain begin signaling when we fall asleep. These neurons appear to "switch off" the signals that keep us awake. Research also suggests that a chemical called adenosine builds up in our blood while we are awake and causes drowsiness. This chemical gradually breaks down while we sleep. During sleep, we usually pass through five phases of sleep: stages 1, 2, 3, 4, and REM (rapid eye movement) sleep. These stages progress in a cycle from stage 1 to REM sleep, then the cycle starts over again with stage 1 (see figure 1). We spend almost 50 percent of our total sleep time in stage 2 sleep, about 20 percent in REM sleep and the remaining 30 percent in the other stages. Infants, by contrast, spend about half of their sleep time in REM sleep. During stage 1, which is light sleep, we drift in and out of sleep and can be awakened easily. Our eyes move very slowly and muscle activity slows. People awakened from stage 1 sleep often remember fragmented visual images. Many also experience sudden muscle contractions called hypnic myoclonia, often preceded by a sensation of starting to fall. These sudden movements are similar to the "jump" we make when startled. When we enter stage 2 sleep, our eye movements stop and our brain waves (fluctuations of electrical activity that can be measured by electrodes) become slower, with occasional bursts of rapid waves called sleep spindles. In stage 3, extremely slow brain waves called delta waves begin to appear, interspersed with smaller, faster waves. By stage 4, the brain produces delta waves almost exclusively. It is very difficult to wake someone during stages 3 and 4, which together are called deep sleep. There is no eye movement or muscle 2007-02-17T07:32:34-05:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/Understanding-Sleep-32637.aspx Anhydrous Ammonia is a very distinctive and important compound. Some call it a harmless fertilizer which farmers use to help grow and fertilize crops. Other may call it destructive or dangerous to the environment; in other words, a threat. Causing water pollution by toxic fluids running off into coastal waters and into storm drains and air pollution releasing toxins into the air while producing this deadly chemical, anhydrous ammonia been called many things. Anhydrous ammonia is a man-made product used for fertilizer, nitric acid production, refrigeration, disinfectant, fuel and cigarettes. It must be handled carefully by trained professionals and stored in a high-pressured environment using special equipment. Anhydrous Ammonia is also called Ammonia and Ammonium Hydroxide. There are many ways to make Anhydrous Ammonia; one of them being from the urine in our bodies, which is an acid and can be made into any sort of ammonia. It is made by using temperature, pressure and sometimes catalysts. It is one part nitrogen and three parts hydrogen. Anhydrous Ammonia is one of the most dangerous chemicals that can be used on the farm. Anhydrous Ammonia is a low cost and readily available fertilizer, but the danger and consequences are far worse than the lack of it. Ammonia is a colorless, pungent gas, NH3, extensively used to manufacture fertilizers and a wide variety of nitrogen-containing organic and inorganic chemicals. It is the most familiar compound composed of the elements nitrogen and hydrogen. It is formed as a result of the decomposition of most nitrogenous organic material, and its presence is indicated by it pungent and irritating odor. It has a wide range of agricultural and industrial applications. It is used for the production of nitric acid and ammonium salts, particularly the sulfate, nitrate, carbonate, and chloride, and the synthesis of hundreds of organic compounds including many drugs, plastics and dyes. Its dilute liquid solution finds use as a household cleaning tool. Anhydrous ammonia and ammonium salts are used as fertilizers, and anhydrous ammonia also serves as a refrigerant because of its relative ease of liquefaction and high heat of vaporation. Ammonia is highly mobile in the liquid state and has a high thermal coefficient of expansion. The chemical and physical properties of liquid ammonia make it appropriate for use as a solvent in certain types of chemical reactions. Ammonia is generally a better solvent for covalent substances than is water. Its major 2007-02-15T01:24:10-05:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/Anhydrous-Ammonia--32619.aspx 2001 Noble Prize Winners in Chemistry Two Americans and a Japanese were awarded this year's Nobel Prize in Chemistry for developing more efficient chemical reactions to produce many medicines, including L-dopa, the standard treatment for Parkinson's disease. Dr. William S. Knowles, 84, of St. Louis, who retired from the Monsanto Company in 1986, and Dr. Ryoji Noyori, 63, director of the Research Center for Materials Science at Nagoya University in Japan, shared half of the $950,000 award. Dr. K. Barry Sharpless, 60, a professor of chemistry at the Scripps Research Institute in La Jolla, Calif., received the other half. Dr. Eric N. Jacobsen, a professor of chemistry at Harvard University, said the winners' work "changed the field of chemistry." The three scientists created catalysts that can selectively produce just one of two versions of a molecule, an essential requirement for the production of many drugs. Catalysts shepherd together other chemicals and increase the efficiency of reactions but remain unchanged themselves. Dr. Knowles, a pioneer in the field in the late 1960's, said he was overwhelmed by the honor because his work dates so far back. Most molecules come in two forms, identical in structure except that they are mirror images of each other, just as the left hand is the mirror image of the right. While they look alike, the two forms can have very different properties and sharply different effects on the body. For example, one version of the molecule limonene smells of lemons; its mirror image smells of oranges. Sometimes the differences are catastrophic. In the drug thalidomide, one of the two forms eased nausea in pregnant women; the mirror image, which was not removed from the drug, caused limb deformities in thousands of infants born in Europe and Canada in the 1960's.At that time, the chemical reactions used to manufacture drugs created equal amounts of the two mirror forms. The only way to produce a pure batch of one form was to separate it from the mirror image, a process that was difficult, costly and wasteful. At least as far back as the 1950's, chemists knew that some catalysts would produce more of one mirror image than the other, but the disparity was not large. "The principle was known, but it was not at all useful," said Dr. Ernest L. Eliel, an emeritus professor of chemistry at the University of North Carolina. Dr. Knowles, a senior chemist at Monsanto, decided to try 2007-02-02T18:30:09-05:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/2001-Noble-Prize-Winners-in-Chemistry-32562.aspx The Realities of the AIDS Virus Is the message getting through? We already know enough about AIDS to prevent its spread, but ignorance, complacency, fear and bigotry continue to stop many from taking adequate precautions. We know enough about how the infection is transmitted to protect ourselves from it without resorting to such extremes as mandatory testing, enforced quarantine or total celibacy. But too few people are heeding the AIDS message. Perhaps many simply don't like or want to believe what they hear, preferring to think that AIDS "can't happen to them." Experts repeatedly remind us that infective agents do not discriminate, but can infect any and everyone. Like other communicable diseases, AIDS can strike anyone. It is not necessarily confined to a few high-risk groups. We must all protect ourselves from this infection and teach our children about it in time to take effective precautions. Given the right measures, no one need get AIDS. The pandemic continues: Many of us have forgotten about the virulence of widespread epidemics, such as the 1917/18 influenza pandemic which killed over 21 million people, including 50,000 Canadians. Having been lulled into false security by modern antibiotics and vaccines about our ability to conquer infections, the Western world was ill prepared to cope with the advent of AIDS in 1981. (Retrospective studies now put the first reported U.S. case of AIDS as far back as 1968.) The arrival of a new and lethal virus caught us off guard. Research suggests that the agent responsible for AIDS probably dates from the 1950s, with a chance infection of humans by a modified Simian virus found in African green monkeys. Whatever its origins, scientists surmise that the disease spread from Africa to the Caribbean and Europe, then to the U.S. Current estimates are that 1.5 to 2 million Americans are now probably HIV carriers, with higher numbers in Central Africa and parts of the Caribbean. Recapping AIDS - the facts: AIDS is an insidious, often fatal but less contagious disease than measles, chicken pox or hepatitis B. AIDS is thought to be caused primarily by a virus that invades white blood cells (lymphocytes) - especially T4-lymphocytes or T-helper cells - and certain other body cells, including the brain. In 1983 and 1984, French and U.S. researchers independently identified the virus believed to cause AIDS as an unusual type of slow-acting retrovirus now called "human immunodeficiency virus" or HIV. Like other viruses, HIV is 2007-02-02T18:02:57-05:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/The-Realities-of-the-AIDS-Virus-32546.aspx The Effects of Mercury in the Environment Introduction Mercury is a silvery, liquid metal at room temperature. It is sometimes referred to as one of the "heavy metals." Like water, mercury can evaporate and become airborne. Because it is an element, mercury does not break down into less toxic substances. Once mercury escapes to the environment, it circulates in and out of the atmosphere until it ends up in the bottoms of lakes and oceans. Depending on its chemical form, mercury may travel long distances before it falls to earth with precipitation or dust. Mercury contamination on aquatic environment Concentrations of mercury in fish and wildlife are high enough to be a risk to wildlife. Once mercury escapes to the environment, it circulates in and out of the atmosphere until it ends up in the bottoms of lakes and oceans. Depending on its chemical form mercury may travel long distances before it falls to earth with precipitation or dust. Mercury gets into lakes from the atmosphere, where it falls with rain or snow into the watersheds that feed the lakes. Approximately one gram of mercury enters a 20-acre lake each year. When mercury is deposited in lakes or waterways, bacteria convert it to methyl mercury. Methyl mercury accumulates in algae and is eaten by smaller fish, which in turn are eaten by larger fish. Unfortunately, the mercury in fish also concentrates in the tissue of any human or wildlife eating the fish. If contaminated fish are eaten on a regular basis, mercury concentrations can become high enough to become a serious health threat to humans. Several Great Lakes states issue advisories each year, cautioning people to limit the amount of fish they eat from area lakes. As long as the fish continue to be exposed to mercury, mercury continually builds up in fish's bodies. Fish that eat other fish become even more highly contaminated. Thus, the fish most desirable for many additional bigger fishes become the most affected, and larger fish tend to be the most contaminated. Bacteria and chemical reactions in lakes and wetlands change the mercury into a much more toxic form known as methylmercury. Fish become contaminated with methylmercury by eating food (plankton and smaller fish), which has absorbed methylmercury. This type of mercury 2007-02-02T17:54:03-05:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/The-Effects-of-Mercury-in-the-Environment-32541.aspx A Closer Look at our Environmental Wellfare Environmental Welfare: Are we protected? We are a world free of pollution, or are we? Everyday you walk outside you're exposing yourself to the environment. Our environment is made up of many pollutants in the air, water, and other major environmental structures. You should be concerned about your welfare every time you breath air or drink that water at a local restaurant these things are not always healthy as you may think. Though America has made laws and programs to protect and preserve our environment. In the beginning of the 18th century, which marked the start of the industrial revolution America has prominently had a hand in protecting the environment. Other countries have not always had the best societies to deal with their environmental issues as America but they have come a long was from where they started. As the industrial revolution probed Americans to think about the environment they lived in, Theodore Roosevelt instated national parks to preserve land for the future of our nation. Technology at that point was hurting the environment as it still does today, but with peoples awareness of the problem it has made our Country a more bearable place to live in. With building and roads paving most of our society today it is a natural state for all of us. You could say that we have contributed most of our environmental problems, thus bringing the need for us to create a way to protect it. We continue contribute to the downfall of our environment, but also create programs and laws to save it. The Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) for example, have made strides to help the environment with the use of modern science to help protect us from, acid rain, global warming, ozone depletion, and other pollutants that effect us daily. Also an Environmental Bill of Rights has been passed forcing some government agencies and other organizations to give public notice of environmentally significant decisions. Our government is readily involved in the environment, the Department of Defense created a program called “Smart Growth” helping improve urban land areas with development that improves its quality; President Bush approved this by signing the “Brownfield Legislation.” As our country everyday tries to improve our environment, but we must not think we are the only ones with a problem, other countries struggle just as we 2007-02-02T17:38:40-05:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/A-Closer-Look-at-our-Environmental-Wellfare-32533.aspx HIV and AIDS in African Americans The unit plan for a HIV/AIDS Peer Education program is targeting African American teenagers who have signed up for the S.A.F.E (Stopping Aids For Everyone) Program. The program is a community health based curriculum designed to increase the awareness of HIV/AIDS transmission in the African American community. The group will range in age between 13-17 years of age and will be attending local high schools. Group size will be approximately 20 students. The program would be on Saturdays at 12:00 noon for 5 weeks at a local community center. The program is situated on Saturdays so it would not interfere with the student’s schoolwork and school activities. The 5-week program is part of a 3-unit program designed for HIV/AIDs peer education. This first 5-week unit will focus mainly on HIV/AIDS transmission, while the other 2 units would focus on peer relations and methods of intervention/education. Statement of Purpose The unit for a HIV/AIDS awareness program, within the African American population, was developed because the transmission and impact of HIV/AIDS in this population has become alarming. The HIV epidemic in the United States is increasingly becoming an epidemic affecting this minority group. Out of an estimated 774,467 AIDS cases, in the year 2000, 292,522 cases occurred among African American according to the CDC, making African Americans 38% of new AIDS cases while only representing 12% of the total US population. According to the CDC, in the year 2000 more African Americans were reported with AIDS than any other racial/ethnic group. Almost two-thirds (63%) of all women reported with AIDS were African American. The 2000 rate of reported AIDS cases among African Americans was 58.1 per 100,000, more than 2 times the rate for Hispanics and 8 times the rate for whites. Data on HIV and AIDS diagnoses in 25 states with integrated reporting systems shows that during the period from January 1996 through June 1999, African Americans represented a high proportion (50%) of all AIDS diagnoses, but an even greater proportion (57%) of all HIV diagnoses. And among young people ages 13 to 24, 65% of the HIV diagnoses were among African American youths (CDC). HIV is the leading cause of death for African American females ages 18-35, and is the leading cause of death for African Americans ages 25-44. Although the daily headlines about HIV/AIDS have gone away, the disease has not, particularly among minority groups 2007-02-02T16:59:44-05:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/HIV-and-AIDS-in-African-Americans-32519.aspx Key Facts on HIV AIDS and its Prevention History: 2007-01-29T05:36:29-05:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/Key-Facts-on-HIV-AIDS-and-its-Prevention-32490.aspx Important Information on Titanium Titanium was discovered in 1791 in the mineral menachanite by the British clergyman William Gregor, who named the new element menachite. Four years later, the German chemist Martin Heinruch Klaproth rediscovered the element in the mineral rutile and named it titanium in allusion to the strength of the mythological Greek Titans. The metal was isolated in 1910. The element is present in meteorites and the sun. It is used in many things that enhance everyday life such as fashion apparel, medical equipment, automobiles, architecture, aerospace, marine technology, industrial tools, as well as sports equipment. Titanium has played a main role in helping to not only conserve, but to improve our economy. Because of its strength and light weight, Titanium is used in metallic alloys and as a substitute for aluminum. It is used in aircrafts for the fire walls, outer skin, landing- gear components, hydraulic tubing , and engine supports. Space capsules and missiles are also largely made with titanium , and were used immensely when making the Mercury, Gemini, and Apollo capsules. The relative inertness of titanium makes it available as a replacement for bone and cartilage in surgery and as a pipe and tank lining in the processing of foods that we eat. It is used in heat exchangers in desalinization plants because of its ability to withstand saltwater corrosion. Titanium dioxide, which is commonly known as titanium white, is a brilliant white pigment used in paints, lacquers, paper, plastics, textiles, and rubber. Titanium is the fourth most abundant metals in the earth’s crust. The capacity for production substantially exceeds long term forecast of demand. Product prices are low and stable. Titanium and rutile ore both sourced in friendly countries with stable regimes, unlike nickel or chromium, and so the price of titanium has never really been subject to crisis or political factors. The ready availability of titanium in a wide and ever increasing range of product forms has assured its growth as a basic, general engineering material. Today a network of mills, stockiest, machinists, and fabricators ensure that the demands of design quality and speed of delivery can be met to many businesses around the world. The extraction of titanium is a multi-stage process in that it is the first metallic product being “sponge”. This product has no value as an engineering material, and needs to be consolidated and melted to produce 2007-01-29T05:14:40-05:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/Important-Information-on-Titanium-32477.aspx In every part of our body there reigns a tiny yet complex life. An examination under the microscope into the depths of any human organ brings us face to face with an astounding miracle of creation: millions of tiny living things that have come together to make up that organ are engaged in arduous activity. These tiny beings are cells, the basic units of life. Not only man but also all other living things are composed of these microscopic living beings. There are about 100 trillion cells in the human body. Some of these cells are so tiny that even 1 million of them together hardly cover a space as large as the pointed end of a pin. Despite this, however, the cell is by far the most complex structure mankind has ever encountered, as is also agreed by the scientific community. Containing many secrets hitherto undiscovered, the cell of a living thing also constitutes the greatest impasse for the theory of evolution. That is because the cell is one of the most striking pieces of evidence that human beings and all other living beings are not the products of coincidences, but are created by a Creator. In order for the cell to survive, all the basic components of the cell, each performing many vital functions, have to be intact. If the cell came into existence by evolution, then millions of its components had to simultaneously exist in the same place and they had to come together in a particular order and plan. Since this is utterly implausible, such a structure has no explanation other than "creation." One of the leading evolutionists, Alexander Oparin, expressed the deadlock the theory of evolution encountered in this way: "Unfortunately, the origin of the cell remains a question which is actually the darkest point of the complete evolution theory." (Alexander I. Oparin, Origin of Life, (1936) NewYork: Dover Publications, 1953 (Reprint), p.196) The English mathematician and astronomer Sir Fred Hoyle made a similar comparison in one of his interviews published in Nature magazine dated November 12, 1981. Although an evolutionist himself, Hoyle said that the odds that higher life forms might have emerged in this way was comparable to the odds of a tornado sweeping through a junk-yard assembling a Boeing 747 from the materials in it. This means that it is not possible for the cell to come into being by coincidence and therefore, it must 2007-01-27T17:24:23-05:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/The-Miracle-of-Design-in-the-Cell-32459.aspx What do a glittering diamond and a lead pencil have in common? Diamonds are very hard and the graphite of the pencil’s tip is very soft. These two different substances contain a wonderful proof of creation called carbon. A rough, unpolished diamond is the hardest of all minerals.(1) For this reason, a crystal diamond is used to cut and to drill all kinds of material and is also used as an abrasive to smooth surfaces. (2) Hardness is the resistance of a mineral to scratches from outside forces; it is easy to recognize minerals by this trait. By scratching one mineral with another, their relative hardness can be determined. Scientists use a point system to designate the hardness of all minerals. They rate diamonds with the highest ratio of ten over ten. So, what makes diamonds so hard? It is very interesting that the soft, breakable graphite in a pencil tip is made up of the same atoms as a diamond. Graphite is composed of the same carbon atoms as a diamond. But, while one is very soft, the other is extremely hard. One is as black as a lump of charcoal; the other may be sparkling bright. One is commonly found in nature; the other is rare. For all these reasons, diamonds are much more valuable than graphite. How is it then, that carbon atoms can be so different from one another? Carbon: The Foundation of Life (The Value of Diamonds is Determined by its Atoms) Before we consider the differences, we must speak about the carbon atoms that make up a diamond. The carbon atom is very important for living creatures. Nevil Sidgwick, the English chemist, states the following in his book, Chemical Elements and Their Compounds: Carbon is unique among the elements in the number and variety of the compounds which it can form. Over a quarter of a million have already been isolated and described, but this gives a very imperfect idea of its powers, since it is the basis of all forms of living matter. (3) The class of compounds formed exclusively from carbon and hydrogen are called hydrocarbons. This is a huge family of compounds that include natural gas, liquid petroleum, kerosene, and lubricating oils. The hydrocarbons ethylene and propylene form the basis of the petrochemical industry. Hydrocarbons like benzene, toluene, and turpentine are familiar to anyone who has worked with paints. The naphthalene that protects our clothes from moths 2007-01-27T17:18:44-05:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/Diamonds-The-Hardest-of-Minerals-32458.aspx Defence is an issue that has to be given top priority by a country for the continuance of its existence. Nations have always to watch out for all kinds of internal and external threats, assaults, risks of wars and terrorist actions. This is why they allocate a great part of their official budgets to defence. Armies are provided with the most advanced aircraft, ships, and arms, and the forces of defence are always kept at the highest level of preparedness. The human body is surrounded by a great number of enemies and threats. These enemies are bacteria, viruses, and similar microscopic organisms. They exist everywhere; in the air we inhale, the water we drink, the food we eat, and the environment in which we live. What most people are not aware of is that the human body has an excellent army, the immune system, which fights against enemies. This is a real army made up of many "soldiers" and "officials" with different assignments, who are specially trained, employ high technology and fight with conventional and chemical weapons. Every day, even every minute, a permanent war is fought between this army and the enemy forces, but away from our knowledge. This war can also be in the form of minor, local skirmishes as well as battles in which the whole body is involved and alarmed. We call these battles "diseases". The general conduct of this war almost never changes. The enemy attempts to fool the other side by camouflaging itself when intruding into the body. The trained investigative forces are assigned by the defence to identify the enemies. The enemies are identified and appropriate weapons are produced to exterminate them. Then there is close contact, the defeat of the enemy, cease-fire, and clearance of the battleground. Last, there is storage of every type of information about the enemy as a precaution against the possibility of a later attack.... Now let us examine this interesting war closer. THE BESIEGED CASTLE: THE HUMAN BODY We can liken the human body to a castle besieged by enemies. The enemies look for various ways to invade this castle. The human skin is the wall of this castle. The substance of keratin in the cells of the skin is an impassable barrier for bacteria and fungi. Foreign substances that reach the skin cannot pass through this wall. Moreover, although the outer layer of skin that contains keratin is continuously rubbed 2007-01-27T17:13:04-05:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/The-Miracle-in-the-Defence-System-32457.aspx And We have enjoined upon man goodness towards his parents: His mother bore him by bearing strain upon strain, and his weaning was in two years: “[Hence, O man,] be grateful to Me and to your parents; to Me is the eventual coming.” (Qur’an, 31:14) Mother’s milk is a matchless compound created by Allah to meet the baby’s nutritional needs and protect it against possible infections. The balance of the nutriments in mother’s milk is at ideal levels and the milk is in the ideal form for the baby’s immature body. At the same time, the mother’s milk is also very rich in nutrients which accelerate the growth of brain cells and the development of the nervous system. 1 Artificial baby foods prepared with present-day technology cannot replace this miraculous food. The list of advantages to the baby provided by mother’s milk is being added to every day. Research has shown that babies who are fed mother’s milk are particularly protected against infections concerning the respiratory and digestive systems. That is because the antibodies in mother’s milk provide a direct defence against infection. Other anti-infection properties of mother’s milk are that it provides a hospitable environment for “good” bacteria called “normal flora” thus constituting a barrier to harmful bacteria, viruses and parasites. Furthermore, it has also been established that there are factors in mother’s milk which arrange the immune system against infectious diseases and allow it to function properly. 2 Since the mother’s milk has been specially designed, it is the most easily digestible food for babies. Despite being nutritionally very rich, it is easily digested by the baby’s sensitive digestive system. Since the baby thus expends less energy on digestion, it is able to use that energy for other bodily functions, growth and organ development. The milk of mothers who have had premature babies contains higher levels of fat, protein, sodium, chloride and iron to meet the baby’s needs. Indeed, it has been established that the functions of the eye develop better in premature babies fed on mother’s milk and that they perform better in intelligence tests. In addition, they also have a great many other advantages. One of the ways in which mother’s milk is important to the development of the new-born baby is the fact that it contains omega-3 oil alpha linoleic acids. As well as being an important compound for the human brain and retina, it is also of great 2007-01-27T17:08:49-05:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/Mother’s-Milk-a-Miraculous-Mixture-32456.aspx In the two widest-ranging exercises on mapping the galaxies carried out to date, scientists have made findings that offer serious support for the Big Bang theory. The results of the research were presented at the winter conference of the American Astronomical Society. The wide extent of the distribution of galaxies is evaluated by astrophysicists as one of the most important legacies from the first phases of the universe to have come down to the present day. It is therefore possible to refer to the information on the distribution and location of the galaxies as "a window opening onto the history of the universe." In their research that lasted several years, two independent teams, composed of British, Australian and American scientists, produced a three-dimensional map of some 266,000 galaxies. The scientists compared the data they collected on the distribution of the galaxies with the data for the Cosmic Background Radiation emitted everywhere in the universe, and made important discoveries regarding the origin of galaxies. Researchers analysing the data concluded that the galaxies formed where matter that formed 350,000 years after the Big Bang relatively clustered together, and then assumed their shape under the influence of the force of gravity. According to the Big Bang theory, everything began from the explosion of a point of infinite density and zero volume. As time passed, space expanded and the gaps between heavenly bodies grew. The findings in question confirmed the Big Bang theory, which states that the universe began from the explosion of a single point of zero volume and infinite density some 14 billion years ago. This theory has constantly been confirmed by tests consisting of decades of astronomical observations, and stands unrivalled on the most solid of foundations. The Big Bang is accepted by the great majority of present-day astrophysicists, and constitutes scientific verification of the fact that God created the universe from nothing. In its ten-year-long research, the Anglo-Australian Observatory in the Australian state of New South Wales determined the positions in space of 221,000 galaxies by means of a three-dimensional mapping technique. The survey, which was performed with a 3.9 metre diameter telescope at the observation post, was almost ten times larger than any previous such study. (1) Under the leadership of Dr. Matthew Colless, director of the observatory, the team of scientists first determined the position of galaxies relative to one another and the distances between them. Then they modelled 2007-01-27T17:02:56-05:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/The-Big-Bang-Echoes-through-the-Map-of-the-Galaxy-32455.aspx Nobody looking at the patterns in peacock feathers can avoid being amazed at their beauty. One of the latest pieces of research by scientists has revealed that there is an astonishing design at the basis of these patterns. Chinese scientists have discovered a delicate mechanism of tiny hairs in peacock feathers filtering and reflecting different wavelengths of light. According to a study performed by Fudan University physicist Jian Zi and colleagues, published in the journal Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, the feathers' bright colors are produced not by pigments, but by tiny, two-dimensional crystal-like structures. (1) Zi and his colleagues used powerful electron microscopes to reveal the basis of the colors in the feathers. They examined the barbules of the male green peacock (Pavo rnuticus), in other words the even smaller micro hairs that come off of barbs emerging from the central stem of the feather. Under the microscope, they encountered the lattice design in the black-and-white picture to the right. This consisted of rods made of melanin, a protein, bound together with keratin, another protein. The researchers observed that these two-dimensional structures, each with a width hundreds of times thinner than a human hair, were arranged one behind the other on the micro hairs. Using additional optical examinations and calculations, the scientists examined the spaces between the crystals and their effects. As a result, it was revealed that the dimensions and shapes of these spaces in the lattice led to light being reflected at slightly different angles and thus to a variation in color. "The male peacock tail contains spectacular beauty because of the brilliant, iridescent, diversified, colorful eye patterns," said Zi, who continued, "when I watched the eye pattern against the sunshine, I was amazed by the stunning beauty of the feathers." (2) Zi stated that until their study, the exact physical mechanism producing the colors in peacock feathers had not been known, and that although the mechanisms they had revealed were simple, they were absolutely ingenious. Obviously, there is a very specially regulated design in peacock feather patterns. The tiny lattices and spaces between them are of the greatest importance in this design. The adjustment between the spaces is particularly striking. Were these not so arranged as to reflect light at slightly different angles to one another, then this variation in color would not take place. The greater part of the color in the peacock feather 2007-01-27T16:55:29-05:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/The-Physical-Basis-of-the-Beauty-in-Peacock-Feathers-Reveale-32454.aspx Each and every species on Earth has been created with miraculous characteristics and wondrous skills. Even in one single living species, we can find abundant proof of God’s magnificent creation. According to one verse of the Qur’an: There is no creature crawling on the Earth or flying creature, flying on its wings, who are not communities just like yourselves—We have not omitted anything from the Book—then they will be gathered to their Lord. (Qur’an, 6:38) This verse draws our attention to birds which, of all living creatures, are worthy of special consideration and observation. There are approximately ten thousand different species of birds, many of which have miraculous characteristics. Wherever we live, we may encounter many of these creatures and can admire the different aspects of each variety. They exhibit countless examples of the evidence of creation, through their aesthetic appearance, their perfect flying mechanisms, their expertise in migration, their nest-making skills and their self-sacrificing behavior. Meanwhile, other species of birds are created with a special aptitude for forming social groups. Many varieties live together as a community, warn one another of danger, work collectively to find food and shelter, and make various sacrifices to help each other out in any number of ways. (For detailed information, see Harun Yahya, Devotion Among Animals: Revealing the Work of God). As God pointed out in the Qur’an, these creatures are capable of establishing their own form of communication and performing in cooperative ways the duties inspired in them by God. Some birds distinguish themselves by their superior intelligence and special talents. These particular species are defined as birds that can imitate sounds, include the parrots, songbirds, and hummingbirds. Many of us have heard about, seen on television or even personally witnessed these birds’ ability to talk. However, we may not have considered what a great miracle it is that these creatures can mimic in this way, or to the perfection of the way in which God has created them. These creatures’ being hatched with their ability to talk or imitate sounds is one of the miracles of creation and, at the same time invalidates the claims of evolutionary theory. The Special Design which Enables Birds to Produce Sound Talking, or even imitating sound, is not just a simple matter of opening and closing the mouth, as some people believe. A complex system is required for this action to take place, and 2007-01-27T16:51:14-05:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/The-Miracle-of-Talking-Birds-32453.aspx The earth is a living planet where many complex systems run perfectly without stopping at all. When compared to other planets, it is evident that in all its aspects the earth is specially designed for human life. Built on delicate balances, life prevails in every spot of this planet, from the atmosphere to the depths of the earth. Exploring only a few of the millions of these delicate balances would be sufficient to show that the world we live in is specially designed for us. One of the most important balances in our planet is revealed in the atmosphere that surrounds us. The atmosphere of the earth holds the most appropriate gasses in the most appropriate ratio needed for the survival not only of human beings, but also of all the living beings on the earth. The 77% nitrogen, 21% oxygen and 1% carbon dioxide as well as other gasses readily available in the atmosphere represent the ideal figures necessary for the survival of living beings. Oxygen, a gas that is vital for living beings, helps food to be burned and converted into energy in our bodies. If the oxygen quantity in the atmosphere were greater than 21%, the cells in our body would soon start to suffer great damages. The vegetation and hydrocarbon molecules needed for life would also be destroyed. If this quantity were less, then this would cause difficulties in our respiration, and the food we eat would not be converted into energy. Therefore, the 21% oxygen in the atmosphere is the most ideal quantity determined for life. No less than oxygen, other gasses like nitrogen and carbon dioxide are also arranged in the ideal quantity for the needs of living beings and the continuity of life. The amount of nitrogen in the atmosphere has the ideal ratio to balance the harmful and burning effects of oxygen. This ratio represents the most appropriate value required for photosynthesis, which is essential for life's energy supply on the earth. Moreover, the amount of carbon dioxide has the most appropriate value that is needed to maintain the stability of the surface temperature of the earth and to prevent heat loss especially at night time. This gas, comprising 1% of the atmosphere, covers the earth like a quilt and prevents the loss of heat to space. If this amount were greater, the temperature of the earth would increase excessively, causing climatic instability and posing 2007-01-27T16:44:17-05:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/The-Delicate-Balance-on-Earth-32452.aspx Living beings have to reproduce to continue their species. However, reproduction by itself often proves insufficient, because if living things fail to provide adequate care for their offspring, the newborn cannot survive. In other words, if living things did not feel the need to protect and look after their offspring and did not do this successfully, newborn creatures would not be able to look after themselves and would soon die. When we look at nature, we see the majority of living things display amazing self-sacrifice in order to protect and provide the best care for their offspring, incomparable to any form of sacrifice shown by human beings. Furthermore, these living things risk their lives for their young without a moment's hesitation. So, how did such self-sacrifice in animals develop? Evolutionists claim that self-sacrifice displayed by living things, especially that shown towards their offspring, is instinctive behavior. What then does the word instinct mean? Evolutionists define instinct as a sense of intuition inherent in living things. They claim that an inner voice whispers to a spider, a bird, a lion or a tiny insect to practice self-sacrifice to keep the generations going. In reply to a question regarding the source of this voice, they desperately say "mother nature". In the view of evolutionists, every phenomenon in nature is a miracle of nature. However, it is evident that this claim is futile and meaningless, because nature itself, is already a created entity consisting of the stones, flowers, trees, rivers and mountains familiar to all of us. It is obvious that these entities cannot come together to furnish a living being with a new trait, which is a product of intelligence. As a matter of fact, even Darwin himself was aware of this logical failure from the very beginning. In his book The Origin of Species, which he wrote in 1859, he expressed his self-doubt about his own theory in the following words: So wonderful an instinct as that of the hive-bee making its cells will probably have occurred to many readers, as a difficulty sufficient to overthrow my whole theory. (Charles Darwin, The Origin of Species, p. 233) Research conducted by scientists on living things has revealed that they live in an astounding harmony, coordination and collaboration with one another. Wherever one turns in nature, one is likely to see examples of this. For instance, some little birds utter a shrill alarm call when they see 2007-01-27T16:37:23-05:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/Self-Sacrifice-in-Animals-32451.aspx Some spiders hunt in even the most unexpected environments. For example, the hunting field of the water-spider Dolomedes is the surface of water. This spider is mostly to be found in shallow places such as marshes and ditches. The water-spider, which lacks good eyesight, spends most of its time by the side of the water spinning threads and spreading them over its surroundings. These serve two functions at the same time: they are a kind of warning to other spiders, setting the limits of its own territory, and they also form an escape route in the event of unexpected danger. The spider's most frequently used hunting method is to put four of its legs on the water while the other four hold on to dry land. While doing this, it employs a most clever technique to avoid sinking. The spider covers those of its legs which will go into the water with a water-proof coating by passing them through its fangs. It then approaches the edge of the water. Pushing its body down with great care, it moves on to the surface of the water. It places its fangs and feelers under the water in such a way as not to disturb the surface. It waits for a living creature to approach, with its eyes looking around it and its legs feeling for vibrations in the water. To feed itself, the spider needs to find prey at least the size of the "Golyan" fish. When the spider is hunting, it stays motionless until the fish comes within 1.5 centimeters of its jaws. Then it suddenly enters the water, catches the fish in its legs, and bites it with its venomous fangs. Then, in order to stop the fish, which is much bigger than it, from dragging it under the water, it immediately turns upside down. The venom quickly takes effect. It not only kills the prey, but also dissolves the prey's internal organs, turning them into a kind of soup and making them easy to digest. When the prey is dead, the spider drags it on to the shore and feeds. (Science and Technology Gorsel Science and Technology Encyclopedia, p. 494, 495) At this point various questions spring to mind. How did the spider come by that wax which stops it sinking? How did it learn to coat its legs with it against the risk of sinking? How did the spider come by the 2007-01-27T16:33:17-05:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/Spiders-Fishing-Techniques-32450.aspx Communication and Signaling in the Language of Birds Scientific research has revealed that throughout the living world, communication is just as important as it is to human beings. Countless living things lack the capacity for human speech, yet they employ entirely different methods in order to communicate with each other—and even with other species. Some of the most dramatic examples of this is displayed by birds. The astonishing behavior and ability to communicate that birds exhibit also totally invalidates the claims of the theory of evolution. All forms of life on Earth have been created with miraculous properties and astonishing abilities. The examination of just one single species is enough to reveal hundreds of proofs of God’s magnificent creation. In one verse of the Qur’an, Allah reveals that: There is no creature crawling on the earth or flying creature, flying on its wings, who are not communities just like yourselves—We have not omitted anything from the Book—then they will be gathered to their Lord. (Qur’an, 6: 38) The birds to which this verse draws our attention notice are one of the living communities that we need to examine and reflect upon. There are roughly some 10,000 species of bird in the world, each of which possesses its own miraculous features. Wherever you may live, you can see a great number of these feathered creatures and can observe different and extraordinary properties in each and every one. With their attractive appearances, flawless flight mechanisms, expertise on the routes and timing of migrations, ability to build nests and altruistic behavior toward their young and to one another, birds possess countless proofs of the fact of creation. Their ability to communicate is another of these. Birds' Sense of Hearing For birds to display their talents in communicating by sound, song—and in the case of some birds, words— they require excellent hearing. At critical times in their lives, their sense of hearing becomes particularly important. Experiments have shown that in order for birds to learn the distinctive song of their own species, they need an auditory feedback system. Thanks to this system, young birds learn to compare the sounds they produce themselves with the patterns of a song they have memorized. If they were deaf, it wouldn't normally be possible for them to sing recognizable songs. (1) Birds' ears are well equipped for hearing, but they hear in a different way from us. For them to recognize 2007-01-27T16:16:05-05:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/A-Miracle-of-the-Living-World-32449.aspx Every second, more processes than can be counted are carried out in the bodies of all living things. So complex and detailed are these processes that at every stage, the intervention of “super-regulators” is essential to control the whole system that maintain order and accelerate events. These super-regulating chemicals in the human body are enzymes. Every living cell contains thousands of enzymes, each of which performs its own tasks, such as assisting with the copying of DNA, breaking down foodstuffs and producing energy from them, and constructing chains of compounds from simple molecules. Enzymes are produced by mitochondria inside each cell. Large parts of enzymes consist of proteins, the rest of are vitamins and vitamin-like substances. Were it not for these enzymes, none of our functions, from the simplest to the most complex, could take place, or else would occur so slowly as to stop altogether. In either case, the result would be the same—death. We could not speak, eat, digest, see or even breathe– in short, we could not live. Enzymes’ most important tasks are to initiate, halt and accelerate various chemical reactions in the body. As the cells perform their functions, the chemicals inside them must react accordingly. Higher temperatures are needed to initiate most chemical reactions. Yet such high temperature could pose a danger to living cells, causing them injury or death. The solution to this dilemma lies in enzymes. An obvious miracle of creation, enzymes manage to initiate or accelerate chemical reactions even in the absence of high temperature, yet as catalysts, they do not enter into—or are themselves changed—by these reactions. Take one example from your daily life of how enzymes accelerate the processes taking place within your body: Thanks to an enzyme involved in the removal of carbon dioxide from the blood as you inhale, you do not suffocate. An enzyme known as anhydrase accelerates the process of cleansing carbon dioxide by a factor of 10 million times! At this speed, the anhydrase can transform 36 million molecules every minute. The Body’s Rapid and Economical Production Vehicles Enzymes permit vital reactions to take place as quickly as possible, and also to exploit the body’s energy in the most efficient way. If you compare the human body to a factory, with the many enzymes working within its cells as various means of production, no source of energy would be able to run with that factory. Because the level 2007-01-27T16:03:58-05:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/Enzymes-that-Perform-36-Million-Processes-a-Minute-32448.aspx Hydrogen Fuel Why are we as Americans so afraid to change? Even if it is a change for the better? The world has been using oil coal and other petroleum products to power just about everything that moves for the last 150 years. Yet most cars in the United States only get 10-20 miles a gallon and even the "good" ones can get only a petty 20-50 miles a gallon. So why do we put up with the inefficiency when there are far better alternatives out there? Hydrogen, the first element of the periodic table, is composed of one proton and one electron. More than 90% of the universe is made up of this simple element. More than 30% of the mass of the sun is atomic hydrogen. It is the third most abundant element in the earth's surface, and is found mostly in water. Normally, hydrogen is a colorless, odorless, tasteless, and nonpoisonous gas composed of diatomic molecules (H2). In a perfect world when cars burn gasoline, they would burn it perfectly and create nothing but carbon dioxide and water in their exhaust. Unfortunately and realistically the internal combustion engine is far from perfect. In the process of burning gasoline, it also produces: Carbon monoxide, a poisonous gas, Nitrogen oxides, the main source of smog, unburned hydrocarbons, one of the main causes of ozone depletion. Catalytic converters eliminate much of this pollution, but they aren't perfect either. Air pollution from cars is a real problem in today’s world. It’s time for a change. Scientists predict that the world's oil reserves will not last for long and we need to find out alternative forms of fuel for our ever growing fuel needs. In addition, the quantum of pollution that occurs by burning fossil fuels is an ever growing threat to the already fragile ecosystems of the world. It is in this scenario that the world has turned its attention to non-conventional fuels that are cheap, non-polluting and easily producible. While a variety of fuels have been considered as non-conventional alternate fuels, the potential of hydrogen as a fuel of the future is promising. For total usage, it is believed that the United States, above all other nations, consumes the most fuel, reaching twelve million barrels a day. The amazing part of this statistic is that sixty six percent of this fuel, that is eight million barrels 2007-01-12T04:23:02-05:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/Hydrogen-Fuel-32410.aspx The Immunology of Aids Introduction Although HIV was first identified in 1983, studies of previously stored blood samples indicate that the virus entered the U.S. population sometime in the late 1970s. Worldwide, an estimated 27.9 million people had become HIV-infected through mid-1996, and 7.7 million had developed AIDS, according to the World Health Organization (WHO). AIDS is a disease of the immune system, and is caused by Human Immuno deficiency Virus (HIV). HIV targets and infects T-helper cells and macrophages. After infection, replication of the virus occurs within the T-helper cells. The cells are lysed and the new viruses are released to infect more T-helper cells. The course of the disease results in the production of massive numbers of virus (1 billion/day) over the full course of the disease. The T- helper cells are infected, and rapidly destroyed both by virus and by cytotoxic T cells. T-helper cells are replaced with nearly a billion produced per day. Over many years (average may be 10), the T-helper cell population is depleted and the body loses its ability to mount an immune response against infections. Thus, we mount a very strong immune response against the virus for a long time, but the virus is produced at a very high rate and ultimately overcomes the ability of the immune system to respond. Since HIV belongs to a class of viruses called retroviruses, it has genes composed of ribonucleic acid (RNA) molecules. Like all viruses, HIV can replicate only inside host cells, commandeering the cell's machinery to reproduce. However, only HIV and other retroviruses, once inside a cell, use an enzyme called reverse transcriptase to convert their RNA into DNA, which can be incorporated into the host cell's genes. HIV belongs to a subgroup of retroviruses known as lenti-viruses, or "slow" viruses. The course of infection with these viruses is characterized by a long interval, up to 12 years or more, between initial infection and the onset of serious symptoms. Like HIV in humans, there are animal viruses that primarily infect the immune system cells, often causing immuno-deficiency and AIDS-like symptoms. Scientists use these and other viruses and their animal hosts as models of HIV disease. The CDC currently defines AIDS when one of 25 conditions indicative of severe immuno-suppression associated with HIV infection, such as Pneumocystis carinii pneumonia (PCP) is present, or HIV infection in an individual with a CD4+ T cell count 2007-01-11T20:24:03-05:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/The-Immunology-of-Aids-Introduction-32387.aspx Deforestation Issues in Brazil In recent years one of the biggest threats the world as a whole faces is the destruction of our environment. The destruction of the Brazilian rainforest is probably the most important issue that should be taken into consideration because it is the cause of other major ecological problems we are facing such as: global warming, the depletion of our ozone layer, and noticeable climate changes around the world. Brazil's deforestation problem has turned into earth’s deforestation problem. Experts say that not too long ago 14 % of the earth was covered with rainforests. Today only 6% remains and everybody focuses their attention on Brazil because 30% of the remaining rainforests are found in that country (Rain-tree). Deforestation is so dangerous because much of the carbon dioxide that all countries produce is turned into oxygen in the rainforest through the process of photosynthesis. Experts say that 20% of the earth’s oxygen is produced in the Brazilian rainforest. It is estimated that 90% of all animal and plant species live in the Brazilian rainforest so extinction is another major issue (Rain-tree). The money that deforestation brings to the Brazilian government is a huge motivator since it is a developing country. There are several ways and reasons for which rainforests are destroyed. The major cause of deforestation is logging. The forest is most valuable for its timber so its preservation would cost a lot of money. Commercial loggers destroy huge parts of the forest to reach the trees they want. Trees are brought down and along with them their vines and lianas, which are connected to other trees. When these come down, along come large canopies of green formed above the ground by these vines and lianas. The removal of the trunks cause extra damage since they are carelessly pulled out of the rainforest, destroying and damaging anything in their path. The large machinery compacts the fragile soil with their large tracts, making it very difficult to regenerate. Noise pollution and the destruction of the zone frighten animals living in the area, making them flee to other parts. Commercial loggers make roads to reach other parts of the forest easier. A road connecting point A to point B will disrupt plant and animal life anywhere near it. The roads are then used continuously and animals are forced elsewhere. What most hurts the forest about logging is local people without land 2007-01-11T04:06:04-05:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/Deforestation-Issues-in-Brazil-32343.aspx Breakdown of the Parts of a Human Cell There once was a guy named Timmy. Timmy was attending college at the University of Wisconsin. At the college, he was going through a biology class and was having a hard time comprehending the theory of cells. He didn’t understand what all the cell parts were and what their functions were. He hoped that as time went on, he’d eventually catch on. Well any ways, Timmy was in desperate need of some money. He needed some food for his dorm and wanted a new bike to travel around on. While he was flipping through the classified ads, he found a job that sounded interesting to him. Subway needed some help with making sandwiches and working at the register. Timmy thought this would be an easy way for him to make some quick and easy money. The next day, Timmy drove to the nearest Subway and got an application. He filled it out and turned it in within a few hours. In a matter of two days, he got a call back saying he was hired! He was ecstatic! Finally, he’ll be able to have some money. Timmy was really excited and he was looking forward to his first day at work. The manager asked him if he could start as soon as tomorrow and Timmy agreed. While he was excited, he was nervous at the same time. He didn’t want to screw up his first day on the job. The manager told him not to worry though because the job isn’t too tough and he’ll find help if he needs it. Timmy went to bed that night on a good note looking forward to his first day in the working field. Timmy woke up early the following morning and got himself ready for work. He was supposed to be there at 11:00 a.m. but he wanted to get there a little early so he would look better. While he was getting ready, he realized that he totally forgot about his quiz on cell parts that he was scheduled to have that night. He didn’t know what to do!! Since he had to be at work in a short time, he knew he didn’t have time to study. Timmy 2007-01-09T04:10:15-05:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/Breakdown-of-the-Parts-of-a-Human-Cell-32323.aspx Artificial Intelligence and the Chaos Theory Recently, the media has spent an increasing amount of broadcast time on new technology. The focus of high-tech media has been aimed at the flurry of advances concerning artificial intelligence (AI). What is artificial intelligence and what is the media talking about? Are these technologies beneficial to our society or mere novelties among business and marketing professionals? Medical facilities, police departments, and manufacturing plants have all been changed by AI but how? These questions and many others are the concern of the general public brought about by the lack of education concerning rapidly advancing computer technology. Artificial intelligence is defined as the ability of a machine to think for itself. Scientists and theorists continue to debate if computers will actually be able to think for themselves at one point (Patterson 7). The generally accepted theory is that computers do and will think more in the future. AI has grown rapidly in the last ten years chiefly because of the advances in computer architecture. The term artificial intelligence was actually coined in 1956 by a group of scientists having their first meeting on the topic (Patterson 6). Early attempts at AI were neural networks modeled after the ones in the human brain. Success was minimal at best because of the lack of computer technology needed to calculate such large equations. AI is achieved using a number of different methods. The more popular implementations comprise neural networks, chaos engineering, fuzzy logic, knowledge based systems, and expert systems. Using any one of the aforementioned design structures requires a specialized computer system. For example, Anderson Consulting applies a knowledge based system to commercial loan officers using multimedia (Hedburg 121). Their system requires a fast IBM desktop computer. Other systems may require even more horsepower using exotic computers or workstations. Even more exotic is the software that is used. Since there are very few applications that are pre-written using AI, each company has to write it's own software for the solution to the problem. An easier way around this obstacle is to design an add-on. The company FuziWare makes several applications that act as an addition to a larger application. FuziCalc, FuziQuote, FuziCell, FuziChoice, and FuziCost are all products that are used as management decision support systems for other off-the shelf applications (Barron 111). In order to tell that AI is present we must be able to measure the intelligence being used. 2007-01-08T20:59:03-05:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/Artificial-Intelligence-and-the-Chaos-Theory-32283.aspx The Emerging Science of Chaos and its Theories Chaos, making a NEW science? Now wait, you might be thinking now that you are very familiar with chaos. Well, it’s been in your room for as long as you can think back and some might even admit that it’s in their minds… So what’s so very new and amazing about it???? Don’t we encounter chaos everywhere in our everyday-lives, for example if we repeatedly curse the poor weather forecaster on TV for the wrong prediction and in fact it can’t be more than a prediction or have you ever wondered who designs the beautifully complex snowflakes???? And what about the column of smoke from a cigarette which first rises steadily, but then breaks into wild swirls??? And have you ever thought of chaos as a science or theory like the quantum theory or Einstein’s theory of relativity? Probably not and this is exactly what scientists still thought just 20 years ago because the problem of chaos is a deep problem. Author: James Gleick, the author of this truly captivating book, has actually created an account or a kind of collection of all the research on chaos done by more than hundred scientists since the Sixties. He was born in New York City and graduated from Harvard College. Furthermore, he was an editor and reporter at the New York Times for ten years and currently lives in New York with his wife and son. “Chaos, making a new science” or “The amazing science of the unpredictable” was a 1987 National Book Award and Pulitzer Prize nominee, the famous prize for journalism and letters. The laws of chaos can be understood in so many ways that not even scientists could agree on them, but I will try my best at introducing you to this new scientific world step by step in the presentation to come. One way of putting it is to say that “where chaos begins, classical science stops”. But what does chaos in this new scientific sense mean? Let’s start with how this idea of chaos arose! For as long as the world has had physicists inquiring into the laws of nature it has seen a special ignorance about disorder in the universe, like the turbulent sea or clouds that seem to chase each other over the sky, just to name two. These were highly non-linear problems and 2006-12-29T16:16:07-05:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/The-Emerging-Science-of-Chaos-and-its-Theories-32162.aspx Dangers of the Greenhouse Effect When a person starts their car or does a very small and simple thing the last thing that they are thinking of are the consequences it has to the atmosphere. Because of the continuous changing of the society, the earth has to get used to several different problems. Even though the atmosphere is known to be good because it protects us from the deadly radiation from the sun, it also takes that same heat and engulfs the earth in it. The greenhouse effect refers to the light energy that is trapped by the gases in the atmosphere, and the gases convert the light energy into heat energy. Although most of this heat energy redirected into space, the earth traps enough of it to heat the atmosphere, or enough to make a temperature that can support life. That is the actual greenhouse effect, but when it is put to perspective in our days, scientists believe it is not very good. Scientists think that the greenhouse effect will become uncontrollable. They believe that since there is so much activity happening on earth, that it will produce more of the greenhouse gases to put in the atmosphere. And the more gases there are then the more heat there will be trapped in the atmosphere. The gases that are trapped in the atmosphere that make the greenhouse effect are natural gases such as carbon dioxide, methane, nitrous oxide, and halocarbons. The greenhouse effect can be harmful, but it can also be helpful. Since the climate gets hotter and hotter each year, this will cause the vegetation to die, and without vegetation, the animals that rely on the vegetation, herbivores, and then the animals that rely on eating the herbivores, carnivores, die out and then the whole eco-system is messed up. Also causes problems by raising the temperature on the planet. Even though the raise in the temperature is not much, the earths eco-system is very easily damaged. The Inter-Governmental Panel has predicted that by the year 2025, the temperature will go up by one degree and that would almost destroy the North American corn crop, which produces much of the world’s grain. All of that results in much higher grain prices and less grain for the third world countries than the small amount they 2006-12-29T15:52:12-05:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/Dangers-of-the-Greenhouse-Effect-32154.aspx Dangers of Biological Warfare Since man first started using his hands to make tools and weapons, he has always struggled to be more powerful and have better weapons than his enemies. Today is no different. Perhaps one of the newest, most publicly known type of weapon being created and tested is biological warfare. This type of warfare is believed to be the best and most deadly of all weapons, however, the big question is, how safe is it, and what are its effects on the environment? In James Powlik’s Sea Change, the author clearly states that biological warfare is not safe and that it is harmful to the environment. Three good examples of this are: the Pfiesteria in Powlik’s novel, its effects on humans, and its effects on animals. Firstly, just by taking a look at the Pfiesteria will show just how dangerous it really is. Although the Pfiesteria in Powlik’s novel is a semi-fictitious organism, there are other biological weapons similar to it. The Pfiesteria is described as follows: Taxonomic genus of dinoflagellate first described in the early 1990’s and found in the Gulf Stream waters of the Atlantic Ocean. Pfiesteria prefers warm, brackish conditions and has been linked to seasonal fish kills in nutrient-laden estuaries of the U.S. mid-Atlantic states. It consumes other algae, sometimes using the chloroplasts for photosynthesis. The organism has been described as having up to 24 distinct life stages and produces at least two toxins that act offensively rather than as a passive deterrent. One, a water-soluble neurotoxin, is used to stun prey, while a second, fat-soluble toxin ulcerates and destroys tissue. (Powlik, 478) This is a description of the real Pfiesteria, but the Pfiesteria in Sea Change is not all that different from it. The only difference is the semi-fictitious Pfiesteria can harm humans and animals larger than cod-size fish, and can survive in the Pacific Ocean near Canada. On top of this, both types of Pfiesteria can form a protective layer called a cyst when the conditions they are living in at the time are no longer ideal. This means that they go into a type of ‘hibernation’ until the conditions are livable. They can ‘hibernate’ in this state for more than 20 years. This can obviously be a problem because people might think that it 2006-12-29T15:50:54-05:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/Dangers-of-Biological-Warfare-32153.aspx The Geology of Mt. Kilauea Mt. Kilauea is one of the world’s most active volcanoes. The Hawaiian name “Kilauea” means spewing or much spreading. Located on the big island of Hawaii, it has had 61 major eruptions in its huge lifetime. Mt. Kilauea has an elevation of 4,200 feet and has an area that consists of 552 square miles. Common questions asked about Kilauea are: What kinds of forces cause Mt. Kilauea erupt constantly over a long period of time, and why don’t any other volcanoes do this? In response, the answers to these questions are both tied together with the volcanoes ‘hot spot’. A hot spot for this Hawaiian volcano is located beneath the island and provides magma for eruptions. This hot spot carries constant and steady supplies of magma for the mountain to spew. Not much is known about these “hot spots” beneath the surfaces of these volcanoes. Since 1983, Mt. Kilauea has been a continuous lava-spitting volcano. Kilauea is approximately 23,000 years old and is considered to be a shield volcano, a composite eruption with basaltic magma. Hundreds of earthquakes happen beneath the volcano and island’s surface. These earthquakes are defined as volcanic activity earthquakes. Some of these quakes have been large enough to send and generate tsunamis or tidal waves. The largest earthquake’s magnitude was measured at a 7.9. This quake made a 15-meter tsunami on April 2nd, 1968 and killed 81 people. Volcanoes have formed the basic landscape of the Hawaiian Islands. The volcanoes have built this state up to 4,200 feet in elevation! The lava flows generated by Mt. Kilauea have caused mass destruction to Hawaii by burning down houses, cars, and villages. Eruptions, spitting up lava that can exceed 1,ooo degrees, burn anything in its path. This fiery nature-made substance boils into lakes and streams, killing many fish and incinerating wildlife. Sometimes Kilauea’s lava spouts can get up to 200-300 meters high. Often Kilauea’s lava spouts cause huge rocks to fall from the sky. This happens by the lava flying and hardening in mid-air and finally falling to the ground. One of these “flying rocks” has been found up to 3 meters in diameter. Researchers and scientists find Kilauea to be one of 2006-12-29T15:16:38-05:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/The-Geology-of-Mt_-Kilauea--32149.aspx The Dangers of Water Pollution Non-point Water Pollution has always been a major problem throughout the world, especially the United States. The lack of suitable water used for drinking, agriculture, farming, etc. has declined through the years. With a shortage of water in most of the United States, proper methods of treating an recycling water is the key goal in sustaining our limited water resources supply. Most people believe that the largest source of water pollution comes form a pipe, which originates from factories and sewage treatment plants. But the fact is that the largest source of water pollution in rivers, lakes, and streams does not come from pipes, but from surface run-off. This type of pollution is called “non-point source” pollution. NPS pollution occurs when rainfall, snowmelt, or irrigation runs over land or through the ground, picks up pollutants, and deposits them into rivers, lakes, and coastal waters or introduces them into ground water. Imagine the path taken by a drop of rain from the time it hits the ground to when it reaches a river, ground water, or the ocean. Any pollutant it picks up on its journey can become part of the NPS problem. NPS pollution also includes adverse changes to the vegetation, shape, and flow of streams and other aquatic systems. Non-point source pollution results from a wide variety of human activities on the land. Each of us can contribute to the problem without even realizing it. These pollutants include: •Excess fertilizers, herbicides, and insecticides from agricultural lands and residential areas; •Oil, grease, and toxic chemicals from urban runoff and energy production; •Sediment from improperly managed construction sites, crop and forest lands, and eroding streambanks; •Salt from irrigation practices and acid drainage from abandoned mines; •Bacteria and nutrients from livestock, pet wastes, and faulty septic systems; •Atmospheric deposition and hydromodification are also sources of Nonpoint source pollution. States report that non-point source pollution is the leading remaining cause of water quality problems. The effects of non-point source pollutants on specific waters vary and may not always be fully assessed. Beach closures, destroyed habitat, unsafe drinking water, fish kills, and many other severe environmental and human health problems result from NPS pollutants. The pollutants also ruin the beauty of healthy, clean water habitats. Each year the United States spends millions of dollars to restore and 2006-12-20T02:58:36-05:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/The-Dangers-of-Water-Pollution-32116.aspx Bird Study of the California Condor The California Condor has been on the brink of extinction with only a few condors left, but now with the help of zoologists, there are over 150 California Condor in the captivity and in the wild. The California Condor is a very prehistoric animal that lived since the Pleistocene period. During the Pleistocene period California Condor roamed most of the southern United States, but now there are only limited to Central California. Zoologists have discovered an amazing way to increase the California Condor population. The scientific name for the California Condor is Gymnogyps Californianus. They are the largest bird in North America. They have orange and a yellowish-gray head. It has little hair on its head (near nose). It has a small sharp hooked beak and red eyes. It height is 45-55 inches and weigh about 20-25 pounds. It is around 4 feet from its head to its tail. Its wing span is 8 ½. The young under 4 years old is black with white feathers. The older ones have black and white triangular patches of feathers. They have scaly skin on flat long legs. California’s Condors eat sea mammals, mussels, dead bodies, cattle, dear’s flesh, rabbits, dead goats, giant sloths, dead fish, ground squirrels, dead horses, mice, rats, skunks, whales, and sheep, and mastodons during the prehistoric times. A California Condor’s young eats regurgitated food from the crop of their parents. A young chick eats sixteen times a week. The life cycle of a California Condor starts with an egg. The egg has a greenish or blunt tint. California Condors can only hatch one egg at a time. Incubation takes about 50-60 days. The egg can hold about one pint of water. The female and mail has to be six or seven to have its first baby. The mates stay together for their whole life. The California Condor is a very rare and endangered animal. In 1880 California put a law that it was illegal to shoot a California Condor. When the California Condor produced its egg a raven would come by and eat the egg before it hatched because the egg take about 50-60 days to hatch. Farmers thought that California Condors 2006-12-20T01:42:29-05:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/Bird-Study-of-the-California-Condor-32100.aspx Potential Health Benefits of the Human Genome Project From World News Tonight to the cover of Science magazine, the Human Genome Project (HGP) has attracted much attention. For the past few years, the HGP has been at the forefront of science news and publicity. It has been built up to be the largest breakthrough in the history of modern science. This project will revolutionize the practice of medicine by drastically improving the treatment and/or prevention of numerous diseases and defects. The HGP is in the process of sequencing all the protein bases of DNA in a human, and although each person’s DNA is unique, scientists agree that there is a certain sequence common to everyone. Finding this sequence and recognizing what parts of the DNA do what is the ultimate goal of the HGP. This task, developed in 1990, didn’t just seem difficult at its time of conception; it seemed impossible. However, expected advancements in technology have occurred along the way, placing the task within reach. What will stem from these findings will for sure make a significant impact on modern medicine. The Human Genome Project is an international research program attempting to construct detailed genetic maps of the human genome, to determine the sequence, to localize the approximately 100,000 genes in the genome, and to be able to analyze all of this (“The HGP” 1). The term genome refers to the sum of all genes, which are made of DNA (“Speed” 7). DNA is made up of four similar chemicals (called bases), which are also called amino acids. They are called guanine, cytosine, thymine, and adenine. These four amino acids are repeated in a certain order throughout three billion pairs in the human genome (“Human” 5). It is this certain order that makes each person unique. Scientists do say, however, that humans are enough alike that there is a genomic sequence that can function as a standard for all of humanity (“Speed” 2). To find this sequence is the major goal of the HGP. Jack Robertson, in his article in the Sacramento Business Journal paints a picture of the future with the HGP in hand. Cancer will be gone. Birth defects will disappear like childhood diseases did a generation ago. An understanding of the entire sequence of 2006-12-19T16:58:39-05:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/Potential-Health-Benefits-of-the-Human-Genome-Project-32088.aspx The Threat of Mad Cow Disease in America Mad Cow disease has been heavily spoken about on the international news. Our hopes are that the disease will not spread into the United States, even though several people have died from the disease. Our initial purpose of researching this topic has been inspired by the growing concern for the outbreak of Mad Cow Disease and it’s various forms. We believe that it is imperative that we take our research and implement it to others along with facts in order to generate concern for other countries regulations, United States regulations, health concerns and economical awareness. Our research is based on much information accessed by the Internet, news journals, books, television broadcasting and 86 general public polls taken by our group. Imagine yourself sitting down at your local McDonalds biting into that delicious Big Mac. The same as you always order when you come to McDonalds, but this time is different, this time the meat that you ingest is infected with a deadly prion that is still in the meat, even after cooking it. This deadly prion comes from a cow that has had Mad Cow Disease. The cow was butchered and sold before dying of the disease, and before showing any real symptoms. Now your probably thinking if I do not eat cow meat then I am safe from this disease. Well imagine putting on your lipstick or several other types of facile creams and other common products that you use every day only to find that you could still be infected with the CJD disease. CJD is caused by ingesting or using a product that has been infected with Mad Cow. It is very possible to be infected by any products that are used from cows, if the United States is lenient on their regulations and laws related to this issue. Mad Cow Disease is the disease that infects cows, but it could easily affect every single one of use too, even if you do not ingest the meat. Mad Cow Disease should be taken very seriously because it can affect the whole world, even if your country is unaffected by the disease. Mad Cow is not a new disease, for it has been around for a few decades. 2006-12-19T16:52:27-05:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/The-Threat-of-Mad-Cow-Disease-in-America-32086.aspx The Threat of Global Warming Global warming is sometimes refereed to as the greenhouse effect. The greenhouse effect is the absorption of energy radiated from the Earth’s surface by carbon dioxide and other gases in the atmosphere, causing the atmosphere to become warmer. The greenhouse effect is what is causing the temperature on the Earth to rise, and it is creating many problems that will begin to occur in the near future. For the last 10,000 years, the Earth’s climate has been extraordinarily beneficial to mankind. “Humans have prospered tremendously well under a benign atmosphere,” (Bates 28). Today, however, many changes are taking place. People are conducting an inadvertent global experiment by changing the face of the entire planet. The human race is destroying the ozone layer, which allows life to exist on the Earth’s surface. All of these activities are unfavorably altering the composition of the biosphere and the Earth’s heat balance. If the population does not slow down the use of fossil fuels and stop destroying the forests, the world could become hotter than it has been in the past million years. Average global temperatures have risen one degree Fahrenheit over the last century. If carbon dioxide and other greenhouse gases continue to spill into the atmosphere, global temperatures could rise five to ten degrees by the middle of the next century. The warning will be the greatest at the higher latitudes of the Northern Hemisphere, with the largest temperature rises occurring in winter. Most areas will experience summertime highs well above one hundred degrees Fahrenheit. New temperature record will be set each year. As a possible prelude to global warming, the decade of the 1980’s has had the six hottest years of the century (Erandson 18-22). Atmospheric disturbances brought on by the additional warming will produce more violent storm and larger death tolls. Some areas, particularly in the Northern Hemisphere, will dry out and a greater occurrence of lighting strikes will set massive forest fires. The charring of the Earth by natural and man-made forest fires will dump additional quantities of carbon dioxide into the atmosphere. Changes in temperature and rainfall brought on by global warming will in turn change the composition of the forests. At the present rate of destruction, most of the rain forests will be gone by the middle of the next century. This will allow man-made deserts to encroach on once 2006-12-19T16:10:05-05:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/The-Threat-of-Global-Warming-32075.aspx Issues with Animal Cloning The theory of being able to make a genetic copy (a clone) of another animal has been around for quite a while. But animal cloning has been a scientific breakthrough only in recent years. Through cloning and genetic engineering, scientists have been able to perform incredible medical procedures that could one day help diseased people all over the world. There are many steps involved in cloning, and many precautions must be used. Scientists have found many useful benefits to animal cloning in many areas of science, and these may one day help mankind in the future. In order for animal cloning to be successful, many steps are necessary. There are three common ways of cloning animals. One way is by separating the embryo. This involves taking out a fertilized ovum, waiting until a cell cultivates into four cells, separating these cells, then putting the ovum back into the animal. Each of the cells has the exact same DNA. Another way of cloning animals is nuclear transplantation (taking the cell from a fertilized ovum). This is done by taking out a fertilized ovum from an animal when nuclear splitting starts, then by using enzymes, the nucleus will be cut one by one, then a cell is taken out of an unfertilized ovum that came from a different animal and a cell from the fertilized ovum is put in to replace it, then an electrical shock is given to the unfertilized ovum so that the cell and unfertilized ovum come together to become a fertilized ovum. This ovum is put into another one of the animal so that it can give birth to the newly fertilized egg. Another common method of cloning is done by taking cells from parts of the body. First, a cell is taken from an animal, then cell is cultivated so it will become active again, then an unfertilized ovum is prepared, then a cell is taken from it and replaced by the original cell from the animal being cloned. By using electrical shock the cell and ovum come together to become fertilized, making a cloned egg. This cloned egg is inserted into an unfertilized ovum to give birth to the clone. As it can be seen, nuclear transplantation and taking cells from parts of the 2006-12-19T03:52:49-05:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/Issues-with-Animal-Cloning--32069.aspx Bioengineering Food In the past decade, we have become witness to the creation to the birth of “ Dolly, the lamb, ” in-vitro fertilization, organ transplants, and nutritionally enhanced food, all of which fall under the very controversial topic of cloning. These dramatic advances in biotechnology have spurred many ethical debates as well as questions by many philosophers, researchers, scientists, as well as everyday people in dire need of these advancements for medical reasons. On the one hand, from a utilitarian perspective, bioengineering is essentially creating, “ the greatest good for the greatest number,” by possibly eliminating life threatening diseases and prolonging human life. On the other, it provokes fear throughout humans that one-day biotechnology may advance so far as to be able to clone human beings. Despite these fears, we can see how the bioengineering of food is a positive advancement in technology. Life can be prolonged and enhanced with cures for diseases; higher yielding crops and more nutritionally enhanced food, benefits all of us. First of all, let us take an ethical standpoint. Based on the famous nineteenth-century English philosopher John Stuart Mill, “The purpose of a moral action is to achieve the greatest overall happiness, and to create the greatest good for the greatest number.” (Donaldson, p. 5) The bioengineering of food essentially creates the greatest good for the greatest number; for obvious reasons, all humans need food, and more nutritious food at that. The influence of bioengineering in crops could result in food that is more nutritious, better tasting, as well as creating a higher yields of crops. This bioengineered food can help to provide the poor with food at a more rapid pace. As, with the use of bioengineering, scientists are able to genetically alter crops through a process known as selective breeding. In this process, scientists can create crops having only desirable traits, thereby eliminating the undesirable traits. You may ask, why can’t we just grow crops in the traditional manner? According to the International Food Information Council Foundation, ‘Rather than spending 10-12 years to breed plants in the traditional manner, mixing thousands of genes to improve a crop plant, modern crop breeders can select a specific genetic trait from any pant and move it into the genetic code of another plant through biotechnology.’ (Food Biotechnology Inc., Background) Biotechnology, according to the International Food Information Council foundation, is in essence helping 2006-12-19T03:11:54-05:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/Bioengineering-Food-32054.aspx In Favor of Increased Cloning Research The announcement of the cloned ewe, Dolly, in 1997 by scientists in Scotland, was a shock to the entire world. The idea of cloning wasn’t new, but at the time still seemed farfetched to most. As John Greeney stated “We had not, as a species, ever truly considered the likelihood that human reproduction would fall so fully under the hand of technology” (1). However, once the reality of this controversial practice set in, scholars and common people alike began to debate the pros and cons of cloning from one end of the globe to the other. With morals and ethics at the forefront of the debate, people were, and still are, quite divided, as those are touchy subjects of personal opinion. Governments around the world quickly echoed the squeamishness of the public as many countries enacted bans on experiments that used the cloning of human cells. The United States was no exception as the federal government enacted laws to ban all experiments that involve the cloning of human cells. However, it is clear that the cloning of human cells has become inevitable. In response, the United States should draft laws that only allow for therapeutic cloning and cloning for infertile couples, with an agency that will oversee all of these practices. If this were to occur, there would be a higher quality of life throughout the country. To start, the cloning of human beings appears to be inevitable. Scientists, doctors, and researchers around the world have been successfully cloning and manipulating animals for years as they wait for the moratorium on human cloning to come to an end. With each attempt at cloning animal cells, these doctors and scientists are learning more about cloning and developing hypotheses on how to apply their findings to humans. The only thing standing in their way of actually applying their findings to human beings are the government bans which are to soon be lifted. “Now that the technology exist to easily modify genes in animals, scientists and bioethicists realize that there is very little standing in the way of applying this genetic technology to human beings” (Richardson 1). Also, in the United States, the federal government gave federal funds to the Oregon Health Sciences University where, “Scientists…modified the genetic make-up of one 2006-12-18T22:22:33-05:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/In-Favor-of-Increased-Cloning-Research-32037.aspx Research on the Human Genome Project A genome is the complete collection of an organism’s genetic material. The human genome is composed of about 50,000 to 100,000 genes located on the 23 pairs of chromosomes in a human cell. A single human chromosome may contain more than 250 million DNA base pairs, and it is estimated that the entire human genome consists of about 3 billion base pairs. Now knowledgeable of the genome, one can fix his or her attention on the Human Genome Project. The goal of which is to gain a basic understanding of the entire genetic blueprint of a human being. This genetic information is found in each cell of the body, encoded in the chemical deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA). The project is intended to identify all the genes in the nucleus of a human cell; to establish, by a process known as mapping, where those genes are located on the chromosomes in the nucleus; and to determine, by a process known as sequencing, the genetic information encoded by the order of the DNA’s chemical subunits. The ultimate goal of genomic mapping and sequencing is to associate specific human traits and inherited diseases with particular genes at precise locations on the chromosomes. The successful completion of the genome project will provide an unparalleled understanding of the fundamental organization of human genes and chromosomes. It promises to revolutionize both therapeutic and preventive medicine by providing insights into the basic biochemical processes that underlie many human diseases. The idea of undertaking a coordinated study of the human genome arose from a series of scientific conferences held between 1985 and 1987. The Human Genome Project began in earnest in the United States in 1990 with the expansion of funding from the National Institutes of Health (NIH) and the Department of Energy (DOE). One of the first directors of the U.S. program was American biochemist James Watson, who in 1962 shared the Nobel Prize in physiology or medicine with British biophysicists Francis Crick and Maurice Wilkins for the discovery of the structure of DNA. Many nations have official human-genome research programs as part of this informal collaboration, including France, Germany, Japan, the United Kingdom, and other members of the European Union. In separate projects intended to speed up the mapping and sequencing process, several private companies, including Celera Genomics, are also sequencing the human genome. The National Human Genome 2006-12-18T22:10:47-05:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/Research-on-the-Human-Genome-Project-32032.aspx Studying Human Biorhythms Biorhythms are based upon the theory that your physical, emotional, and intellectual self vary sinusoidally with time. The physical self is said to have a period of 23 days, which means that if the cycle starts at zero, (as sin graphs do) in 23 days, the cycle would have peaked at 1, passed zero, reached a minimum at –1, and ascended again to reach zero, a complete cycle, with 4 key locations, the maximum, the passing of the starting level on the way down to the minimum, the actual minimum, and the point at which the graph recovers to zero. All sine graphs begin like this, however, a sine graph can be viewed at points that it does not start at zero, perhaps, starting at the maximum, and returning to the maximum, or vice versa, starting at the minimum, and returning to such. Although the sine graph can be viewed from any segment, all sine graphs start at a medium and incline towards their maximum. The intellectual cycle repeats on a 33-day cycle. It starts at zero, and over the span of 33-days, reaches a maximum, passes its level of origin, reaches a minimum, and comes back to its point of origin. The emotional cycle varies sinusoidally with time over a period of 28 days. Which means it begins at the beginning of the marked time, and returns back to repeat the same motions, once every 28 days. Scientists believe that biorhythms are not influenced by stress, or by a variance in body composition, personal beliefs, etc. Scientists believe that biorhythms are a consistent, naturally occurring constant. They also believe the periods are rigid, all starting at zero on your birthday. This theory was first explored by Dr. Wilhelm Fliess, in the 1890’s.1 Dr. Fliess’ work was involving the 23 and 28 day cycles of some of his patients. He studied the status of overall health, including fevers, childhood illness, and susceptibility to death.1 His studies gained notoriety, and soon Sigmund Freud, among other famous scientists of the day, became interested in the theories. Since the inception of the study of biorhythms in the 1890’s, numerous studies have been done validation the theory. Biorythms are said to be critical when they undergo the change from maximum to minimum, which, in following 2006-12-18T20:09:18-05:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/Studying-Human-Biorhythms-32026.aspx Research on Teens Not Getting Enough Sleep What is so hard for teens these days to get enough sleep? Why are they never rested up and always tired in class? These are some of the many questions people have on teens and sleep. 2006-12-18T17:55:52-05:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/Research-on-Teens-Not-Getting-Enough-Sleep-32010.aspx Medical Research on Hepatitis B and C There are different ways that hepatitis B or C can be caught. They are spread by contact with infected blood or other body fluids of people who are infected with hepatitis B or C. Having sex with an infected person is an example of how you could be infected. When people who use intravenous drugs share needles with someone who has the virus, they can get hepatitis B or C. Health care workers, like nurses, lab technicians and doctors, can get infected if accidentally stuck with a needle used on an infected patient. Headache, nausea, vomiting, abdominal pain, jaundice (skin turns yellow), weakness and fatigue are included symptoms of hepatitis B and C. Bowel movements may be gray in color and your urine may be dark and look like tea. Though, hepatitis is a mild case sometimes. You may not even realize that you have it if you have a mild case. Symptoms are similar to stomach flu, but when it’s a mild case, there may not be any symptoms at all. Some people think they have the flu not knowing that they have hepatitis. Hepatitis is in the acute stage when you are having symptoms. It can last from several weeks to several months. Hepatitis B or C can become an illness in some people, which lasts a long time. This is called chronic hepatitis. Other people recover from the infection and have no long-term problems. Chronic hepatitis can set in when a person has recovered from acute hepatitis. When the liver is damaged by the acute illness and doesn’t recover chronic hepatitis occurs. Chronic hepatitis develops in 10% to 20% of people who have hepatitis B and in 30% to 50% of people who have hepatitis C. People who have hepatitis B or C may not experience any symptoms at all. But chronic hepatitis can lead to cirrhosis of the liver in some people. Cirrhosis occurs when the liver cells die and are replaced by scar tissue and fat. The liver stops working and can’t empty the body of wastes. People may not have symptoms when in the early stages of cirrhosis. When it gets worse, then symptoms start. Those symptoms could be weight loss, fatigue, 2006-12-13T01:22:24-05:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/Medical-Research-on-Hepatitis-B-and-C-31985.aspx (1) Coronary heart disease is a disease of the arteries supplying blood to the muscle forming the walls of the heart. The blockage of a coronary artery is called coronary thrombosis or heart attack, causing extreme and gripping chest pains. If a coronary artery is blocked, part of the heart muscle does not receive any blood. The muscle cells receive no oxygen, they cannot respire and therefore they die. The size of the heart attack depends upon the size and position of the coronary artery blocked. If a small branch of an artery is blocked, only a small amount of muscle dies causing a small heart attack. If a large artery is blocked, the whole heart may stop contracting, resulting in a cardiac arrest. (1)) (1)Atherosclerosis is a main cause of CHD. This is the progressive blocking of arteries with atheroma. These are deposits of cholesterol and fibrous tissue which narrow the arteries, reducing blood flow and making the artery walls less elastic, and therefore roughening their inner surface. There are a number of factors that can affect Atherosclerosis.((4) Lack of physical inactivity is a common risk factor. 7 out of 10 adults in the UK do not take enough regular physical activity. (4)) Physical activity also raises HDL cholesterol levels which with regular physical activity lowers the damaging LDL levels. Regular exercise helps to prevent blood clotting by providing sufficient blood flow to remove and stop the build up of atheroma, therefore preventing coronary thrombosis. (4)) Preventing the build up of atheroma can be prevented by physical exercise as this raises the amount of high-density lipoprotein cholesterol in our arteries. However it is the fact that excess cholesterol is present in our arteries that results in a dangerous amount of atheroma forming in the coronary artery and this excess comes from our diet. ((1) Some cholesterol is essential for our bodies to function as they are needed in cell membranes, however the level of cholesterol entering our bodies through diet is a major factor affecting coronary heart disease. The level of LDL cholesterol in the blood tends to rise, and HDL falls, with the amount of saturated fats and ((5) triglycerides in a diet. (1+5)) ((4) Atheroma develops when LDL cholesterol is oxidised and is taken up by cells in the coronary artery walls where the narrowing process begins eventually resulting in 2006-12-10T19:04:03-05:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/The-Factors-that-Affect-Coronary-Heart-Disease-31969.aspx Evolution Of The Nervous System Through Nine Animal Phylum The only multi-cellular animals without a nervous system are sponges. They do not have any nerve cells or sensory cells. Despite this, touch or pressure to the outside of a sponge will cause a local contraction of its body. Cnidarians The jellyfish and most all other forms of cnidarians, such as the hydra and sea anemone, are characterized by a nerve net. A nerve net is a series of interconnected nerve cells that conduct impulses around the jellyfish’s entire body. The strength of the jellyfish’s response is proportional to the strength by which the jellyfish is being stimulated. So, in other words, the stronger the stimulus is the stronger the reaction will be. Platyhelminthes The nervous system of the planaria, similar to that of many platyhelminthes, is only a step above the simple nerve net of the Cnidarians. In addition to the nerve net, the platyhelminthes have long nerve cords that connect the different sections of nerve nets. All of the nerve cords come together at a location near the head called the cerebral ganglion. The central nervous system has been described as ladder-like because of the nerves connecting the cords. Nematoda The nematoda have a simple nervous system. It consists of a ring of nervous tissue around the pharynx that gives rise to dorsal and ventral nerve cords running the length of the body. The dorsal nerve cord runs along the top of the intestine and the lateral nerve cord runs to the left of the intestine. When the nerve cords are stimulated they cause the longitudinal muscle, which runs all along the outside of the body, to contract. Annelida The brain of most annelids is relatively simple in structure. In some, the brain is divided into a forebrain, midbrain, and hindbrain. Sensory nerves leave the brain and run forward into the prostomium and first segment. A single pair of circumesophageal connectives leaves the brain, surround the anterior gut, and connect with the ventral nerve cord. The most primitive annelids have a pair of ventral nerve cords joined by transverse connectives; the most advanced forms have the cords fused to form a single cord. A ganglionic swelling of the cord is found in each body segment. Two to five pairs of lateral nerves leave each ganglion to innervate the body wall of that segment. 2006-12-08T03:19:14-05:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/Evolution-Of-The-Nervous-System-Through-Nine-Animal-Phylum-31952.aspx Pendulum Laboratory Write Up A simple pendulum consists of a mass called the pendulum bob suspended from a support by a thread. A complete vibration of a pendulum consists of one swing over and one swing back. The time for a complete vibration is called the period (T) of a pendulum. This is usually measured in seconds. When a pendulum swings through a small arc, its bob is undergoing sample harmonic motion. The force causing the bob to swing along its arc is greatest when its speed is least. The force is least when the speed of the bob is the greatest. Objectives: During this investigation you will: (a) Test the effect of the certain variables on the period of a pendulum. (b) Learn to use a graphical method as a means of determining mathematical relationships that describe physical phenomenon. Procedure: 1. Suspend the 50-gram and the 100-gram pendulum side by side. Make each pendulum the same length (50 cm as measured from the point of support to the center of each bob). 2. Using a ruler, pull the bobs aside together to the same height (about simultaneously by quickly dropping the ruler. Observe the two bobs of different mass as they swing through their arcs. Record you observations in the Data and Calculations section. 3. Start the bobs swinging simultaneously again, but this time release each from a different height. Observe the bobs to see if they both arrive at the bottom of their swings together. Do they each swing through their different arcs in the same or different times? Observe over several swings. Record you observations in the Data and Calculations section. 4. Remove one of the pendulum. Vary the length of the remaining pendulum by grasping the thread at different distances from the bob and allowing the bob to swing through several vibrations. Record your observations in the Data and Calculations section. 5. To be more quantitative, use your stopwatch to measure the time required for pendulum of different lengths to swing through 40 complete vibrations. Begin with the 50-cm pendulum. Record this time in Table 13-1. 6. Repeat Steps 5 and 6 for each of the pendulum lengths listed in the table. Enter your data in 13-1. Observations: 2006-12-07T19:33:01-05:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/Pendulum-Laboratory-Write-Up-31935.aspx Research Essay on Brain and Head Injuries Head and brain injuries occur when you least expect them to. The seriousness can range from just a bump to a mental illness, paralysis, and even death. The minor bumps and bruises often have no long term effects, but more serious injuries often have long term or even permanent side effects. These serious head injuries often lead to a psychological disorder from either the injury itself or the aftermath of the injury (Lehr). To understand the way an injury to the head or brain would occur, one must understand the biology of the brain, and the areas that would be affected. The frontal lobe is the most anterior and it is right under the forehead. It is almost always injured because of its large size and its location near the front of the cranium. It is also easily injured because of its location near bony protrusions. The main functions of the frontal lobe are consciousness, judgements, emotional responses, expressive language, assigns meaning to the words that are chosen, and memory for habits and motor activities. There are many problems that can be associate to a frontal lobe injury. Some of these problems can be treated while other cannot. The main difficulties are paralysis, sequencing, inability to focus on a task, mood changes, changes in social behavior, changes in personality, difficulty expressing language, and a difficulty solving problems (Nettina 1038-1039). The paralysis is almost always permanent, while the others can usually be treated. Many times when changes in personality occur they cannot be reversed because it has become a permanent part of an individual’s being. The parietal lobes which are located near the back and top of the head have the functions of location of visual attention, location for touch perception, goal directed voluntary movements, manipulation of objects, the integration of different senses that allows for the understanding of a single concept (Lehr). There are several problems that can occur from a parietal lobe injury that can directly and indirectly lead to a mental illness. One of the most serious side effects that can occur from a parietal lobe injury is apraxia. Apraxia is the lack of awareness of certain body parts and/or the surrounding space. This is a problem because it can lead to the inability to care for ones self. Other problems are inability to focus attention, trouble distinguishing left 2006-12-05T15:44:52-05:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/Research-Essay-on-Brain-and-Head-Injuries-31888.aspx Types of Chemical reactions Lots of reactions take place around us in everyday life. Reactions are quit important in chemistry and in science generally. Chemical reaction is the changing of substances to other substances by the breaking of bonds in reactants and the formation of new bonds in products. There are different types of chemical reaction: 1. Combination 2006-12-05T13:13:09-05:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/Chemical-Reactions--31875.aspx Learning about Nutrition We just spent the last couple of weeks learning about nutrition. We learned all about the proper foods to eat, and the amounts of each food group and nutrient we need to stay healthy. We learned about our own eating habits by recording what we ate for three days and by applying what we learned in class I was able to examine my good and bad eating habits. I now know what I can do to improve myself, and achieve optimum health. After reviewing my three-day eating habits, I noticed I don’t eat the recommended 2-4 servings of fruit or the 3-5 servings of veggies. On the bright side to our recording I found that I get plenty dairy, and grains servings, sometimes even 3 servings more then the recommended, this is good because I will have stronger bones, and more energy. If I learn to eat more fruits and veggies, I will become an even more healthy person. The one category I was really disappointed in was the fat percentage. I’m recommended to have 20% fat every day. On the average I had 39% fat, which is 19%over the recommended amount. This really surprised me because I felt I didn’t eat that much fat. In order to improve this bad habit I will try and eat less fatty foods and in their place eat more fruits and veggies, which is what I need. Doing this will greatly improve my health. At the present time I am trying to maintain my present weight. I have a strenuous exercise schedule, exercises at least six times every week for at least an hour and a half. For my height of 5’8’’ and my exercise level it is recommended that I consume 2400 calories a day. My average was 2465, which is only 65 calories over the recommended amount. I was very pleased to see that I was so close to the right amount, although I’m over just a little bit I don’t think it will harm me in the long run, so I plan on eating the same. After reviewing my results I feel that I need to alter what I eat. I found that I don’t get enough protein, vitamins, and minerals. On the other hand I found that I do get enough 2006-12-04T20:55:05-05:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/Learning-about-Nutrition-31861.aspx Damaging Effects of Acid Rain Acid Rain is, rain that is acidic (naturally). There is a pH level scale which tells if something is acidic or not. Due to certain chemicals in the rain it has a pH level of around 5.0, and sometimes even 4.0 (around volcanoes activity). The term acid rain is now used for rain with a pH below 5. Acid rain is caused when gases, generally like sulfur dioxide (SO2), dissolves into water to form sulfuric acid. The rest comes from 2006-12-04T20:39:23-05:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/Damaging-Effects-of-Acid-Rain-31854.aspx Implications of Inheriting your Human Genes Have you notice that some people are just not born with a good physical appearance or good health? This is because some people are not born with the immaculate genes that those fortunate people are born with. The great Aristotle once said, “Those who are sprung from better ancestors are likely to be better men, for nobility is excellence of family.” (Dobzhansky 8) Genetics determine many birth defects, disease, and cancer as well Our surrounding environment, which could include pollutants contribute to mutating genes which could also lead to disease or other health problems. Genetics isn’t simply the study of the inheritance of traits but also with how humans live, grow, and develop. (Bornstein 12) Although genes predetermine and limit someone’s health, exercise can enhance a person’s health and physical appearance. Our genes influence a person’s physical appearance and as well as health. Our growth, development, health, and appearance is effected by our hereditary genes. Hereditary genes are genes which are inherited by one’s children. Certain physical characteristics undoubtedly run in the family. Even a newborn baby is declared by admiring relatives to have “Dad’s eyes” and “Mom’s mouth” or other particular features that are somehow different from the average yet specific to the parents. All of these and many other characteristics are the results of heredity and of genetic programming involving both parents. (Marshall 7) Everyone shares genes with their relatives, and have half of each of our parents genes. Our genes make us all unique, making no one the same. No one has exactly the same genes, even twin have microscopic differences. Some people are born with the genes which inevitably make them obese. No matter how healthy they eat or how much they contribute to exercising, good health is virtually impossible. (Marshall 33) Although some people are stricken to bad health, our environment shapes who you finally become from the moment of conception onward. Just as a twig is bent, environment can change the first impression or appearance of something or someone all the same. For example, someone’s skin color can be strongly changed by outdoor life or can be lightened with no exposure to outdoors. You can not change your genes but you can modify it with your 2006-11-17T02:47:15-05:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/Implications-of-Inheriting-your-Human-Genes-31806.aspx History of the Human Genome Project The human genome project was started in with its conception in the mid 1980’s. The United States government was responsible for all the formal planning and its development. The most outstanding goal for the project is to determine the entire nucleotide sequence of the human DNA. This consists of an estimated 50,00 to 100,000genes within one human genome. The process of the entire has required developing new technology in the field of genetics. From the inception of the project it was clear that new discoveries that the project would bring new breakthroughs and new problems. There are new and interesting controversies with the human genome project. The most important to me is the choice of the possibility of choosing the best of your genes to make your child the greatest it can be. Some of the concerns with this issue are having all these super babies around is that our world will no longer be natural and more man made than in the hands of god to choose the way our children look, think, and how successful they are in life. Also with this the life expectancy of these new super babies will increase because they will have the best of everything form there parents and will not have any chance of ding young form a natural cause such as heart disease or cancer. My opinion on this very concerning issue is that only a select few should be able to choose e there children’s genetic information. The people who should be able to choose their kids genetic information is the people who can not have a normal child unless their genetic information is change in their kid. The reasoning behind this is that I believe the every married couple should be able to have a normal child because the greatest thing in life I think is seeing your perfect little child grow up to became a young man or woman. On the other hand I think people who now that now they can have a normal should be outlawed to use this information to make a super baby and let god do his work and bring them there little bundle of joy. The worst thing with being able to choose your child’s genetic makeup is being able to now everything your child will do in his lifetime and that ruins the whole joy of 2006-11-17T02:38:15-05:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/History-of-the-Human-Genome-Project-31801.aspx Medical Essay on the Disease Polio Polio, more properly known as poliomyelitis, was one of the most feared and studied diseases in the first half of the Twentieth Century (Sass, 1). This disease has paralyzed thousands in American history (Health Education Facts Sheet, 1). Polio struck its victims, mostly children under the age of three, as it appeared unpredictably bringing on a panic in the 1940s and 50s. Then, a break through occurred when Jonas Salk’s research established an effective vaccine to the poliovirus. Today, the fear of obtaining the poliovirus has been banished from children and parent’s nightmares (PICO, 3). There are three viruses that can cause polio: type I, II, and III. The viral disease can range from a mild, sometimes unnoticed, infection to muscle paralysis and death. The viruses get into the body giving the host several symptoms like paralysis, fever, neck stiffness, nausea, and weakness in the muscle groups. There are three different kinds of the polio disease: spinal polio, non-paralytic polio, and paralytic polio (Diseases, 106). Spinal polio is the most common form of the poliovirus. It occurs when the polioviruses attack the nerve cells and begins to control the muscles of the legs, arms, trunk, diaphragm, abdomen, and pelvis (World Book Encyclopedia, 497). The non-paralytic form of polio has many symptoms including nausea, headache, sore throat, back pain, neck pain, stiffness, moderate fever, vomiting, irritability, and sluggishness. The non-paralytic form changes the host’s reflex and elevates its fluid count. This form of the polio disease lasts about one week with back pain persisting for about two weeks. About 65% of known cases during the outbreak of polio were non-paralytic (What Are the Symptoms…,1). Paralytic polio usually develops about five to seven days after the beginning of the fever. The symptoms are similar to non-paralytic polio with muscle weakness, loss of reflexes, extra sensitivity to touch, urine retention, constipation, and bloating. This causes the host to become paralyzed (Health Educations Facts Sheet, 1). The poliovirus enters the host through contaminated drinking water or through contact with contaminated surfaces, such as unwashed hands. It spreads by close personal contact, usually from saliva or waste. The virus passes through the stomach into the intestines. Inside the intestines, cells are infected and the virus is duplicated. 2006-11-17T02:04:53-05:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/Medical-Essay-on-the-Disease-Polio-31787.aspx Informational Essay on Black Leopards In this melanistic form the cats are more difficult to separate, however the jaguars large head and stocky forelimbs are often a good way to differentiate between the two cats. In the wild, identification would not be an issue as the cats inhabit different continents - the jaguar is the only member of the panthera family to be found in the Americas and its is by far the biggest cat on the continent. The Jaguars range, which once spanned from the southern states of the USA down to the tip of South America, now centers on the north and central parts of the South American continent. The jaguar is predominantly a forest dweller with the highest population densities centering on the lowland rain forests of the Amazon Basin - dry woodland and grassland also serve as suitable terrain, although the cat is rarely found in areas above 8000 feet. During the peak of its decline in the sixties and seventies, around 18,000 jaguars were killed every year for there much sought after coat. Due to environmental pressure the fashion for animal furs has declined, but the jaguar is still hunted. Today the major threat comes from deforestation which is drastically affecting the jaguars prey base as well as fragmenting the cats population into more isolated pockets. It is estimated that there are now only around 15,000 jaguars left in the wild and conservation is centering on the establishment of protected ‘National Park’ areas which may serve to reduce the decline of the jaguars natural habitat. In Belize, the government, aided by the WWF, have set aside 150 square miles of rain forest in the Cockscomb Basin Wildlife Preserve, which currently provides a protected environment for around 200 jaguars, the largest concentration of the wild cats species in the world. The WWF are also providing aid to protect some of the remaining rain forests areas of South America, which provide a refuge for the majority of the remaining jaguar population .During the peak of its decline in the sixties and seventies, around 18,000 jaguars were killed every year for there much sought after coat. Due to environmental pressure the fashion for animal furs has declined, but the jaguar is still hunted. Today the major threat comes from deforestation which is drastically affecting the jaguars prey base as well as fragmenting the cats population into more isolated 2006-11-17T01:19:10-05:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/Informational-Essay-on-Black-Leopards-31769.aspx The Dangers and Reality of Acid Rain Acidity is measured using a pH scale, with the number 7 being neutral. A substance with a pH value of less than 7 is acidic, while one of a value greater than 7 is basic. A substance with a pH of 6 is 10 times more acidic than another with a pH of 7. Usually the pH of 5.6 has been used as the baseline in identifying acid rain, although there has been much debate over the acceptance of this value. Interestingly enough, a pH of 5.6 is the pH value of carbon dioxide in equilibrium with distilled water. Hence, acid ran is defined as any rainfall that has an acidity level beyond what is expected in non-polluted rainfall. In essence, any precipitation that has a pH value of less than 5.6 is considered to be acid precipitation. One of the main causes of acid rain is sulphur dioxide. Natural sources which emit this gas are volcanoes, sea spray , rotting vegetation and plankton. However, the burning of fossil fuels, such as coal and oil, are largely to be blamed for approximately half of the emissions of this gas in the world. When sulphur dioxide reaches the atmosphere, it oxidizes first . It then becomes sulphuric acid as it joins with hydrogen atoms in the air and falls back down to earth. Oxidation occurs the most in clouds and especially in heavily polluted air where other compounds such as ammonia and ozone help to catalyze the reaction, converting more sulphur dioxide to sulphuric acid. However, not all of the sulphur dioxide is converted to sulphuric acid. In fact, a substantial amount can float up into the atmosphere, move over to another area and return to earth unconverted. Nitric oxide and nitric dioxide are also components of acid rain. The sources of these components are mainly from power stations and exhaust fumes. One of the most serious impacts of acid precipitation is on forests and soils. Great damage is done when sulphuric acid falls onto the earth as rain. Nutrients present in the soils are washed away. Aluminium also present in the soil is freed and this toxic element can be absorbed by the roots of trees. Thus, the trees are starved to death as they are deprived of their vital nutrients such as calcium and magnesium. Research has been made where 2006-11-15T22:55:42-05:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/The-Dangers-and-Reality-of-Acid-Rain-31757.aspx Principles of engineering a D12-5 model rocket motor The letter is the total impulse, the first number is the average thrust and the second number is the time delay. The motor in the figure is a class D total impulse engine with an average thrust of 12 Newtons(pounds) and a time delay of 5 seconds. Total Impulse The letter indicates the total impulse class of the engine, which is effectively the amount of fuel in the engine. The total impulse is the total momentum change that an engine can impart to a rocket. Total impulse is measured in Newton-seconds (pound-seconds). The standard impulse class for each letter is shown in the following table. Class Total Impulse Newton-sec 1/4A 0.000 - 0.625 1/2A 0.626 - 1.25 A 1.260 - 2.50 B 2.510 - 5.00 C 5.010 - 10.0 D 10.01 - 20.0 E 20.01 - 40.0 F 40.01 - 80.0 G 80.01 - 160.0 H 160.01 - 320.0 Each class is double the impulse of the class below it, so as you increase the class of the engines, you double the amount of fuel each contains and double the amount of momentum you can give to a rocket Average Thrust The number following the letter indicates the average thrust of the engine in Newtons (pounds). Because the amount of fuel in an engine is fixed by the class letter, an engine with higher average thrust burns up its fuel more quickly than one with lower average thrust. As a result, the duration of a burn is roughly equal to the total impulse divided by the average thrust. The graph below shows the typical thrust profile for an engine with an average thrust of about 6 Newtons. Typical engine thrust profile. A typical engine starts with an initial high thrust for a fraction of a second, which is useful for getting things moving. It then settles down and burns the remainder of the propellant at a relatively constant rate. Time Delay The last number on an engine is the time delay, in seconds, to activation of the recovery system. The propellant in a model rocket typically burns up in about 1 second. At that point, the rocket is still moving upward at a high rate of speed. The time delay allows the rocket to continue up to its highest point before activating its recovery system. The time delay is achieved with a smoke charge that also 2006-11-15T22:28:06-05:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/Principles-of-Engineering-a-D12-5-Model-Rcket-Motor-31745.aspx The Science of Soundwaves and Their Applications The science of the sound wave is important in everyday life, from its use in car mufflers to the high tech office. In this paper I’m going to talk about the sound wave and describe its characteristics, show how this science was applied to muffler design, and computer design. Sound is a pressure wave that consists of tiny fluctuations in the air pressure. The amplitude in general, is the maximum change in value of a parameter during the oscillation of a wave. In amplitude, that parameter will usually be pressure. The amplitude of a sound is the loudness of the sound. In illustration, this is the distance between a peak or trough. See illustration on previous page. The frequency is defined as the number of vibrations, oscillations, or cycles in a repeating process occurring per unit time. In the context of sound, it is the number of compressions passing a fixed point of reference in one second. The resulting unit of frequency is called Hertz (Hz). Frequency is perceived as pitch. Intensity is the rate at which sound energy flows through a defined area. Since the flow of energy is power, the dimensions of sound intensity are power/area. Usually, sound intensity is measured in watts/meter2. Intensity is perceived as loudness. Interference is a synonym for superposition. Constructive interference is the amplitude of the combined wave, which is created by superposition and is greater than the amplitude of either component wave. Destructive interference is the amplitude of the combined wave created by superposition and is less than the amplitude of either component wave. Superposition is a concept that describes the way in which sound waves, and waves more generally, interact. In essence, two waves passing through the same point in space at the same time combine in a linear fashion to create a single new wave. If the displacement from equilibrium caused by the first wave equals "a" and the displacement from equilibrium caused by the second wave equals "b", the resulting displacement from equilibrium for the combined wave will be "a + b". This is an algebraic addition. Since "a" and "b" can be positive, negative, or equal to zero, the resulting sum can also be positive, negative, or equal to 2006-11-04T19:04:31-04:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/The-Science-of-Soundwaves-and-Their-Applications-31696.aspx The Properties of Magnesium (Mg) Magnesium, symbol Mg, is a silvery white metallic element that is relatively un-reactive. In group 2 of the periodic table, magnesium is one of the alkaline earth metals. The atomic number of magnesium is 12. Properties and Occurrence The metal, first isolated by the British chemist Sir Humphry Davy in 1808, is obtained today chiefly by electrolysis of fused magnesium chloride. Magnesium is malleable and ductile when heated. With the exception of beryllium, it is the lightest metal that remains stable under ordinary conditions. The metal is not attacked by oxygen, water, or alkalies at room temperature; it reacts with acids. When heated to about 800° C, it reacts with oxygen and emits a brilliant white light. Magnesium melts at about 649° C, boils at about 1107° C, and has a specific gravity of 1.74; the atomic weight of magnesium is 24.305. Magnesium ranks sixth in natural abundance among elements in crustal rocks. It occurs in nature only in chemical combination with other elements, particularly as the minerals carnallite, dolomite, and magnesite; in many rock-forming silicates; and as salts, such as magnesium chloride, in ocean and saline-lake waters. It is an essential part of animal and plant tissue. Uses Magnesium forms compounds, among which are magnesium carbonate (MgCO3), which is formed by the reaction of a magnesium salt and sodium carbonate and is used as a refractory and insulating material; magnesium chloride (MgCl2•6H2O), which is formed by reacting magnesium carbonate or oxide with hydrochloric acid and is used as dressing and filler for cotton and woolen fabrics, in paper manufacture, and in cements and ceramics; magnesium citrate (Mg3(C6H 5O7) 2•4H2O), which is formed by the reaction of magnesium carbonate with citric acid and is used in medicine and effervescent beverages; magnesium hydroxide (Mg(OH) 2), formed by the reacting of magnesium salt and sodium hydroxide and used in medicine as the laxative “milk of magnesia,” and in sugar refining; magnesium sulfate (MgSO4•7H2O), well known as Epsom salt; and magnesium oxide (MgO), called burnt magnesia, or magnesia, prepared by burning magnesium in oxygen or by heating magnesium carbonate and used as a heat-refractory and insulating material, in cosmetics, as a filler in paper manufacture, and as a mild, antacid laxative. Alloyed forms of magnesium have considerable tensile strength. The metal is used when lightness is an essential factor: alloyed with aluminum or copper, it 2006-11-03T01:11:31-04:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/The-Properties-of-Magnesium-Mg-31686.aspx Earthquakes, Volcanoes and Mountain Ranges Volcanoes, earthquakes and many of the great, in size, mountains (the Himalayas, Rockies, Urals, Alps, and the Appalachians) will all be marked on my map at some point in this project. Now just let me tell you some interesting facts about some of these topics. Since recorded history, 550 volcanoes have erupted on the earth’s surface, but even far more have erupted unobserved on the ocean floor. The enormous Himalayas and many other great mountains are known to be young Fold Mountains. Young, because these have been formed relatively recently in the earth’s history, compared to other mountain ranges like the Aravallis in India and the Appalachian in the USA. These are known as fold mountains because they extend for 2500 km in length in a series of parallel ridges or folds. This information has been found using a theory that took place in 1912, by a German meteorologist, named Alfred Wegener. This theory is the Theory of Continental Drift. In the real ocean, plenty of natural disasters can trigger a similar event. Caused by a paddle-effect of an earthquake, underwater volcano or even an asteroid, sunamis are enormously dangerous stealth waves that travel vast distances across the ocean. Is there a pattern or repetitiveness in certain areas on earth where volcano’s, earthquakes and mountain ranges commonly appear? a) Earthquakes are most likely to occur where tectonic plates meet or hit each other. b) Volcanoes are most likely to occur where tectonic plates split apart or separate from each other, allowing magma to come up through the cracks. c) Mountain ranges are most likely to occur where one plate slips under another allowing the magma to come up or collide and push up on each other. The materials that were used during this project were Science and Technology, The Complete Atlas of the World, the computer, the Internet, pens and pencils. The different steps I took at conjuring up information to apply to the work that has been assigned, was to: Step 1) Check in my science textbook, to find the longitude and latitude for each of the huge volcanoes and earthquakes that have happened in history and mark them on my map. Step 2) Check in my atlas, to find the huge mountain ranges that still stand today and mark them on my map. Step 3) 2006-11-02T15:52:38-04:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/Earthquakes-Volcanoes-and-Mountain-Ranges-31674.aspx The Framework of Science The Science framework clearly indicates the importance of science and technology education and the need to “understand the way of thinking and asking questions that is the essence of science.” Although “What is Philosophy of Science?” also makes a point of illustrating the importance of asking questions, it 2006-10-31T22:09:37-04:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/The-Framework-of-Science-31634.aspx The Circulatory System Circulatory System is the combined function of the heart, blood, and blood vessels to transport oxygen and nutrients to organs and tissues throughout the body and carry away waste products. The circulatory system increases the flow of blood to meet increased energy demands during exercise and regulates body temperature. Also, when foreign substances or organisms invade the body, the circulatory system quickly sends disease-fighting elements of the immune system, such as white blood cells and antibodies, to places under attack. In the case of injury or bleeding, the circulatory system sends clotting cells and proteins to the affected site, which quickly stop bleeding and promote healing. The heart, blood, and blood vessels are the three main elements that make up the circulatory system. The heart is the engine of the circulatory system. It is divided into four chambers, the right atrium, the right ventricle, the left atrium, and the left ventricle. The walls of these chambers are made of a muscle called myocardium, which contracts to pump blood. The pumping action of the heart occurs in two stages for each heartbeat. Diastole, when the heart is at rest, and systole, when the heart contracts to pump deoxygenated blood toward the lungs and oxygenated blood to the body. There are typically about 60 to 90 beats per minute. If the heart stops pumping, death usually occurs within four to five minutes. Blood consists of three types of cells, red blood cells that carry oxygen, disease-fighting white blood cells, and blood-clotting platelets, which are all carried through plasma. Plasma is yellowish and consists of water, salts, proteins, vitamins, minerals, hormones, dissolved gases, and fats. Three types of blood vessels make a network of tubes throughout the body. Arteries carry blood away from the heart, and veins carry it toward the heart. Capillaries are tiny links between the arteries and the veins where oxygen and nutrients spread to body tissues. The inner layer of blood vessels is lined with cells that create a smooth passage for the transfer of blood. This inner layer is surrounded by connective tissue and smooth muscle that help the blood vessel to expand or contract. Blood vessels expand during exercise to meet the increased demand for blood and to cool the body. Blood vessels contract after an injury to reduce bleeding and also to conserve body heat. Arteries have thicker walls than veins 2006-10-29T22:27:18-04:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/The-Circulatory-System-31623.aspx Biological and Historical Information on the Ebola Virus The Ebola virus belongs to the family Filoviridae. The Ebola virus is characterized by massive bleeding and destruction of internal tissues. The virus is named after the Ebola river in the Democratic Republic of Congo, Africa where the virus was first found. Three types of the Ebola virus have been found. They are named after the places in which they were discovered. Ebola –Zaire, Ebola-Sudan, Ebola-Tai forest. The strain Ebola –Zaire is the most deadly of the three. The Ebola viruses are mainly found in Central Africa. Recent outbreaks in humans have been discovered in areas where there aren’t enough medical supplies or care. This is a problem because the virus strikes in remote areas where access to laboratories is very limited making diagnosing the virus difficult. The first outbreak of the virus was identified 1976 in Zaire and Sudan. In Sudan 284 people were infected and 117 died. In Zaire there were 318 people infected and of those infected only 38 survived. In 1989 a fourth strain was discovered in a quarantine laboratory in Reston ,Virginia that held hundreds of imported Philippine monkeys. Four lab technicians were infected but none of them became ill, though all the monkeys died. The Ebola-Reston was found not to cause disease in humans. In 1995 a large epidemic occurred in Kikwit,Zaire. There were 315 cases and 244 fatalities. Except for a few small out breaks the Ebola virus infections were not reported again until the fall of 2000 in Uganda. The Ebola virus is transmitted by direct contact of the blood, secretions, organs and semen of infected persons. Handling an ill or dead infected chimpanzee was also proven to be a way of transmission of the disease. Infections frequently occur in hospital care workers or family members who care for a person infected with the Ebola virus. Reusing needles is another way of spreading the virus. In developing countries like Sudan and Zaire reusing needles is very common because the health care system is under financed. The Ebola virus can be spread through sexual contact. Patients who have recovered from the virus aren’t likely to spread the infection but, the virus still may be present in the genital secretions shortly after their recovery ,therefore making it possible to spread the disease through sexual contact. People at risk of the Ebola virus are persons traveling to areas 2006-10-29T22:23:51-04:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/Biological-and-Historical-Information-on-the-Ebola-Virus-31621.aspx The Search for Extraterrestrial Intelligence SETI, or the Search for Extra-Terrestrial Intelligence, is the scientific search for signals, primarily radio signals, from outer space. It is based on the belief that we will hear extraterrestrials before we see. The organization’s work has been going on ever since the 1960’s. The main tools the scientists/searchers use are radio telescopes and listening equipment. To understand this organization, one must first look at its rocky history, and its unique discoveries. The Beginning of SETI is relatively simple, in 1959 Guiseppi Cocconi and Philip Maorroson published an article in the British Science Journal Nature in which they pointed out it would in principle be possible for civilizations to communicate across space using radio waves. This theory brings two possibilities, one that we might be able to listen in on another civilization and that they might be attempting to communicate with us as well. On April 8th, 1960, Frank Drake, now the President of the SETI Institute, launched the first SETI search, called Project Ozma. Drake had a job at the National Radio Astronomy Observatory, in Green Bank, West Virginia, which had recently purchased an eighty-five foot radio signal receiver. This isn’t quite as nice as a radio telescope, but it was the limit of the technology in the sixties. Drake and his students heard a signal from a nearby star, but it soon quieted. The surprised group heard the signal again a week later. Unfortunately, they soon found out it was the noise from airplanes flying overhead. This put a slight damper on the SETI movement, though it didn’t stop it. SETI was continued by independent and amateur scientists who owned or had access to advanced telescopes. NASA took over the project in the mid seventies. This move brought ridicule from many people. SETI was thought to be a waste of NASA’s money and time. In 1981, Wisconsin Senator William Proxmire cut NASA’s funding of SETI for a year, but luckily it was renewed the following year. Throughout the later 1980’s, SETI’s most ambitious research started. They launched their final result project in 1992. It was called the High Resolution Microwave Survey. The search included using the 1,000-foot wide Arecibo radio telescope in Puerto Rico to listen closely to the 1,000 nearest stars and sweeping the entire sky with random telescopes around the globe. Soon after this project was started, SETI 2006-10-29T21:25:45-04:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/The-Search-for-Extraterrestrial-Intelligence-31610.aspx Studies on the Drug Codine The drug codeine is manufactured by the drug morphine, and could be made from the drug opium. The effects of codeine are similar to the effects of morphine, but codeine is not as potent and retains effectiveness when taken orally. Codeine is primarily used to relieve pain and to suppress coughing. A person that is on the drug codeine could build a tolerance and become addicted to it. Codeine is considered a narcotic drug when not prescribed by a doctor. Codeine is not usually taken by itself. It is usually mixed with another drug or cough syrup such as: Tylenol, APAP, Empirin and Robitussin. Codeine is used as an analgesic, or an anti-tussle. The physical and psychological dependence of the drug is moderate. When taking codeine the drug duration lasts for about three to six hours. Codeine can be taken orally or can be injected. The long-term effects of codeine are very harsh on the human body. Some of the long-term effects are: Euphoria, drowsiness, respiratory depression, constricted pupils, and nausea. Some of the withdrawal effects codeine has: watery eyes, runny nose, yawning, loss of appetite, irritability, tremors, frequent panicking, cramps, chills, and sweating. Codeine is a narcotic, one of two clinically useful phenanthine alkaloids in opium. It was discovered in the drug opium, in the year 1832, by a French chemist named Pierre Jean Robiquet. It appears sensitivity to the opiate; codeine varies with ethnic background, according to a recent study. Codeine’s analgesic properties stem mainly from the body’s ability to metabolize it into morphine, says J.J. Alastair Wood of Vanderbill University School of Medicine in Nashville. Wood examined the effects of codeine in men in European and Asian extraction. Both groups transformed codeine into morphine similarly, but the people in the Asian group experienced weaker effects from the drug. Morphine is responsible for the pain relief in codeine. Studies showed that some people lack an enzyme called CYP2D6 that chemically alters codeine into morphine. About eight percent of Whites, six percent of Africans, and one percent of Asians do not produce CYP2D6. Doctor’s think that people that do not respond to pain-killing drugs need higher doses. Doctor’s did a test on how codeine effected the breathing, blood pressure, and pupil dilation 2006-10-28T20:18:37-04:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/Studies-on-the-Drug-Codine--31602.aspx Organic Farming On a scale from Right to Left, right being absolute anthropocentric and the left being the realm of eco-terrorists, I would say that I fall somewhere just to the left of middle. I am a businessman and I believe that profit is number one. I am a citizen of this planet and I strongly believe that drastic measures must be taken to protect it. To most people the preceding statements seem contradictory but I see a strong correlation. Right now corporations all around the world are plundering their own resources, some willfully, others through ignorance. According to the book of Genesis god put all the flora and fauna on this planet for consumption by humans, we have taken that a step further to include all natural resources. It is this attitude that has lead us down the destructive path that we are on today, we simply can’t get past the idea that it is ok to rape the planet. What big business does not seem to understand is that profit potential is finite if resources are not properly used. What happens when Georgia Pacific simply runs out of trees? There is a better more wholesome approach to the environment though, it is called resource management. Our renewable resources can be managed scientifically to help to provide for future availability. Attitudes have to change about what a resource is, top soil for example, is one of the most valuable of resources we have and through organic farming methods we can save top soil. We must protect the air that we breathe and the entire atmosphere that surrounds us this is of course most critical in sustaining ourselves. The problem with resource management today is that big business does not like to think to far ahead into the future and the cost of being environmentally sound is too high. In order to be a corporation that survives I believe we must look far into the future and protect ourselves from the fallout that we are currently creating. Organic farming, a good place to start: The worlds population is growing at an alarming rate and while food supply is not. Current farming practices are not likely to be able to sustain us for much longer. Organic farming is defined by the National Organic Standards Board - April 1995 2006-10-28T19:13:21-04:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/Organic-Farming--31584.aspx Natural Selection and Diseases Cystic fibrosis, Tay-Sachs, and hypertension are three very different, yet deadly diseases. The question arises how these diseases have survived for so long. Three articles attempt to uncover the mystery behind these diseases. It has been found that there were benefits to each of these diseases, which allowed the allele to remain in the community for such a long period of time. Natural selection plays a large part in the success of these conditions. First, cystic fibrosis has been found to be prevalent in Caucasians. It is the most fatal genetic disorder among this group. It is difficult to understand how this disease has survived for 52,000 years, especially before the development of modern medicine. The disease generally killed people before they could reproduce. In a normal situation, natural selection should have gotten rid of this defective gene; however, it did not. This suggests that cystic fibrosis may have some usefulness in society that we were unaware of until now. The author of this article suggests that those who carry the cystic fibrosis gene are protected against diarrhea. In order to understand this, it is important to know how cystic fibrosis affects the body. The gene for cystic fibrosis codes for a protein that forms channels in cell membranes. These channels funnel chloride ions out of a cell, make the surroundings saltier, and draw water out of the cell by osmosis. The fluid is useful in getting rid of unwanted debris in the lungs. For sweat glands, these channels recycle salt out of the glands and back to the skin before the salt is lost. People with cystic fibrosis have excessively salty sweat and they lack functional chloride channels. Another symptom of cystic fibrosis is thick, sticky, dry mucus clogging the lungs because the cells are not ejecting water. Medical geneticist Xavier Estivill concluded from experiments with mice that mutations of cystic fibrosis offer some resistance to cholera and other diarrhea-inducing bacteria. Persons who are heterozygous for this gene will not have all the characteristics of an individual with cystic fibrosis, but they will have one defective gene coding for chloride channels. When the bacteria causing cholera gets into the small intestines, it releases a toxin that causes the cells to permanently open the chloride channels in 2006-10-27T19:48:15-04:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/Natural-Selection-and-Diseases-31572.aspx The Modern Day Issue of Air Polution The outermost layer of the Earth’s living environment is the atmosphere, a mixture of gases surrounding the planet. The atmosphere contains a thin layer called ozone, which protects all life on Earth from harmful ultraviolet radiation from the Sun. For most of human 2006-10-27T19:31:07-04:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/The-Modern-Day-Issue-of-Air-Polution-31565.aspx Ways the Food We Eat Affects Our Moods Have you ever woken up at eight in the morning and realized that you were suppose to be just walking through the door at work, so, you just out of bed, toss on your clothes and instead of grabbing for your breakfast, you grab for your car keys? You get to work and the day is just so busy that you forget to eat lunch, and as the time passes, things are harder to take in and you irritability level rises, yet, for some reason, after you eat a meal, things become easier to handle? Well, this has happened to me, and I set out to find out if others experienced this and why it happens. What you eat and how you feel have a direct link from each other. Let’s look at coffee for example. When you drink coffee, your mood changes from tired or just plain normal to energized. Alcohol can change your mood into one of pleasure (depending what you drink and how much). The only question is how! For the ethnographic project, I hypothesized that eating certain foods can change you mood. To test this hypothesis, I looked to research. I read many books and articles, I sent out e-mails to authors and doctors, and I also sent out a survey to others to see what happened after they ate. I began by sending out a survey (there is a copy enclosed at the end of the paper). The survey was sent out to my friends from high school and work (since I am new at UMass, and I really don’t know anyone). Seven girls and five guys received the survey, all between the ages of eighteen to seventy-one. On the survey I asked questions like “when you drink coffee, how do you feel, or when you miss a meal. How do you feel?” The feedback I got was usually in a simple one-word answer like “good” or “hungry”. This survey flopped. Nothing actually proved or disproved my hypothesis. In order to obtain better results, I decided to revises the survey I sent out, but how could it be done without giving away my topic? After much thought, I decided to just give the topic straight out. I asked the same group of 2006-10-27T18:54:32-04:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/Ways-the-Food-We-Eat-Affects-Our-Moods-31552.aspx Global warming is an increase in the earth's temperature due to fossil fuels, industry, and agricultural processes caused by human, natural, and other gas emissions. This results in an increased emission of greenhouse gases. Short-wave solar radiation sinks into the Earth's atmosphere and warms its surface; while long wave infrared radiation emitted by earth's surface is absorbed, and then re-emitted by trace gases. Climate changes occur in our earth's atmosphere due to a buildup of greenhouse gases. Greenhouse gases can occur naturally as well as a result of human activities. Problems can occur when higher concentrations of greenhouse gases are present in our atmosphere because they have enhanced our earth's heat trapping capability. There are many misconceptions about global warming. Some believe that pollution causes global warming, but the fact is global warming is the result of burning fossil fuels, coal, and oil that release carbon dioxide. Another misconception is nuclear power causes climate change. Nuclear power actually reduces emissions of carbon dioxide when used in place of coal. Some believe that global warming means that it will become warmer all over. The name is misleading because in some places, it will actually become colder. The majority of scientists believe global warming is a process underway and that it is human-induced. The greenhouse gases are carbon dioxide, methane, and nitrous oxide. These gases occur naturally. The Earth uses those gases to warm its surface. Carbon dioxide is released into the atmosphere when solid waste, fossil fuels, wood, and wood products are burned. Each greenhouse gas absorbs heat differently. If natural gases did not occur, the temperatures would be 91.4 degrees cooler than the current temperatures. These gases trap heat and cause the greenhouse effect, rising global temperatures. Human activities add to the levels of these gasses, causing more problems. The burning of solid waste, fossil fuels, and wood products are major causes. Automobiles, heat from homes and businesses, and factories are responsible for about 80% of today's carbon dioxide emissions, 25% of methane, and 20% of the nitrous oxide emissions. The increase in agriculture, deforestation, landfills, industrial production, and mining contribute a significant share of emissions too. The gases released into the atmosphere are tracked by emission inventories. An emission inventory counts the amount of air pollutants discharged into the atmosphere. These 2006-10-26T02:16:45-04:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/Global-Warming-31550.aspx ethics deal with the question of duty and interest and it suggests that humans balance each other’s interests. It stresses that one ought to do what really is to his or her own best advantage though not avoid actions that help others. science on the other hand is concerned with objectivity of its methods and effectiveness of its inventions. While establishing control over regularities of phenomena, science barely makes any difference between properties of objects and properties of human organisms. H. G. Wells was torn between two visions - one of salvation through science and the other of destructive nature of science. His science fictions continually move between fantasy and reality. His spirit of realism embedded in science fictions introduces a technique of storytelling that is comparable with mythological techniques. This five-page college paper discusses Forensic science. Forensic science is science applied to law to correctly identify perpetrators and exonerate the innocent. It is accurate and meant to lead to resolution. DNA cloning is an important aspect of science as forensic science involves many different areas of finding evidence in the cause of justice. If misapplied, forensic science can become a curse. Genetic information plays a crucial role and perhaps the most promising role in forensic science. 5 pgs. Bibliography lists 9 sources. If a person asked, “What was your first ethical decision,” most people’s first answer might be a memory of wanting a cookie after being told no, or taking a candy bar after being denied. ethics is a topic found in the humanities that can be integrative in almost any topic such as science. Science searches for facts, concepts and useful ideas on various areas of study, while ethics asks whether the facts, concepts and ideas will be useful to those involved. Ethics and science are areas of study that need to be integrated for the best discoveries and research projects. The topic of this paper is ethics. What is ethics? Is ethics different from morals? How? These questions are addressed in this paper. "Ethics come from the Latin term "ethos" which meant customs, habitual conduct, usages and character" (Ethics 2002). Morals can be defined as rules that will guide a person's behavior. Some people use ethics and morals interchangeably, but they are not the same. . Ethics should be an important part of every step in life including the use of the information world of the Internet. If there 2006-10-08T08:56:44-04:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/science-and-ethics--31509.aspx A History of Women in Science Since the early 1900’s and until the past few years ago in the scientific field, female equality among the western culture has risen steadily. People believe that the reason why females haven’t progressed much in the scientific field is because of male chauvinism and sexism. Well this statement is as much correct as it is false. The problem goes deeper then this. Alienation of women from the sciences by feminists is the least of the problems that women face when entering the sciences. Gender bias, the burden of child baring, and the lack of self-confidence are just a few of the factors women must face while trying to succeed in becoming scientists in a world dominated by male superiority. The idea of equal rights isn’t merely an idea anymore; it is a living factor in our day-to-day lives. The feminist view that support science as an equal-opportunity career is considered correct. But this view should be the same for the rest of the occupations and professions in the world. One problem is that feminist want to change science to fit the special characteristics that females have. Changing the sciences to fit the female sexes special characteristics doesn’t support the equality issue at all. Men and women must understand the effects that culture has on science. Feminists have such a municipally narrow minded view that often it incomprehensible to see that science is effected by the social activities and culture of it’s time. One is to believe that women themselves change the nature of science, simply by becoming scientists. There is no need for women to change the science because it changes as the women’s movement progresses. If science changes for women, then all of the sciences must change; including the way men handle science. This may still cause an argument in this debate over equal rights. Instead of the feminists arguing for a change in the sciences the males will be. The sexes need to find a medium where each part can incorporate their ideas on science and scientific approaches. Equal rights are a positive idea and if nurtured correctly, it can become a spectacular achievement. Total equality in every one of its aspects is only an idea and is 2006-10-03T20:31:31-04:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/A-History-of-Women-in-Science-31495.aspx Physical and Mental Effects of Consuming Alcohol Alcohol is a drug and people use it in different ways. People drink anywhere from moderately to habitually. When classifying drinkers how would you go about it? Is it in their style, how much they drink in an allotted period of time or is it the level of conversations that they use while drinking? I use all three. Regardless of the fact, I have noticed that even within a particular group of drinkers that their personalities are quite different. To me, drinkers fall into one of the three following categories: the bonsai drinkers, the weekend warriors or meet the people drinkers. Drinking to some people is like brushing your teeth. Most people brush multiple times a day. Could you imagine having your toothbrush in your mouth all day every day, day in and day out? Well this is how my first group of people drink alcohol. It appears to me as if the bonsai drinkers can’t even start their day unless they have a drink of some sort, whether it is a beer or a shot of tequila. They will drink anywhere there is alcohol, whether it is at their house or even while driving. Nonetheless, bonsai drinkers are a risk to themselves as well as many others that they may come in contact with, while drinking. I have noticed a couple reasons why people start to drink this way. First, the already depressed individual may have lost a loved one, the only thing keeping him/her together emotionally. In this case, drinking excessively would result in a temporary block of emotions related to their tragic experience. They feel if they’re drunk all day, they will never have to face the facts of reality. Secondly it could be because a husband or wife had lost a job that they relied on to support their family, here they feel as if they are a failure not only to themselves, but the rest of their family. Bonsai drinking can lead to worse circumstances than the reason they started drinking for. It can lead to the break up of their family or even worse, the individual can become so depressed they might even take their own life to escape their pain. When speaking of an on the verge alcoholic or what 2006-10-03T20:24:38-04:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/Physical-and-Mental-Effects-of-Consuming-Alcohol-31490.aspx The foundations of the Endocrine System consist of hormones and glands. These glands are ductless and their secretions are sent through the bloodstream. Endocrine glands also control bodily metabolic activity. The major glands that make up the human endocrine system are the hypothalamus, pituitary, thyroid, parathyroids, adrenals, pineal body, the pancreas, and the reproductive glands, which include the ovaries and testes. The endocrine system has three basic functions, regulate metabolic functions of the body, regulate rate of chemical reactions in various cells, and to influence the ability of substances to transport themselves through cell membranes. The endocrine system works in the following way, a hormone is secreted, it travels from the endocrine gland through the bloodstream to the target cells. Along the way to the target cells, special proteins bind to some of the hormones. The special proteins act as carriers that control the amount of hormone that is available to interact with and affect the target cells. Also, the target cells have receptors that latch onto only specific hormones, and each hormone has its own receptor, so that each hormone will communicate only with specific target cells that possess receptors for that hormone. When the hormone reaches its target cell, it locks onto the cell's specific receptors and these hormone-receptor combinations transmit chemical instructions to the inner workings of the cell. There are many things that can go wrong with the endocrine system. For example, Adrenal insufficiency, which causes weakness, fatigue, abdominal pain, nausea, dehydration, and skin changes. Malfunctions in the endocrine system also result in diabetes type 1 and 2. Diabetes is when the pancreas, an endocrine gland, fails to produce enough insulin. Some symptoms include excessive thirst, hunger, urination, and weight loss. Another malfunction of the endocrine system can be growth hormone problems. Growth hormone in children who are still growing will make their bones and other body parts grow excessively, resulting in gigantism. This rare condition is usually caused by a pituitary tumor and can be treated by removing the tumor. There are many other problems that revolve around the endocrine system such as Hyperthyroidism, Hypothyroidism, and Cushing syndrome. In conclusion the glands of the endocrine system and the hormones they release influence almost every cell, organ, and function of our bodies. It is also in charge of cell growth and also works together with the nervous system to complete many task of the body. Lastly the 2006-10-03T00:21:01-04:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/Endocrine-System-31477.aspx The foundations of the Endocrine System consist of hormones and glands. These glands are ductless and their secretions are sent through the bloodstream. Endocrine glands also control bodily metabolic activity. The major glands that make up the human endocrine system are the hypothalamus, pituitary, thyroid, parathyroids, adrenals, pineal body, the pancreas, and the reproductive glands, which include the ovaries and testes. The endocrine system has three basic functions, regulate metabolic functions of the body, regulate rate of chemical reactions in various cells, and to influence the ability of substances to transport themselves through cell membranes. The endocrine system works in the following way, a hormone is secreted, it travels from the endocrine gland through the bloodstream to the target cells. Along the way to the target cells, special proteins bind to some of the hormones. The special proteins act as carriers that control the amount of hormone that is available to interact with and affect the target cells. Also, the target cells have receptors that latch onto only specific hormones, and each hormone has its own receptor, so that each hormone will communicate only with specific target cells that possess receptors for that hormone. When the hormone reaches its target cell, it locks onto the cell's specific receptors and these hormone-receptor combinations transmit chemical instructions to the inner workings of the cell. There are many things that can go wrong with the endocrine system. For example, Adrenal insufficiency, which causes weakness, fatigue, abdominal pain, nausea, dehydration, and skin changes. Malfunctions in the endocrine system also result in diabetes type 1 and 2. Diabetes is when the pancreas, an endocrine gland, fails to produce enough insulin. Some symptoms include excessive thirst, hunger, urination, and weight loss. Another malfunction of the endocrine system can be growth hormone problems. Growth hormone in children who are still growing will make their bones and other body parts grow excessively, resulting in gigantism. This rare condition is usually caused by a pituitary tumor and can be treated by removing the tumor. There are many other problems that revolve around the endocrine system such as Hyperthyroidism, Hypothyroidism, and Cushing syndrome. In conclusion the glands of the endocrine system and the hormones they release influence almost every cell, organ, and function of our bodies. It is also in charge of cell 2006-10-02T23:44:14-04:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/The-Endocrine-System--31476.aspx The foundations of the Endocrine System consist of hormones and glands. These glands are ductless and their secretions are sent through the bloodstream. Endocrine glands also control bodily metabolic activity. The major glands that make up the human endocrine system are the hypothalamus, pituitary, thyroid, parathyroids, adrenals, pineal body, the pancreas, and the reproductive glands, which include the ovaries and testes. The endocrine system has three basic functions, regulate metabolic functions of the body, regulate rate of chemical reactions in various cells, and to influence the ability of substances to transport themselves through cell membranes. The endocrine system works in the following way, a hormone is secreted, it travels from the endocrine gland through the bloodstream to the target cells. Along the way to the target cells, special proteins bind to some of the hormones. The special proteins act as carriers that control the amount of hormone that is available to interact with and affect the target cells. Also, the target cells have receptors that latch onto only specific hormones, and each hormone has its own receptor, so that each hormone will communicate only with specific target cells that possess receptors for that hormone. When the hormone reaches its target cell, it locks onto the cell's specific receptors and these hormone-receptor combinations transmit chemical instructions to the inner workings of the cell. There are many things that can go wrong with the endocrine system. For example, Adrenal insufficiency, which causes weakness, fatigue, abdominal pain, nausea, dehydration, and skin changes. Malfunctions in the endocrine system also result in diabetes type 1 and 2. Diabetes is when the pancreas, an endocrine gland, fails to produce enough insulin. Some symptoms include excessive thirst, hunger, urination, and weight loss. Another malfunction of the endocrine system can be growth hormone problems. Growth hormone in children who are still growing will make their bones and other body parts grow excessively, resulting in gigantism. This rare condition is usually caused by a pituitary tumor and can be treated by removing the tumor. There are many other problems that revolve around the endocrine system such as Hyperthyroidism, Hypothyroidism, and Cushing syndrome. In conclusion the glands of the endocrine system and the hormones they release influence almost every cell, organ, and function of our bodies. It is also in charge of cell growth and also works together with the nervous system to complete many task of the body. Lastly the 2006-10-02T23:39:36-04:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/Human-Anatomy-31475.aspx “Causes of the French Revolution” The French Revolution could have been foreseen, by the French nobles but I guess they didn’t! I mean they had A poor economic situation and an unmanageable national debt, was a major sign they were on the brink of a revolution. Although the nobles were wealthy they should have seen the growing problem they had with the lower-class people that were not as wealthy and needed more money to survive. France still practiced feudalism in the 18th century. The nobles and clergy had special privileges. They did not have to pay taxes. The common people did not have power and freedom in politics. They worked hard and had to pay a lot of taxes. The nobles and clergy made up the First and Second Estates in the Estates General. The common people made up the Third Estate. The nobles and clergy could outvote the common people easily though the Estates General. The common people became discontented with the privileged classes, and revolted. The rising cost of everything was overwhelming for the peasants because they were getting poorer and poorer, they had to do something. The peasants also had to do something because right before the revolution began food scarcity was far worse than any other time in France. During this time the nobles and clergy were getting more and more privileges and boy did the peasants not like that Social problems were also a major factor that brought about the French Revolution. In the 18th century, France was a feudal country with class divisions. The first estate was made up of 1% of the people and owned 10% of the land in France. The second estate consisted of 2% of the people and owned 35% of the land. The third estate held 97% of the people who owned 55% of the land. The third estate held very little land compared to the amount of people it had. The first and the second estate were the privileged classes. They clergy and the nobility were let off from many taxes. They had to pay about 2% of their income on tax. They also needed to pay the land tax. The third estate was the most unhappy class. City workers were angry because their wages were not enough to buy goods when prices were going up rapidly. The peasants made up 80% of the population and had to pay heavy taxes. 2006-09-18T23:00:48-04:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/the-french-revolution-31444.aspx Problem The El Nino and La Nina storms bring up very serious and harmful effects of the planet. What happens is that there are major temperature changes in the East Pacific Ocean. Once the temperature starts to change rapidly, there is more warm water than cold water increasing water levels in areas of the world. It causes an un-normal amount of water in certain places in the pacific. During El Nino a mass of water lands on western South America, Mexico, and Western United States. This extra amount of water kills animal’s habitats, loss of crops for local farmers, loss of fish, mud slides, and flooding. All these are dangerous to humans and animals alike. Hypothesis During El Nino, there is an un-normal amount of water pushing on to land. This also creates large amounts of rain. Using my data chart of info on precipitation levels in North-West California through 1969-1979 I will be guessing which years have had El Nino years. My guesses are; December 1969, Late January 1975, and December 1978. I took my three highest points of the graph and looked down to the month and year then guessed that time period. Methods During this project I was looking for either California or South American precipitation levels for about 10 or 20 years. I searched for some data in those areas and from 1970-1980. I found that data and graphed it using a computer program. I ran into some difficulties entering in the dates because it was not the right type of method. I had to redo it using their methods of charting Month and Year. After that I read searched info on wikipedia.com, an online encyclopedia; I found some great info about La Nina and El Nino. Data The info that I found in the raw data was very similar in most years but also rose dramatically in others. At first I was interested in yearly totals. Through those ten years I found that the most precipitation through 1969- 1979 in California was 78.55 inches in 1974. The average amount of rainfall from 1969-1979 was 55.24 inches. The most amount of rainfall in a month was in January 1978 with 20.83 inches of rain. So the 1976-1977 El Nino might have carried over into the New Year. These are the 2006-09-05T21:22:46-04:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/Precipitation-Levels-in-California-Caused-my-El-Nino-31432.aspx During the austral summer a giant selection of phytoplankton blooms bringing billions upon billions of krill to the Southern Ocean, which also attracts many whales. Whalers in the late 1800’s to the early 1900’s relished this season, coming and catching as many whales as they could find. Today’s whalers hunt the whales in moderation and hunt the whales for research as well as the bones, oil/blubber and meat they were hunter for when whaling first began. When whaling first began all whaling was done from land, so in 1868 when Svend Foyn of Norway invented the first exploding harpoon, which made it easier to hunt whales. They were hunted for their bones, oil and meat. Whale bones were used in the way we use plastic today, the oil for use in oil lamps and for heating and the meat was eaten. From the 1900’s onwards the prime target was the Blue Whale for its oil (a single 90-foot whale could contain 120 barrels of it!), bone and meat. When Blue Whales seemed to be dying out, whalers targeted smaller species like the Fin, followed by the Sei and finally the Minke in the 1980’s. Today, Japan is one of the biggest whaling countries, each year they kill at least 300 whales for research, and the meat from these whales is often sold to Japanese Eateries to fund further research. Whale meat is a highly prized meat in Japanese eateries. In 1966, Blue Whales almost went extinct, and they were given worldwide protection. Just before Blue Whales began to be a prime target there were around 200,000 – 300,000 of them, but in 1966 numbers had plummeted right down to around 1200. For around ten years after this protection was introduced, Blue Whales were still hunted widely because apparently a large Blue Whale was ‘too tempting to ignore’. There are many nature conservation groups trying to put a stop to whaling, one of the main ones is Greenpeace. Unlike myself, Greenpeace are against all whaling, including whaling for scientific research. Many fish food companies including Gorton’s, Sealord and Nissui once supported the Japanese scientific whaling, but now due to Greenpeace they have withdrawn their support for the whaling. From the Greenpeace.org Website: Update April, 2006: “After months of pressure from Ocean Defenders everywhere, our friends at seafood suppliers Gorton's, Sealord and parent company Nissui have withdrawn their active support for Japanese 2006-09-04T02:30:06-04:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/Whaling-in-Antarctica-31430.aspx [size=13:040f63329a]Acid rain occurs when polluting gases get into the rain, causing it to become more acidic. Acid rain is destroying more of our natural resources and man-made structures everyday. It pollutes our air and water, even prevents the growth of plants. This report aims to tell 2006-09-04T00:17:40-04:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/Acid-Rain-Formation,-Effects,-Causes-and-Prevention-31427.aspx Mission to Pluto Research Paper There are nine planets in our solar system and we have visited all of these but one. Even though Pluto is the smallest and furthest planet from the sun, it is no way inferior to the other planets. It in fact is possibly one of the most unique bodies in the solar system. There is much that we do not know about this tiny world and its equally unique moon, Charon. For this reason we are proposing to send a flyby mission to the Pluto-Charon system as soon as possible. Pluto was discovered on February 18, 1930 by Clyde Tombaugh at the Lowell Observatory in Arizona (Stern 207). Jim Christy discovered Charon in 1978. Even though Pluto was discovered over seventy years ago, much of the information we know about this planet and its moon has been discovered very recently, in the late 1970's. Through Earth based observations. We were able to project the mass of Pluto to be 1.27e22 kilograms, and the mass of Charon to be 1.90e21 kilograms. We have also been able to hypothesize about other properties. The radius of Pluto is about 1137 kilometers (Hamilton 2). The radius of Charon is about 586 kilometers. Both bodies are relatively small, even in comparison to something as small as the United States (See figure 1). The temperature of Pluto is close to thirty five to forty-five degrees Kelvin (Arnet 2). The temperature of the Pluto-Charon system is so low because it is extremely far away from the Sun. In fact, it is nearly thirty-nine and one half astronomical units away from it (Kaufman 383). This is 5,913,520,000 kilometers (Hamilton 2)! The composition of Pluto and Charon is thought to be made up of large amounts of rock mixed with methane, nitrogen, and carbon monoxide ice. When Pluto is closest to the Sun, the planet warms up just enough for a thin atmosphere to form on the surface. The atmosphere is consequently made of the same gasses that are contained in Pluto's icy surface (Arnet 2). An interesting fact about this world is that it rotates on its axis in the opposite direction of most planets while tipped on its side. Most planets rotate on nearly circular orbits, but Pluto's is highly elliptical (oval shaped) this is another characteristic that differentiates it 2006-08-31T17:58:51-04:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/Mission-to-Pluto-Research-Paper-31406.aspx Physical Characteristics of Alcoholism Caroline Knapp poignantly and profoundly reflects the problem of alcoholism in the book Drinking, A Love Story. The author details how she started drinking when she was fourteen years old, and spent almost 20 years as an alcoholic in denial, managing much of the time to hide her disease even from herself. Knapp’s very personal profile offers a glimpse not only into the world of alcohol addiction, its impact on families, potential treatments, but into the scope of the disease as it relates to women, as well. A 36 year old writer from the Boston area and a talented high achieving female professional, Knapp explains how very difficult it was for her to accept herself as an alcoholic, primarily because she did not fit the characteristics of the stereotypical drunk. “You know and you don’t know”, she writes. “You know and you won’t know, and as long as the outsides of your life remain intact-your job and your professional persona-it’s very hard to accept that the insides, the pieces of you that have to do with integrity and self-esteem, are slowing rotting away” (Knapp, 1996). Yet, Knapp admits she spent 20 years driving under the influence of alcohol, suffering from blackouts, having sexual encounters with no memory of them, and even going through an abortion without knowing for certain who the father was. However, as Knapp aptly points out, she failed to fit the standard demographics for alcoholics; she paid her rent on time and arrived punctually at work as an editor and columnist for an alternative weekly news magazine. Because she did such a good job at hiding her disease from other people, she was long-delayed in accusing herself of it. Such is the nature of alcoholism, perhaps especially female alcoholism, as Knapp spends most of this book pointing out. While Knapp’s memoirs of her experience are personal and heart wrenching, they have much to say about the difficulty with facing the facts of alcoholism, especially for women in the United States. Knapp’s memoirs of her long journey through alcoholism reflect part of the missing narrative for women alcoholics in today’s social template, in general. Even in Knapp’s case, the plot widens as she exposes not only her addictions but also the behaviour of her parents, the sexual abuse she has suffered, the conflict between her ambitiousness and societal expectations 2006-08-29T15:48:12-04:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/Physical-Characteristics-of-Alcoholism-31379.aspx AP Laboratory : Enzyme Catalysis Purpose - The purpose of this lab is to use a chemical titration to measure and them calculate the rate of conversion of hydrogen peroxide (H2O2) to water and oxygen gas using the enzyme catalase. Hypothesis - The rate of enzymatically-catalyzed reactions can be determined by taking time reactions at different time intervals. When the rates are plotted on a graph, the rate of the reaction is the slope of the linear portion of the curve. To determine a rate, any two points on the straight-line portion of the curve is picked out. Divided the difference in the amount of product formed between these two points by the difference in time between them. The result will be the rate of the reaction. I believe that the reactions rate will be that highest during the first interval (0-10 seconds) because there are larger amounts of substrate molecules than enzyme molecules, but as times increase the lower the reaction rate because there will be more product molecules as result of the chemical reactions between the enzyme and the substrate. Materials: •ring stand •double clamp •2 burettes •beakers •test tube •1.5% hydrogen peroxide (H2O2) •distilled water •liver •potassium permanganate (KMnO4) •graduate cylinders •1.0% sulfuric acid (H2SO4) Procedure: See handout Observations: See handout Analysis - My hypothesis proved to be correct. The reaction rate was the highest during the intervals of (0-10 seconds) and also at the beginning of 10-30 seconds because there is a large amount of substrate molecules in comparison to the number of enzyme molecules and there will be a maximal number of collisions between the enzymes and the substrate. As the number in seconds increased the reaction rate decreased. The lowest reaction rate was during the last interval (120-180 seconds). As the number of substrate molecules decreased and the number of product molecules (O2) increases the number of collisions between the substrate decreases. Eventually, the enzyme will break all of the substrate down, since 02 escapes from the system. Conclusion - In this lab catalase is the enzyme. It will react with hydrogen peroxide (H2O2), the substate. The products formed should be water and oxygen. H2O2 --catalase--> H2O + O2 In Exercise 2A the bubbles coming form the reaction mixture are O2, which results from the breakdown of H2O2. By capturing the evolved gas in a test tube and inserting a glowing splint one could show that the gas evolved 2006-08-29T15:32:33-04:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/AP-Laboratory-Enzyme-Catalysis-31372.aspx History of the Human Genome Project The Human Genome Project (HGP) is an international research effort to decipher the entire human genome and understand the unique hereditary instructions that each person possesses. The HGP is a jointly funded project by the U.S. Department of Energy (DOE) and the National Institutes of Health (NIH) with additional research done by the National (NHGRI). The project, launched in 1990, was originally planned to last 15 years, but rapid advances in technology have accelerated the expected completion date to 2003. The Joint Genome Institute (JGI), established in 1997, is one of the largest publicly funded human genome sequencing centers in the world and contributes greatly to the HGP. The Wellcome Trust in the United Kingdom also contributes substantial investments to the HGP. The roots of the HGP can be traced back to the atomic bomb era that began during World War II. Descendants of bomb survivors harbor DNA mutations as a result of severe radiation exposure. These mutations were passed to their descendents who developed horrible diseases and malformations. The DOE’s role in the HGP arose to study the genetic and health effects or potential health risks of radiation and chemical by-products of energy production. Scientists realize the best way to study and treat these effects were to directly study DNA, so blood samples were collected and stored for future DNA analysis. At a joint DOE and International Commission on Protection against Environmental Mutagens and Carcinogens (ICPAEMC) in 1984, the question was asked, “Can we, and should we, sequence the human genome?” After lengthy debates, scientists eventually decided to do it. In 1986, the DOE announced its Human Genome Initiative to decipher the human genetic script. The HGP will transform both biology and medicine. The goals of the HGP are to identify the approximate 80 to 100,000 genes in human DNA and determine the sequences of the approximately 3.2-billion chemical bases that make up human DNA. This information will be stored in computer databases while data analysis tools will be developed to apply this information to human biology and medicine. Results of the HGP are hoped to transform the treatment of symptoms in molecular medicine to address the deepest causes of disease at their molecular foundations in their earliest stages. Gene therapy will soon be “fixing” genetic errors before they result in disease. 2006-08-29T15:29:27-04:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/History-of-the-Human-Genome-Project-31370.aspx Lab Report on Wet Trapping Lab To ensure proper trap 2006-08-29T15:26:31-04:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/Lab-Report-on-Wet-Trapping-Lab-31369.aspx Scientific Experiments Regarding Evolution Science has proven that evolution is the key to our adaptation patterns. Over millions of years humans, birds, reptiles, and fish have evolved to survive in their environments. This can be found in the simplest life forms as well as the most complicated life forms. Examples of this can be found in cavefish losing their eyes from nonuse and humans losing large amounts of body hair from living in warmer dwellings. Scientist have shown exactly how fast the evolutionary process can be with an experiment held on salmon in the late 1930’s. An experiment held by biologist in the Northwest has shown how salmon, which were introduced to Lake Washington in 1937, have evolved incredibly over thirteen generations. Lake Washington basically has two environments: the beach and the river environments. The male salmon that moved to the river became more streamlined so they could swim up strong river currents better, while the females grew 10% bigger than their sister, the lake females. The females gained size aids in their nest building abilities. Both river and lake females make their nest by slamming their bodies into the lake or riverbed which leaves a nice trench to deposit their eggs into. After the eggs have been laid, they swim upstream to stir up gravel, which will drift over the eggs to form a protective blanket over them. As you can see, the size advantage of the river salmon allows her to dig deeper trenches that will protect her eggs from the stronger current and the flooding river. The lake males grew a larger hump in front of their dorsal fin. Their gained size slows them down in the river, but allows them to become better sexual competitors in the lakes. The evolution between these salmon has caused their DNA to become genetically different. These differences in their DNA cause both females and males to look completely different. These physical differences are probably what is causing these fish not to interbreed. The physical advantages of in their own environments allow them to mate and reproduce with fish of their own kind. Evolution can be found in all forms of life. Survival of the fittest is Mother Nature’s way of weeding out the weak. So if a species is weak and can’t adapt, they slowly die off. 2006-08-27T23:57:00-04:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/Scientific-Experiments-Regarding-Evolution-31353.aspx Introduction to Enzyme Kinetics The purpose of this experiment is to measure the rates of reaction of the enzyme Alkaline Phosphatase with the substrate p-nitrophenol phosphate under varying conditions. The concentration of both substrate and enzyme were diluted and the inhibitor vanadate was utilized to determine whether or not the reaction is substrate or enzyme dependent and to see what type of inhibition vanadate was involved. A class of proteins called enzymes catalyzes almost every chemical reaction in a cell. Enzymes increase the rates of reaction for those reactions, which are already energetically favorable, by lowering the activation energy. Enzymatic reactions differ from other chemical reactions, by having a higher reaction rates, greater specificity, and high capacity for regulation. Quite often, the rate of an enzymatically catalyzed reaction is 106-1010 times that of an uncatalyzed reaction under similar conditions. Enzymes are most effective under the optimal conditions of a cell, in which the cells aqueous environment is 37° C, and has a pH between 6.5-7.5. Enzyme kinetics, the rate of reaction, and how this rate is influenced by different factors are directly correlated to the path followed by the reaction. For example, the enzyme-substrate reaction rate can be affected when there is a competitive inhibitor is involved. In the reaction, the competitive inhibitor competes with the substrate for the enzyme’s active site. This results in a lower reaction rate of the enzyme-substrate. On the other hand, noncompetitive inhibitors do not compete with the substrate for the active site and will not affect the affinity of the enzyme for its substrate, however, it will affect the maximum velocity of the reaction. The catalytic action of an enzyme on a given substrate can be described by two parameters: Km (the Michaelis constant), which measures the affinity of an enzyme for its substrate, and Vmax, which measures the maximal velocity of the reaction at saturating substrate concentration. From the Michaelis-Menton complex: E + S « ES « E + P Where E is the enzyme, S is the substrate, and P is the product. The rate of product formation V can be dertermined by the equation below. V= Vmax [S]/[S] + Km From this equation, we can predict that when the V is independent from [S] the reaction would be zero order, whereas when V is dependent on [S], the reaction is first 2006-08-27T23:45:32-04:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/Introduction-to-Enzyme-Kinetics-31346.aspx Forensic Science Applied to Burned Victims Canadian forensic science is an integral component to the overall nature of victim identification. No matter the situation, Canada's forensic scientists are one of the first to arrive on the scene in order to collect pertinent clues for body cataloging. Basic identification is not so difficult a task for the most part, however, when the victim is burned beyond recognition, more complex methods must be utilized as a means by which to establish positive identification. These methods include, DNA fingerprinting, forensic odontology, and cranial base evaluation. With the incorporation of these methods, it has made identification of a severely burned body possible. A body that has been only partially burned can be identified through DNA fingerprinting. By way of scientific intervention, Canadian forensic officials have been given an opportunity to crack many criminal cases involving unidentified burn victims that they may otherwise have had no further means of solving, all because the unique properties of DNA molecules are so conclusive in their association. "Validation studies are a crucial requirement before implementation of new genetic typing systems for clinical diagnostics or forensic identity" (). DNA, scientifically known as deoxyribonucleic acid, represents the very molecule of life containing all the hereditary data that is genetically passed through from one generation to the next. "Any technology has the potential to be misused, and charlatans exist in all fields. It is incumbent upon the forensic science community as a whole to monitor its members in the use of DNA or any forensic analysis" (Rudin et al, 1997 p. 319-323). As Patton notes, however, three of the primary concerns with regard to DNA and victim identification include the question of a "generally accepted scientific theory" (p. 223) that serves to support the reliability of DNA forensic testing; the extent to which current techniques or experiments can produce universally reliable and accepted results; and whether or not the particular laboratory has effectively applied these accepted techniques in testing the DNA samples. "There are problems, however, with DNA typing for police investigations. One of them is that it now takes about 2 weeks. In addition, a relatively large amount of blood or semen is required, which is a difficulty in using the test in homicide and rape cases" (Udall, 1990, p. PG). If the scalp has not burned, it has been discovered that dandruff can be a significant determinant to victim 2006-08-27T23:20:10-04:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/Forensic-Science-Applied-to-Burned-Victims-31344.aspx Learning about HIV and Aids and Valuable Help Resources HIV and AIDS are one of the leading causes of death among 24 to 45 year olds and yet so many Americans seem to know nothing about it. So many people in the world believe HIV and AIDS are the same thing, but they are sadly mistaken. HIV is a virus. The letters stand for “Human Immunodefiency Virus.” HIV is a virus that attacks your immune system. What it attacks are important immune-system cells called T-cells. HIV is a retrovirus, which means it is slow moving. By attacking and killing the immune system’s T-cells, HIV can cause AIDS. Although, “HIV may move more rapidly in some people, on the average it takes ten years for HIV to cause AIDS, even with out treatment.”(HIV Positive) AIDS stands for Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome. One does not have AIDS until their T-cell count drops below two hundred cells per cubic millimeter of blood, or if one begins to suffer from opportunistic infections. These include Pneumocystic Carnii Pneumonia (PCP), Kaposi’s sarcoma (a kind of skin cancer), Cytomegalovirus (CMV), and Candida (a fungal infection that can be found in the throat, mouth or vagina). So, just because a person is diagnosed HIV positive that does not mean they have AIDS, it just means the virus is in their body. AIDS does not come until the virus has beaten the T-cells. Therefore, the whole purpose of HIV treatment is to protect T-cells, and keep the HIV from turning into AIDS. There has been a broad spectrum of theories associated with the origin of HIV. “HIV has been blamed on everything from “The White Man”, to the polio vaccine, to the CIA.”(HIV Positive) The truth is HIV has been spread to humans from monkeys. The same virus as HIV found in monkeys is called SIV, for Simian Immunodeficiency Virus. HIV-1 the type found most common in Central and Southern Africa, the United States the rest of the world seems to have come from chimpanzees. HIV-2, the type found in West Africa, seems to have come from the sooty mangabey monkey. Researchers believe the first infections occurred in the 1930’s. “This was long before the polio vaccine, and long before anyone, including “The White Man” and the CIA knew much of anything about 2006-08-27T16:20:47-04:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/Learning-about-HIV-and-Aids-and-Valuable-Help-Resources-31312.aspx Differences Among Deciduous and Coniferous Trees As stated by the General Ecology book, competition is the interaction between two species over a limiting resource that negatively affects one or both of their population growth rates. Intraspecific competition is the competition between members of the same species. This can include competition for light, water, nutrients, and space. A tree's life traits are also of great importance. They can effect the distribution, abundance and density found in an area. Coniferous trees are those which keep their leaves throughout the winter. They have small leaves called needles that are coated with wax to prevent water loss, and are soaked in resin which helps the needles withstand freezing. The needle shape is and asset in winter because it offers no resistance to wind. As a result of these adaptations conifers can grow where soils are shallow and poor, and where moisture is low. Another advantage of conifers is that they can hold their needles all winter and therefore, they can start photosynthesis early in spring as soon as the sun gets warmer and the ice melts. The coniferous tree used in this experiment was the white spruce. The white spruce tree grows in forests with well-drained soils. Although the white spruce needs well-aerated water to grow efficiently it can survive in various moisture conditions and will grow on dry soil if it is fertile. The white spruce prefers sun but can also live in some shade. It is a hardy tree, withstanding wind, heat, cold, drought and crowding (Earl Rook 1998). This permits it to have a random distribution and high density. Since it can withstand such variety, abundance would be favorably strong. Deciduous trees are those that shed their needles in the fall and remain dormant in the winter so that they can survive until the spring. Their leaves are wide and long which allows for maximum photosynthesis during their short growing season. This adaptation enables them to be better food producers than conifers. The deciduous tree used in this experiment was the poplar. Its canopy (highest level of foliage in a forest) typically allows more sunlight to reach the forest floor than do conifers. In addition to providing key habitat for wildlife, some may act as a ‘nurse crop’ for shade-tolerant species that do not become established in full sunlight (eg.conifers) (Douglas Johnson 1999) The poplar is found in a variety of 2006-08-25T20:49:40-04:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/Differences-Among-Deciduous-and-Coniferous-Trees-31282.aspx Scientific Review of "The Cartoon Guide to Physics" I read this book called, "The Cartoon Guide to Physics." In this book the author explains how the law of physics work and the cartoonist gives a visual explanation which helped me understand how the equation works, since I'm a visual person. This paper is about a book titled "The Cartoon Guide to Physics." This book explains complicated physics equations using cartoons. This approach helped me a great deal because I understand things better if I can picture them in my mind. This book was very good for me because I could see the equation and read it at the same time which is very helpful. This book talked about all kinds of problems and situations used in the study of physics. Almost everything on this earth revolves around physics. Examples of Motion like birds flying, tress falling, and this world revolving. The whole universe is in motion. Because of this book I understood the law of motion and the equation, which this book gave an example of, such as D=V(T). D= for distance, V=for Velocity (speed), and T= for Time. The author explains this by using the motion of a car. I also understood the concepts of how "natural" motion of Celestial objects like the moon and stars was Circular, while Terrestrial objects like apples, rocks, and I tend "naturally" to fall down. If the moon naturally moves in a circle, we don't need any gravity to explain its motion. But when earthly objects fall, it comes to rest unless some force pushes them sideways. Galileo claims that no force is needed to keep an object in a uniform, straight-line motion. Things cannot travel in a straight line forever because the force of friction slows it down. Isaac Newton summarized Galileo's idea. Newton's First Law: an object at rest tends to stay at rest. An object in motion tends to continue in motion at constant speed in a straight line. This means that if there were no forces, objects would move with constant velocity. Newton's Second law: F=m(a), the more force on an object, the more it accelerates. But the more massive it is, the more it resists acceleration. This means that if I push a grocery cart with a lot of force, the faster the cart would go. But if I try to push a building, the 2006-08-25T17:21:52-04:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/Scientific-Review-of-The-Cartoon-Guide-to-Physics-31272.aspx Diptheria and the Dangers of Contracting It In 1996 a mother took her six-month-old son, Jonah, to the doctor to get his DPT vaccination. Two days later, Jonah came down with an ear infection. Bobbie took him into the doctor and the child was given a prescription of amoxicillin. The ear infection soon healed and all went well for about two months when the infection returned. Bobbie again took Jonah to the physician where he, this time, gave the boy a stronger form of amoxicillin. Again the infection soon diminished. About four months later Jonah received a third ear infection, this time accompanied with a fever of 103F. Seeing that the amoxicillin was not working, the doctor prescribed Jonah an even stronger form of antibiotics known as ougmitin. This is a mixture of amoxicillin and penicillin called clavulate. This time Bobbie was a bit more skeptical. She figured that if antibiotics didn’t work the last two times, why would they work this time? She then, with the help of her husband, decided it was time for a second opinion. She then took Jonah to a man named Dr. Eugene Pontius, a naturopathic doctor in British Columbia, Canada. After talking with Bobbie and looking at her son, Dr. Pontius asked Bobbie if Jonah was receiving his regular immunizations. Bobbie assured the doctor that Jonah was indeed receiving his immunizations. Dr. Pontius then informed Bobbie that if she wanted Jonah’s ear infections to stop she needed to cease his immunizations. According to Dr. Pontius, the “D” in DPT vaccine stands for Diptheria. Diptheria is a dangerous toxin-producing bacterium called Corynebacterium diptheriae. The diphtheria vaccine is what is known as an “attenuated” vaccine; meaning the bacteria has been weakened and modified, but is still alive. Corynebacterium diptheria, when alive in the human body, lives in the sinus and nasal tissues and migrates down to the larynx. It gives off a toxin that attacks the epithelial cells and causes tissue destruction. In extreme cases it may even attack the heart. Jonah had an ear infection due to the fact he had active diptheria present, but not a full-blown case. It was just a mild form that is common today and is associated with common ear and sinus infections…It does respond very briefly to antibiotics 2006-08-12T11:08:41-04:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/Diptheria-and-the-Dangers-of-Contracting-It-31230.aspx Family Perspective on Donating Organs There are three people; a parent, a sick child in need of a kidney and a healthy child who is willing to donate a kidney (All three of them are in the same family). The parent feels very worried about this problem. If the operation does not succeed then there would be a very high risk of both her children dying. If the operation is not done then one of her children will be healthy and then the other one will always have to go to the hospital to use the kidney dialysis machine to clear out all the un-wanted waste that the body cannot do without any healthy kidneys. However if the operation does succeed then both her children will be quite healthy and she would be able to save a lot of money on medical fees. The parent feels that taking the risk is better then leaving one of her children un-healthy. She feels that if she does not do it earlier then it may affect the sick child’s health and give the sick child many disadvantages when he grows up. One of the disadvantages would be very little travel to other countries. Because if the sick child goes to other country and has no kidney dialysis machine then he will die. The sick child feels very different to all the other people. Because every week he has to go to the hospital for very long periods of time to use a kidney dialysis machine. The kidney dialysis machine helps him to extract waste from his body which his body cannot do without any healthy kidneys. He does this a couple of times a week. It wastes a lot of time and feels very un-comfortable for him. If he had a wish it would be to have healthy kidneys that worked. The healthy child in the family feels very disturbed that his brother is in need for a kidney. He feels very guilty that he is healthy but his brother is not. He wonders why he was not the chosen one to be un-healthy and why his brother was. He always wonders how it would feel like to be his sick brother. By doing this is able to understand his brother’s feelings more. He feels that this is a very hard choice for him to make. His decision will either make him regret, feel guilty 2006-08-12T10:35:41-04:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/Family-Perspective-on-Donating-Organs-31218.aspx Information on the Condition of Scoliosis Scoliosis So many people are worried about their bodies. If it's the littlest thing they go see a doctor. Doctors see more patients about back pain than anything else. It seems like everyone has it. Our back is a part of our vertebral column, which is the skeletal system. Our skeletal system is used to protect our organs, aid in locomotion, and for support to our body. The spinal cord is protected by bones that are called lumbar vertebrae. Scoliosis is one out of many reasons people may see a doctor. Which gives us questions, like- what is scoliosis, where exactly can it be found, is it found in females or males more, what are some things that can cause scoliosis and when to seek medical attention? Scoliosis is an abnormal curve in the spine, a light hump and a protrusion of one side of the chest. (Hall, 75) There are cases where scoliosis is found in the upper back, which is pain free, and unknown although some doctors think that it has to do with genetics. Scoliosis in the lower back is where the back pain is common. Scoliosis is found more in females than males. Eighty percent of cases occur in teenager girls. This has led North America schools to a program that detect scoliosis in students. (Schommer, 11) Now progress can take place earlier when found in the age eleven through fourteen. For people that are unaware of their condition it is harder to help and more expensive. Scoliosis can be caused by genetics, a birth defect, a sever accident or maybe even a neuromuscular disorder and in some cases it occurs for no apparent reason. There are three treatment options for a victim of scoliosis. With each there are many things to consider, for instance, the location of the curve, the size of the curve and the bone age of the person. If the range of the curve is from 20 to 40 degrees the person wears a brace to stop the curve from progressing. With adults curves can not be stopped. Only children whose bones are continuing to grow would wear a brace. If the curve is beyond 40 degrees this is when surgery is performed. Again, with children surgery is the only 2006-08-10T13:12:40-04:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/Information-on-the-Condition-of-Scoliosis-31211.aspx Antibiotic Resistant Bacteria Bacteria’s are one-celled organisms that were discovered in 1676 by Anthony Van Leeuwenhoek. Many people like to define bacteria as a germ, but in reality germs are a form of bacteria. Most bacteria are not harmful to one’s body but helpful in ways no one expects. (Lietz 6) For example bacteria located in soil that is used to grow food by turning dead animals and plants into the rich, dark topsoil. (Leitz 7) They also make shelter for humans and animals. Bacteria are removed from ones teeth and body after brushing and bathing daily. (Leitz 59) It is always completely surrounding everyone daily and no matter where you go it will always be with you at all times. (Leitz 10) Dr. Alexander Fleming discovered penicillin in 1928 and this penicillin was made of mold and killed many types of germs and was later tested on rabbits and resulted in no harm to the rabbit. The problem was that no one was able to make large quantities of it so it was not used very often. (Leitz 45) After ten years of consistent growing of the penicillin it was finally able to be used on a few dying patients. (Leitz 46-47) In late 1942 penicillin actually began to sell and save lives all over. This form of mold known as penicillin is a form of an antibiotic. Antibiotics are a bacteria fighter that made from mold and fungi. It is a drug that became very common and worked against many germs. (Leitz 49) Penicillin back in the 1940’s cured many infections such as staphylococcus, pneumococcus and entercococcus, tuberculosis, syphilis, and gonorrhea. As time passed on there were many new antibiotics being made and taking care of new infections or diseases, so antibiotic-resistant bacteria was never suspected and would have been the last thought to scientist who were curing people every day. (Hickling 1) Since then till the present there have been many different antibiotics found and they are helping people fight bacteria everyday. There are different types of drugs/antibiotic’s that help different types of diseases and bacteria’s. Infections of bacterial are becoming just as common as any other disease killing the population. This has become a major health threat to the population and will eventually become the biggest if something 2006-08-09T12:20:06-04:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/Antibiotic-Resistant-Bacteria-31186.aspx Do you wan know about Quantum mechanics, you can find things everywhere? You don’t know where to start? Right answer is start from your mind. Description of the theory There are a number of mathematically equivalent formulations of quantum mechanics. One of the oldest and most commonly used formulations is the transformation theory invented by Cambridge theoretical physicist Paul Dirac, which unifies and generalizes the two earliest formulations of quantum mechanics, matrix mechanics (invented by Werner Heisenberg) and wave mechanics (invented by Erwin Schrödinger). In this formulation, the instantaneous state of a quantum system encodes the probabilities of its measurable properties, or "observables". Examples of observables include energy, position, momentum, and angular momentum. Observables can be either continuous (e.g., the position of a particle) or discrete (e.g., the energy of an electron bound to a hydrogen atom). Generally, quantum mechanics does not assign definite values to observables. Instead, it makes predictions about probability distributions; that is, the probability of obtaining each of the possible outcomes from measuring an observable. Naturally, these probabilities will depend on the quantum state at the instant of the measurement. There are, however, certain states that are associated with a definite value of a particular observable. These are known as "eigenstates" of the observable ("eigen" meaning "own" in German). In the everyday world, it is natural and intuitive to think of everything being in an eigenstate of every observable. Everything appears to have a definite position, a definite momentum, and a definite time of occurrence. However, Quantum Mechanics does not pinpoint the exact values for the position or momentum of a certain particle in a given space in a finite time, but, rather, it only provides a range of probabilities of where that particle might be. Therefore, it became necessary to use different words for a) the state of something having an uncertainty relation and b) a state that has a definite value. The latter is called the "eigenstate" of the property being measured. A concrete example will be useful here. Let us consider a free particle. In quantum mechanics, there is wave-particle duality so the properties of the particle can be described as a wave. Therefore, its quantum state can be represented as a wave, of arbitrary shape and extending over all of space, called a wavefunction. The position and momentum of the particle are observables. The Uncertainty Principle of quantum mechanics states that 2006-08-08T04:09:46-04:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/Essay-on-The-Theory-of-Quantum-Mechanics-31159.aspx Do you wan know about Quantum mechanics, you can find things everywhere? You don’t know where to start? Right answer is Being from your mind. Description of the theory There are a number of mathematically equivalent formulations of quantum mechanics. One of the oldest and most commonly used formulations is the transformation theory invented by Cambridge theoretical physicist Paul Dirac, which unifies and generalizes the two earliest formulations of quantum mechanics, matrix mechanics (invented by Werner Heisenberg) and wave mechanics (invented by Erwin Schrödinger). In this formulation, the instantaneous state of a quantum system encodes the probabilities of its measurable properties, or "observables". Examples of observables include energy, position, momentum, and angular momentum. Observables can be either continuous (e.g., the position of a particle) or discrete (e.g., the energy of an electron bound to a hydrogen atom). Generally, quantum mechanics does not assign definite values to observables. Instead, it makes predictions about probability distributions; that is, the probability of obtaining each of the possible outcomes from measuring an observable. Naturally, these probabilities will depend on the quantum state at the instant of the measurement. There are, however, certain states that are associated with a definite value of a particular observable. These are known as "eigenstates" of the observable ("eigen" meaning "own" in German). In the everyday world, it is natural and intuitive to think of everything being in an eigenstate of every observable. Everything appears to have a definite position, a definite momentum, and a definite time of occurrence. However, Quantum Mechanics does not pinpoint the exact values for the position or momentum of a certain particle in a given space in a finite time, but, rather, it only provides a range of probabilities of where that particle might be. Therefore, it became necessary to use different words for a) the state of something having an uncertainty relation and b) a state that has a definite value. The latter is called the "eigenstate" of the property being measured. A concrete example will be useful here. Let us consider a free particle. In quantum mechanics, there is wave-particle duality so the properties of the particle can be described as a wave. Therefore, its quantum state can be represented as a wave, of arbitrary shape and extending over all of space, called a wavefunction. The position and momentum of the particle are observables. The Uncertainty Principle of quantum mechanics states that both the position and the momentum 2006-08-08T03:57:14-04:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/Quantum-Mechanic-31158.aspx How Lagrangians drive modern theory Lagrangian theory (as well as Hamiltonian theory) has a highly influential role in modern physics, there being many remarkable uses to which ti can be put. For example, there is an important theorem, known as Nther’s theorem, which tells us that, if an ordinary Lagrangian possesses some continuous (smooth) symmetry, then there will be a conservation law associated with that symmetry. In particular, if there is invariance of the Lagrangian under time translation (i.e. independent of time), then there is a conserved energy; if it is invariant under some spatial translation, then a momentum is conserved. Furthermore, if there is invariance under angular rotation about some axis, then there 2006-08-08T03:19:00-04:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/How-Lagrangian-Drive-Modern-Theory-31156.aspx Chemistry Lab: Concentration's effects on Rate of Reaction Aim: The aim of this investigation is to investigate the rate of reaction of magnesium (mg) with Hydrochloric acid (HCl). After studying the availability of equipment I have chosen to investigate how concentration can affect the rate of reaction. Other variables that affect this investigation are: - Concentration of solution - Temperature - Surface area of a solid - Catalyst - Light - Pressure of a gas Prediction: I predict that when changing the concentration of hydrochloric acid and water, the slower the rate of reaction will be. I think this because when observing a previous experiment, it showed the less Hydrochloric acid and the more water used in a test tube, the rate of reaction is slow. Scientific knowledge: To help me gain better knowledge about the investigation I have found out some scientific information relating to the experiment of ‘rates and reaction’. The main areas I have covered are concentration of solution, temperature and catalyst. After researching my scientific evidence I have found out that depending on collisions in particles will depend on the reaction being faster or slower. This happens if the reacting particles collide with each other, or there is sufficient energy in the collision to overcome the activation energy. Concentration To increase the rate of reaction, the concentration of the reaction needs to increase this is by the Hydrogen and magnesium ribbon being added to the solution of Hydrochloric acid. The following reaction occurs: Temperature If temperature is increased the rate of reaction also increase. This is by the chemical particles receiving kinetic energy. If more kinetic energy is present in the particles, the particles move faster, this also means the particles will be colliding with each other often. Catalysts A catalyst is a substance that changes the rate of reaction but remains unchanged itself therefore it is an element that changes the rate of a chemical reaction without being used up. For example, iron speeds up the reaction between nitrogen and hydrogen to make ammonia. Equipment: Test Tube Rack 2 Measuring Cylinders 5 Magnesium Strip Hydrochloric Acid Test Tubes Sand Paper Stop Clock Water Method: 1. Collect all equipment; cut 5 magnesium strips (10cm) the same size. After that, using the sandpaper, sand any Magnesium Oxide layer (rust) off the magnesium strips. 2. Collect the hydrochloric acid and measure out 2006-08-07T15:26:34-04:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/Chemistry-Lab-Concentration-s-effects-on-Rate-of-Reaction-31133.aspx Causes and Treatment for Epilepsy At least one person in every two hundred has epilepsy. A chronic disorder in which nerve cells of the brain from time to time release electrical impulses, causing a temporary malfunction of the nerve cells of the brain. This sudden disturbance in the nerve cells causes seizures. A very old disease mentioned in the Code of Hammurabi, epilepsy is also the subject of the earliest of scientific work to survive, The Sacred Disease, attributed to the Greek Hippocrates. The most prominent feature of epilepsy is the seizure; That is not to say that seizures occur in epileptics only. The seizure is a complex symptom, with many varieties, causes, and treatments. Virtually anyone can have a seizure under the right circumstances; those who experience a seizure have a low seizure threshold. . Seizures can have many causes, brain injury, poisoning, head trauma and stroke, are some examples, however, epileptic seizures are generally reoccurring without treatment. Originating from the central nervous system, most seizures start from around the site of brain injury. At the point where the injury occurred, brain neurons are destroyed; the nearby neurons remain functioning, but crippled. This point of destroyed neurons is called the epileptic focus, the neurons within a focus are electrically unstable, and lacking powers of inhibition they exert an electrical influence. While one damaged neuron is far to small to effect the brain, neurons are organized into groups of several hundreds of thousands. These groups of neurons all discharge electricity together, causing surrounding neurons to discharge as well and those neurons cause the neurons around it to discharge in a dominoes effect situation. The result of this domino effect is a seizure discharge; a neural impulse that rapidly runs out of control and causes such disruption to normal brain activity that a fit develops. While this is the general way that seizure discharge spreads, seizure discharge spreads differently for every type of seizure. Variation of the spread of electrical discharge seizure involves the difference between partial and generalized seizures. Partial seizures caused by abnormal electrical discharge originate from only one specific area of the brain, where in a generalized seizure the entire brain is involved. Partial seizures may become generalized if the electric discharge originating from the focus is strong enough to spread through the entire brain. However, if a partial seizure is progressing towards becoming generalized, the symptoms will 2006-08-07T07:54:52-04:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/Causes-and-Treatment-for-Epilepsy-31092.aspx A Study of Eugenics Modern technology and science has created a complex issue with eugenics and gene therapy. Eugenics is defined as physically removing or replacing cells in an embryo or germ cells. Rapid advancements in genetics and embryology, has lead society scrambling to find the morality and the consequences of eugenics. The two types of genetic intervention are modifying germ cells or somatic cells. Germ cells are sex cells that affect traits and heredity of certain characteristics. Somatic cell alteration can give or take away traits, but are not intended to affect sex cells. Marc Lappe goes into detail about how germ cells are specifically morally wrong due to the fact that germ cell engineering affects future generations. I agree with that Marc Lappe that germ cell intervention affects the future generations, but also in somatic changes there are possibilities of changes in the germ cells. I think that somatic and germ cell changes should be treated the same due to the fact that the differences are a matter of when you are changing the genes. The controversy of eugenics arises from the idea of altering the natural process of birth and natural selection and using embryos to experiment eugenics. People also fear that being able to change genotypes and phenotypes will lead to discrimination and abuse of the eugenics. Currently, eugenics is not perfected and experiments with animals have shown that complications do occur. On the other side eugenics provide tremendous hope to people that have afflicting diseases and disabling traits. I will examine both sides in depth and try to give plausible solutions. The pro-eugenic people point to the unbound medical benefits of eugenics. In the future, doctors and geneticists will be able to diagnose diseases early in the developmental stages and will be able to correct the disease before birth. Would you not give medicine and treatments to someone if available? It would be morally wrong to not treat a person if there was a working treatment for any reason. The argument can be made that an afflicted embryo has the same right to be treated, if possible. For example if an embryo is diagnosed with multiple sclerosis and the gene that cures M.S. is known and the procedure is safe it would be wrong not to treat this embryo. There has always been controversy with new medical advancement. It is argued that eugenics is not natural and 2006-08-06T23:14:04-04:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/A-Study-of-Eugenics-31089.aspx Protozoan & Vorticella Organisism Protozoa, collective name for animal-like, single-celled organisms, some of which may form colonies. In the classification followed in this essay the protozoa are placed in the kingdom Protista with other single-celled organisms that have membrane-enclosed nuclei. Protozoa have little or no differentiation into tissue systems. Several phyla are commonly recognized. They include flagellated Zoomastigina, many species of which live as parasites in plants and animals; the amoeboid Sarcodina, which includes the Foraminifera, and Radiolaria both important components of the plankton; ciliated Ciliophora, many with specialized structures suggesting the mouth and anus of higher organisms; Cnidosporidia, parasites of invertebrates, fish, and a few 2006-08-06T21:54:30-04:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/Protozoan-amp-Vorticella-Organisism-31086.aspx I am the Mekong River From my humble beginnings in an ice cave high in the Tibetan Himalayans, I wind 2,600 miles through remarkable years of history. I am known by Asian peoples as the “holy river.” I have seen war and hunger. I will now tell of who I am and who I know. I am the tenth largest river in the world. My course runs through China, Laos, Thailand, Cambodia, Vietnam, and on to the South China Sea. I provide life-giving resources for countless people and wildlife. My history is long and diverse. Early man inhabited my banks using my waters for nourishment. From the fifth to the eight-century primarily the Tai inhabited me. By the 13th century the Tai people occupied most of the my valley and grew from my waters with their staple food of rice. The Tai eventually formed a country, Thailand. As for foreign explorers, I was not “discovered” (by western standards) until 1886. It was difficult to navigate my waters because of my pesky Knong Waterfalls. In 1886 six Frenchmen were trying to establish a trade route. Finally they realized my falls were unbearable so they built a railway across the falls. During the 10th century, however, the Vietnamese began noticing how well the Kingdom of Champa was doing with my rich waters and soils. After all, I am considered to be one of the world’s richest rivers in terms of mineral laden sediments. I give all the water for irrigation not only the rice fields along my course, but also many fruits and vegetables. Currently I provide well over half of all the rice grown in Vietnam. Sediments from me provide food for one of the worlds most diverse fisheries. So it is no wonder that Vietnam began to want a piece of me. Here is where the years of anguish started. I would no longer be the carefree peaceful waters I was in past history. Humans began to complicate everything. The Vietnamese captured the Champa capitol, and destroyed the magnificent capitol over the Mekong delta. This was only the beginning of many wars and violence I would be witness to. In 1953 the French battled with Vietnam to take control of my middle and Lower River. In 1957 the U.N. started development to control flooding. Flooding my natural life cycle…they had no idea what they had put in motion. They meant well, 2006-08-06T21:49:26-04:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/I-am-the-Mekong-River-31084.aspx Essay on Important Cell Components Being one of the most important components of a cell, the plasma membrane, or cell membrane plays a huge role in regulating how things get in and out of cells. The plasma membrane’s unique structure enables it to let only certain molecules pass through the cell. This ability is called selective permeability. Most of the plasma membrane in most cells is made up of a phospholipid bilayer with proteins either embedded into it or sticking out from either side of the membrane. The heads of the phospholipids absorb water from the extracellular environment while the tails of the phospholipids repels it. This system helps the membrane regulate the flow of water in and out of the cell, and is also responsible for letting in hydrophobic or water repelling molecules into and out of the cell as well. Molecules may enter the cell via two main kinds of transport: active and passive. Passive transport is the movement of molecules through the cell membrane that requires no energy. The molecules passing through the membrane move from the area of the higher concentration to the area with a lower concentration. In other words, the molecules move along the gradient and therefore do not need energy to help them move through the membrane. Diffusion is another word for passive transport and is categorized by two ways: facilitated and simple. In simple diffusion, the molecules are either hydrophilic or small enough to pass through the phospholipid bilayer without any assistance. In facilitated diffusion, proteins embedded in the cell membrane, provide a doorway for particular solutes to go through. Even though the proteins move in order to make openings for solutes, this process does not use any energy. Water is crucial for the survival of cells. Water is able to diffuse through the membrane by a method of passive transport called osmosis. Osmoregulation is the control of the water balance in cells. The amount of water in and out of cells has a great effect on the concentration gradient inside and outside cells. When there is more water inside the cell and more solutes outside the cell, the cell is hypotonic to the extracellular fluid. In other words, the cell is in a hypertonic solution. As a result of this, more water molecules leave the cell 2006-08-06T20:36:21-04:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/Essay-on-Important-Cell-Components-31076.aspx Using and Applying Hydroelectricity All energy sources have negative and positive aspects. Coal and oil pollute the environment, nuclear fission produces toxic waste, and solar heaters are not efficient. When compared to other energy sources, hydroelectricity has fewer disadvantages and is being explored and widely used today. Throughout the world an increasing amount of people are turning towards hydroelectric power as a new source of energy. Although the idea of converting water to power might seem simple, the process it must go through involves many steps. There is a lot about this energy resource that people do not know or understand. This leaves many people thinking, “Is hydroelectricity the best energy source for a clean and safe environment?” Water is a resource found all over the world, which makes hydroelectricity available to people almost everywhere. Because of its abundance, it is not surprising that hydroelectric power has been around for thousands of years. Some of its first uses include grinding grain, pumping water, and powering saw and grist mills. Nowadays hydroelectric power is being used to produce electricity for homes and businesses. The use of waterpower dates back to before Christ. Antipater, the Greek poet, mentioned the use of falling water to create energy in 400 B.C. writings. In Ancient Greece and Rome people used waterwheels for milling corn, and in 250 B.C. a clock was built that was powered by water. During the Middle Ages, large wooden waterwheels were developed with a maximum power output of about 50 horsepower. Later a British engineer, John Smeaton, built the first large waterwheel using cast-iron construction in the late 1880s. The U.S.’s first industrial use of hydropower to generate electricity occurred in 1880, when 16 brush-arc lamps were powered using a water turbine at the Wolverine Chair Factory in Grand Rapids, Michigan. Two years later, the first hydroelectric plant was built in Appleton, Wisconsin. This plant provided 12.5 kilowatts of electricity, which provided light for a home and two paper mills. Until that time coal was the only fuel resource used to produce electricity. As electricity demands soared in the middle of the 1900s, the efficiency of coal and oil fueled power plants increased, and small hydro plants fell out of favor. To gain more popularity, most new hydroelectric development since the mid 1900’s 2006-08-06T10:00:48-04:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/Using-and-Applying-Hydroelectricity-31064.aspx The Inland Bearded Dragon (Pogona Vitticeps) The bearded dragon (also called the yellow-headed bearded dragon) native to inland or central Australia is a very versatile lizard. In Australia these little guys can be found living in the arid, rocky, semi-desert regions, arid woodlands or scrub. They are frequently found basking in the morning and afternoon sun or rocks, logs and even fence posts. Their bulky body and basking allows them to store heat and operate at lower temperatures than other lizards. Bearded dragons can also survive very high temperatures for several hours since they can regulate there body temperature by evaporation. They are generally very brave individuals and are not generally bothered by humans, which is one of the reasons they have become popular pets. There basic color varies from shades of brown and reddish-brown, gray and bright orange. The adult males have a dark beard, which becomes black during courtship and breading. They average18” to 24” from nose to tail and there average weight is between 10 – 18 ounces. The bearded dragons head is somewhat arrow shaped as opposed to the slightly rounded head of the horned toad native to the American Southwest. It’s body is somewhat flat and is liberally covered with sharp “appearing” spikes. The bearded dragon’s tail only makes up about half of its length. Females are generally stockier though somewhat shorter than the males of the species. The scales along the throat and side of the head have evolved into spiny points they also have these pointy scales along the sides of their bodies. They received the name “bearded” from their flared out throat that it uses to help scare off potential predators. While they flare out there throat they open their gaping mouth, which is lined with yellowish-orange coloring to help add to there threatening appearance and can stand on there hind legs. The bearded dragons adapt so well to living in captivity this behavior is rarely observed. The most one is likely to see is it flattens its body and possibly flare its “beard”. The bearded dragons have the ability to change shades from dark to light, which aids them in regulating their body temperatures. They can also change colors depending on emotional state and for concealment. When injured, sick or dying the bearded dragon becomes black on its 2006-08-05T10:29:23-04:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/The-Inland-Bearded-Dragon-Pogona-Vitticeps-31014.aspx Memory Enhancing Capability of Ginkgo Biloba The article was about a drug called Ginkgo Biloba that is supposed to help your short-term memory. It works by thinning your blood so that it can pass through your clogged or narrow bloodstream. On the test, they used 202 men and women with mild to moderately severe dementia caused by Alzheimer’s disease or stroke. On those taking ginkgo, only fifty percent showed improvements. Investigators are still not sure why ginkgo worked. They said it could have been something with the herb’s antioxidant properties. As it referenced in the textbook, short-term memory retains information for thirty seconds or less on an average. The information that is retained usually converts into long-term memory or disintegrates. As people incur injuries to their head or brain, it makes it difficult to preserve their mental capacity to the maximum. With ginkgo, the supplement helps to enhance and transfer your short-term memory to your long-term memory. I think there are more cons than pros on this supplement. Ginkgo is a supplement to help your short-term memory convert to long-term. You really shouldn’t need a pill to help you remember things. Maybe some people have Attention Deficit Disorder (ADD) that requires intake of this medication. It is also not proven to be one hundred percent safe. It may help you in the short run, but later in life it could really affect your health negatively. The pros to this supplement could be a possible cure for Alzheimer’s disease. As a child less than a year old, I believe during that time is when I first had head injuries that may have led to my lack of a long-term memory. It had occurred when my family and I were attending an annual religious convention. I was left on the hood of our car while my mother went to grab a new diaper. By leaving me a alone with my older sister, who wasn’t paying much attention, I rolled around on the car and fell off to the ground. Since then, my thoughts and memories have been affected negatively. In conclusion, ginkgo has proven to enhance memory capability, hover it may not be affective for everyone. This supplement still is under a lot of testing to ensure that it meets regulations for safety reasons for the public. As of right now there is still no 2006-08-05T10:23:29-04:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/Memory-Enhancing-Capability-of-Ginkgo-Biloba-31011.aspx Problems and Treatment of Peptic Ulcer Disease Peptic ulcers are open sores or raw areas in the lining of the stomach (gastric ulcer) or upper part of the small intestine (duodenal ulcer). They result when the bacterium, Helicobacter pylori attaches itself to the lining of the stomach. Another cause of peptic ulcers are nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs), such as ibuprofen. The bacteria or NSAIDs weaken the protective mucus coating of the stomach and small intestines. This process allows acid to get through to the sensitive lining. The irritation from the drugs or bacteria can cause the sensitive lining to become raw, which causes an ulcer to form. Peptic ulcers can also form when there is an imbalance between the digestive juices used by the stomach to break down food. The primary digestive juices, hydrochloric acid and pepsin, are very powerful substances that are necessary for breaking down food, which the body uses for energy. These acids are always present in the stomach in small amounts, except at meal times. Incidence About 25 million people in the United States have had a peptic ulcer during their lifetime. At least 90% of these cases are caused by H. pylori(Sonnenberg, 359). Patients who have duodenal ulcers are between the ages of 25 and 27. Gastric ulcers are less common with only 85,000 cases diagnosed each year (Zoler, 14). The patients who suffer from gastric ulcers are between the ages of 55 and 65. Men are more prone to ulcers, but there has been a steady increase of women being diagnosed each year. Because the ulcer is caused predominantly by the H. pylori bacteria, those living in underdeveloped countries and those with low socioeconomic status are more likely to develop ulcers. H. pylori is believed to be transmitted through oral to oral contact, so those living in crowed areas are also more likely to become infected. History of Ulcer Diagnosis and Treatment Early 20th Century Ulcers were believed to be caused mainly by stress and diet. Treatment focused on primarily hospitalization, bed rest, and a diet of bland foods. Later on in the century, cause of the ulcer changed from stress and diet to gastric acid. The treatment then was a prescription for antacids and medications that blocked acid production. Even with treatment, there was 2006-08-05T10:10:59-04:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/Problems-and-Treatment-of-Peptic-Ulcer-Disease-31005.aspx Understanding Characteristics of Earthquakes Earthquakes are happening almost everyday all over the world. Most of the time earthquakes are not strong enough to be felt by people, but the shaking caused by an earthquake is recorded by a seismogram. These are located all over the world at different points. Only occasionally will a larger magnitude earthquake strike and cause damage to the region. Around the world there are many faults, depending where these faults are plays a major factor in determining where an earthquake will happen. It is these faults that are the reason for earthquakes. The type of fault will also determine how often an earthquake will happen. A mid-ocean ridge occurs under the sea at a divergent boundary. This is where two plates are been pulled apart because of tension. This then allows new oceanic crust to be made in the divergent boundary, as magma rises and eventually sets on the sea floor. If the plates on either side of the divergent boundary continue to spread then the ocean slowly becomes larger in width, a process called seafloor spreading. Mid-ocean ridges are characterized by a crack like valley at the divergent boundary. This crack like valley is caused by the tension pulling the plates apart, causing normal faulting to occur a number of times in the divergent boundary. It is these normal faults that are the cause and therefore the origin of earthquakes at divergent boundaries. When the tension pulling apart the two plates becomes too much then the oceanic crust will fracture. This fracturing is caused by many normal faults happening as shown in the diagram. The normal faults happen because the crust is been extended. When the tension becomes too much the faults slip vertically. They move a large distance in a relatively short space of time, this is the cause of the earthquakes at divergent boundaries. Divergent boundaries mostly occur on the sea floor and therefore the earthquakes that happen at these boundaries are distributed along the boundary. This means that the distributions of earthquakes at divergent boundaries are at shallow depths, where the crust is been pulled apart. The earthquakes happen at shallow depths because the normal faulting occurs near the sea floor, as a result of the tension. The normal faults are the cause of the earthquakes at these divergent boundaries. The seafloor sees the most intense tectonic 2006-08-01T19:07:21-04:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/Understanding-Characteristics-of-Earthquakes-30964.aspx Marijuana and the Human Body Marijuana can be used for the body in various ways or methods. This potential gateway drug causes or produces an impact on abilities used to perform various tasks. Marijuana affects the body by impairing judgment, changing mental functions, lowers inhibition, and by affecting reaction control of the user. The sensitivity of this drug asks only one question. “How does Marijuana it affect the body?” Marijuana has serious effects on the skill required to drive safely, alertness, the ability to concentrate, coordination, and the ability to react quickly. The effects of the drug can last up to 24 hours after actually smoking the drug. The use of marijuana can make it very difficult to judge distances, impairs reaction control and reflexes. Some studies show that when people have smoked large amounts of marijuana for years, the drug takes toll on mental functions. Heavy or daily use of marijuana affects the parts of the brain that control memory, attention, and learning. A working short-term memory is needed to learn and to perform tasks that call for more than one or two steps. (Arch. Of General psychiatry, 53: 1051-1057, 1996.) There are various types of ways marijuana can affect a person depending on the user’s experience. Some people feel nothing at all when they smoke marijuana. Some people may feel relaxed or high. Another possibility is that marijuana could make the user feel thirsty and very hungry – an effect called “The Munchies.” Some users may suffer sudden feelings of anxiety and have paranoid thoughts. “This is more likely to happen when a more potent variety of marijuana is used.” The effects of marijuana can be categorized into three types; the physiological effects, psychological effects, and the subjective effects. Some of the physiological effects are reddened eyes, increased pulse rate, and a dry mouth (cotton-mouth). The active ingredient in marijuana tetrahydrocannabinol (THC) is believed to change a psychoactive compound in the liver, which may be the cause of the psychological and subjective effects. The psychological effects of marijuana are most often seen in altered perceptions of distance and time, impaired memory and physical coordination, and a heightened sensitivity of the visual and auditory senses. The subjective effects refer to those effects that are going to change from person to person. This 2006-08-01T10:19:47-04:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/Marijuana-and-the-Human-Body-30932.aspx Study on the Indian Python Throughout history, humans have regarded snakes with both fascination and horror. In man y cultures, Snakes with have been symbols of evil, from the Biblical serpent in the Garden of Eden to the snake demons of Indian mythology. To the ancient Egyptians the emblem of judgment and death was a snake. However, The Indian Python is a highly arboreal snake, once fairly common throughout the jungles of India, Sri Lanka, and East Indies. Snakes are reptiles, the group of animals that also includes crocodiles, lizards, and turtles. Pythons are the most ancient type of snake; they have remnant spurs, tiny projections where their ancestors might once have had legs. In the wild, Indian pythons can grow from 10 to 20 feet. They length might weigh 100 or 150 pounds. The average weight for Indian pythons is 50 to 100 pounds. The Indian Python is one of the world’s largest snakes. Like the boas anacondas of the Americas, the python is a constrictor, a snake that kills its prey. Pythons drape across tree branches, camouflaged by their light and dark patterned skin, waiting to ambush their next meal. They grab their prey with a quick lashing out of the head, then wrap themselves around the prey so it cannot breathe. A large python could squeeze the life out of a deer, and amazingly enough, the python could then swallow it whole. Mammals are preferred prey, but they will eat birds, other animals, even fish. They often live near water and are good swimmer. After such a big meal, the snake may not have to eat again for as long as a year. There are very few authenticated accounts of humans being attacked by pythons, though it certainly is possible since the largest python recorded was over 32 feet (9.8 m) long. Like all pythons and the boas to which they are related, Indian Python is non-venomous. They have teeth which they use to hold onto prey while the giant body squeezes against the creature until it stops breathing. Then, they would swallows their food whole. A python may live more than 20 years. They are solitary creatures, but males and females seek each other out to mate. The female Indian Python lays as many as 60 eggs at a time, usually in rock crevices or tree holes. 2006-08-01T09:37:21-04:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/Study-on-the-Indian-Python--30918.aspx Study on the Indian Python Throughout history, humans have regarded snakes with both fascination and horror. In man y cultures, Snakes with have been symbols of evil, from the Biblical serpent in the Garden of Eden to the snake demons of Indian mythology. To the ancient Egyptians the emblem of judgment and death was a snake. However, The Indian Python is a highly arboreal snake, once fairly common throughout the jungles of India, Sri Lanka, and East Indies. Snakes are reptiles, the group of animals that also includes crocodiles, lizards, and turtles. Pythons are the most ancient type of snake; they have remnant spurs, tiny projections where their ancestors might once have had legs. In the wild, Indian pythons can grow from 10 to 20 feet. They length might weigh 100 or 150 pounds. The average weight for Indian pythons is 50 to 100 pounds. The Indian Python is one of the world’s largest snakes. Like the boas anacondas of the Americas, the python is a constrictor, a snake that kills its prey. Pythons drape across tree branches, camouflaged by their light and dark patterned skin, waiting to ambush their next meal. They grab their prey with a quick lashing out of the head, then wrap themselves around the prey so it cannot breathe. A large python could squeeze the life out of a deer, and amazingly enough, the python could then swallow it whole. Mammals are preferred prey, but they will eat birds, other animals, even fish. They often live near water and are good swimmer. After such a big meal, the snake may not have to eat again for as long as a year. There are very few authenticated accounts of humans being attacked by pythons, though it certainly is possible since the largest python recorded was over 32 feet (9.8 m) long. Like all pythons and the boas to which they are related, Indian Python is non-venomous. They have teeth which they use to hold onto prey while the giant body squeezes against the creature until it stops breathing. Then, they would swallows their food whole. A python may live more than 20 years. They are solitary creatures, but males and females seek each other out to mate. The female Indian Python lays as many as 60 eggs at a time, usually in rock crevices or tree holes. 2006-08-01T09:35:57-04:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/Study-on-the-Indian-Python--30917.aspx Calibration Lab Report The purpose of the lab that was completed was to determine the validity and reliability of an electronic spirometer, using a water spirometer as a reference. Calibration is an important tool in determining whether or not an instrument is valid and reliable. The validity of an instrument is the extent to which a procedure accomplishes what it seeks out to accomplish. Validity can be determined by checking an instrument against another similar instrument. From the tests run between the two instruments, Pearson’s correlation coefficient (r) can be determined. This coefficient is a statistic that quantifies the magnitude of the relationship between two separate variables. The coefficient can range from negative 1 to positive 1. If the number is closer to positive one this means that when the variable increases, so does the other one. When the coefficient is closer to negative one this means when the variable increases, the other one does the opposite. Lastly, if the coefficient is closer to zero this means there is no relationship, positive or negative. The coefficient r can be determined from the following equation: r = N(sumXY)(sumY)/ ¡îN(sum x©÷-(sum x)©÷)(N)(sum y©÷-(sum y)©÷). The coefficient r can then be used to determine the shared variance between the two variables. Shared variance can be determined by the following equation: Shared Variance = r©÷*100. If the shared variance is 75% or better, this means there is a high correlation between the two variables. If the shared variance is between 50-75%, this means there is a moderate correlation between the two variables. Finally, if the shared variance is below 25%, this means there is a low correlation. The reliability of a procedure is also very important. The reliability is the ability of an instrument or procedure to reproduce duplicate measurements. The reliability of a procedure is also calculated using Pearson’s coefficient. It turns out that the reliability coefficient is usually higher than the validity coefficient, since with the reliability test you are not comparing two different procedures or instruments, but the same one; and one would expect that if a procedure was repeated using the exact same instruments then the results would be very similar. Before any instruments were tested the humidity, barometric pressure, and temperature were recorded. The PH2O was determined by using 2006-07-31T19:03:35-04:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/Calibration-Lab-Report-30904.aspx A Study of Hemophilia in Americans According to the dictionary Hemophilia is a hereditary disorder in which the blood fails to clot normally, causing prolonged bleeding from even minor injuries. This is only the very basis of this disorder. First of all there are two kinds of Hemophilia. Hemophilia A and Hemophilia B. Hemophilia A is caused by lack of protein factor VIII and is found in 80% of hemophiliacs. Other names for this are classical hemophilia, factor VIII deficiency hemophilia. Hemophilia B is caused by a deficiency of plasma protein called factor IX that affects the clotting property of blood. Its other names are Christmas disease and factor IX hemophilia. The symptoms of this disorder are lengthy bleeding after circumcision, excessive bruising, swollen or painful joints, Swollen or tender muscles, excessive bleeding from the gums, tongue, or mouth following injury (seen particularly in infants and toddlers), severe bleeding after tooth extraction’s or other invasive dental procedures, and severe bleeding after injuries or operations. It is caused by an inherited sex-linked recessive trait located on the one X chromosome. The standard treatment for Hemophilia is infusion of factor VIII concentrates to replace the defective clotting factor. The amount infused depends on the size of the person, site of bleeding, and severity of bleeding. To prevent bleeding crisis Hemophilia patients and their families can be taught to administer factor VIII concentrates at home at first signs of bleeding. Patients with severe forms of the disorder may need regular prophylactic infusions. Even when a patient goes to the dentist they may need to take DDAVP or factor VIII concentrate to prevent bleeding. With all this treatment the patient is able to lead a pretty normal life. Though there is a small percent of patients who develop inhibitors of factor VIII and may die from blood loss. This disorder has been around for a long period of time. Back in 1853 Queen Victoria’s eighth child, Leopold, had Hemophilia. Cause of this he lived a life of pain and suffering, prolonged internal bleeding, and became crippled because of severe damage to his joints from repeated hemorrhages. Back then not many people had Hemophilia and there was not treatment. Now in just the US there is 20,000 hemophilia patients and each year 400 babies are born with this disorder. Of them 1 out of every 5,000 men have Hemophilia A and 1 out of 2006-07-31T12:50:07-04:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/A-Study-of-Hemophilia-in-Americans-30887.aspx The Importance of Tidal Electricity Tidal electricity is a cheap way of producing electricity. Tidal electric's tidal generator combines hydroelectric power generation with the conventional maritime water-impoundment techniques and configures a system of delivering large amounts of electrical power. Potential sites are vast ocean areas with large tidal ranges. Tidal electricity is a clean method of producing electricity, unlike that of nuclear plants and fossil fuel plants, which gives off toxic smoke and producing acid rain. There are two commercial scale barrages: a 240 MW plant in France, and a 16 MW plant in Nova Scotia, Canada. The bay of Fundy, which is found off the shores of Nova Scotia, has the highest tides in the world. They usually reach up to 25 feet high during a full moon. There are many advantages of using tidal waves instead of nuclear plants or fossil fuel plants. The fundy tides are a renewable source of energy with a potential of producing hundreds of billions of kilowatts each year. Also, tidal produces no pollution and needs almost no maintenance. Another advantage is that water is a free resource, and is used over and over again. Once the dam is built, then the electricity is practically free. It need no fuel. Tidal electricity is highly efficient, over 50% more efficient that coal/oil. There are yet some disadvantages such as the problem of transporting the hydroelectricity because of undeveloped technology. One major concern is that it costs so much to build and effects the wide environment. Many miles upstream and downstream would be changed. The only cost there is to build the dam. Once that’s done, then its free. But the people using it will pay a fee. This is a small figure, however, only cost the UK ratepayer $7.50 a year. This is figured at a cost of $.005 per kWh. This is much cheaper than any other source. The source comes from tidal waves in the ocean. The water is very abundant. Turbines are situated in a powerhouse that is contained in the impoundment structure. Power is transmitted to shora via underground/underwater cables and connected to the grid. To collect it, water flows through tunnels in the dam. This can be used to turn a turbine or push 2006-07-30T20:57:08-04:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/The-Importance-of-Tidal-Electricity-30837.aspx Avian Influenza or better known as the ‘Bird Flu’ is an extremely infectious disease caused by a type A strain of the influenza virus. First identified in Italy a mere one hundred years ago, wild bird populations carry these normally non-lethal flu diseases worldwide in their intestines. However the virus has mutated into the most fatal strain of influenza virus, known as H5N1, which is the strain causing so much havoc in the world and especially China today. Outbreaks of the highly pathogenic strain began in Southeast Asia in mid-2003 and are the most severe on record. Infected birds pass on the virus through their saliva, nasal secretions and faeces. Consequently other birds pick up the disease through direct contact with the infected bird excretions or contaminated surfaces, and spread it throughout the world during flights of migration. In a short period of time this will ultimately cause a pandemic. Pandemics are such dreaded events as they can rapidly infect all countries and once the virus spreads internationally it is considered unstoppable. Countries in Asia and especially China are most at risk to the latest outbreak of H5N1 due to flight migration patterns of infected birds as seen in this map. Crowded factory farms and unhygienic conditions of backyard farming and urban informal marketing also contribute to the spread of H5N1. In a short period of time, the Bird Flu will have devastating effects on the world environmentally, economically and socially. H5N1 is having devastating effects on China environmentally, although the total impact has yet to be determined. All birds are highly susceptible to the Bird Flu, hence the name, and will cause severe even fatal symptoms. The main symptoms in birds or poultry include depression, loss of appetite, cessation of egg laying, nervous signs, blue discolouration of the comb, coughing, sneezing and diarrhoea, however sudden death can occur without any previous signs of symptoms. A local from China recounts the symptoms of an infected bird, “They were starting to shake and their face turned purple, almost black. The eyes were swollen and turned red, then there were tears dropping out from their eyes. There were saliva came out from the mouth. Very sticky too. And then they started to die.” In addition to death, loss of income to small-scale farmers, caused by the virus infecting their chickens, may trigger efforts to farm more intensively and on more marginal 2006-07-30T03:16:34-04:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/avian-influenza--30802.aspx Brief Explanation of Titration Titration is the addition of an acidic solution to a basic solution or when you add a basic solution to an acidic solution. Titrations are used to determine the concentration of acids or bases in solution. An example of a titration is when a given volume of a solution of unknown acidity may be titrated with a base of known concentration until complete neutralization has occurred. This point is called the equivalence point and is generally determined by observing a color change in an indicator. From the volume and concentration of 2006-07-29T16:25:29-04:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/Brief-Explanation-of-Titration-30794.aspx Study on Human Gene Therapy In 1990, a three-year-old Cleveland, Ohio, girl named Ashanthi DeSilva made history when doctors infused her with genes to produce an infection-fighting enzyme called ADA that she lacked. A decade later, the ashes of Jesse Gelsinger were scattered on an Arizona mountaintop after the 18-year-old died of respiratory distress -- essentially, his lungs shut down -- after getting a massive dose of a modified cold virus intended to carry a gene to his cells. Somewhere in between, the promise of gene therapy has fallen short. "This severe death in a relatively healthy individual makes us say that we have a lot more to learn," says Philip Marsden, an associate medical professor at the University of Toronto who conducts research on the genetics of blood vessels. "Clearly, with the development of gene therapy vectors, we will have to slow down." Last week, it was reported that a clinical trial in Philadelphia, intended only to prove the treatment was safe, allowed haemophiliacs to greatly cut their ordinary treatment with synthetic blood clotting drugs. Meanwhile, it was recently disclosed that James Dent, a Toronto brain cancer patient, died unexpectedly in April, 1997, two days after beginning the second stage of a gene therapy. Gene therapy has always sounded simple and elegant. Put a "healthy" gene inside a "harmless" virus, infuse a patient, and the virus will carry the gene into cells by infecting them. How can it fail? The answer is proving complicated. Much of the problem is caused by the viral vectors used to transport genes. In order to make a virus harmless, two things must be done. First, its toxic components must be stripped away. Second, it must be made "replication incompetent," so that it will not make billions of copies of itself, bursting cells apart and spreading throughout the body. Otherwise, the immune system will destroy the virus, along with the helpful gene it is transporting. "So you give the virus all you need but you leave out a couple of chapters of the book of how to live as a virus," explains Marsden. If too much of the virus is removed, it will lose its native ability to enter cells to inject its DNA. No viral vector is perfect. Some are too small to transport the large genes that rectify some inherited disorders. The larger 2006-07-29T16:10:52-04:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/Study-on-Human-Gene-Therapy-30787.aspx A Better Understanding of Physics Throughout this year, I have greatly enjoyed doing labs in Physics class. Not only did I have fun while doing these labs, but also learned a lot from them. By doing these labs, the abstract concepts that I learned by reading the textbooks came alive; I was able to experience firsthand the wonder of physics. The lab that I enjoyed the most doing was the Egg Drop Lab. It is quite obvious why anyone would like doing this lab. It was very interesting trying to come up with the container that would keep the egg from cracking. I was able to try out my own theories and see if they worked. It was also very exciting when they worked. The lab that I found the hardest to do was the Nichrome Wire Lab. I had trouble with this lab because I couldn’t set up the circuit correctly. I tried every way possible, but they wouldn’t work. If I fixed one wrong setup, another one would be wrong. I had to try many times before I got the right setup. The lab that helped in my understanding of physics was the Lights in Series and Parallel lab. Before doing this lab I had no clue about the differences between voltage and amps. The lab showed me that lights in series created more resistance and so lessened the amperes, and that lights in parallel drew more current and so shined just as bright as if there were one light. The lab that gave me the most understanding in math was the Ranking Frictional Forces lab. This lab involved finding the final vector of some forces. Taking this lab before learning this in pre-calculus put me ahead of my class in math. The lab that helped the most in my understanding of the topic was the Computer/Charged Particles Lab. This was the first computer lab that I understood how to do. I really got into doing it and was excited when I got the right answers. For the last challenge (mass spectrometer), I was able to find out which element the unknown was. When I did the calculations and found out that it was chlorine, I realized I understood the topic. This lab was really helpful in explaining 2006-07-29T15:48:20-04:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/A-Better-Understanding-of-Physics-30782.aspx A Review of "A Brief History of Time" Stephen Hawking's book, A Brief History Of Time, became an international best-seller - although it is thought many who bought the book never quite finished it because of the complexity of some of the concepts contained within it. Nevertheless, Professor Hawking has achieved a popular status enjoyed by few scientists, even making guest appearances on The Simpsons cartoon show and Star Trek. To mark his own brief history, a celebratory symposium is to be held in Cambridge on Friday. It will be addressed by Professor Hawking himself, his collaborator Sir Roger Penrose, and the Astronomer Royal, Sir Martin Rees. Disappearing black holes "Not only is Stephen a first class scientist of global renown who can be guaranteed to stimulate debate amongst his peers, but he is also a world ambassador for science," says Professor Ian Halliday, CEO of the Particle Physics and Astronomy Research Council (PParc), the body that funds most of the UK's physics and astronomy effort. "Stephen has brought the excitement of fundamental physics to a truly mass audience, raising the awareness and general knowledge of cosmology and physics to an unprecedented level, undoubtedly enthusing the scientists of the future," You are driving along a road and you strike a cat that rather stupidly darted into your path. The cat is dead and depending on your natural disposition, your life continues mostly unaffected. After reading Stephen Hawking’s A Brief History of Time: From the Big Bang to Black Holes, you might interpret the situation quite differently. What was once a mundane event can be analyzed two new ways: on a large scale and on a small scale. In his book, Dr. Hawking lays out our place in this universe on a level that almost anyone can understand and appreciate. In true scientific fashion he covers fundamental concepts of science, voyaging through past, present, and future understanding of the universe we live in. The most refreshing aspects of the book is the simplicity, the use of everyday examples, and the omission of detailed mathematical formulas. In fact, the only formula in the entire book is the famous E = MC2 which is explained in detail. Stated simply, the book gives the reader new perspectives to analyze our everyday existence. Putting the cat’s personal feelings, or lack thereof, aside, Dr. Hawking 2006-07-28T18:37:10-04:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/A-Review-of-a-Brief-History-of-Time-by-Stephen-Hawking-30773.aspx Analysis of the Extracellular and Enigmatic Myxazoa The phylum Myxozoa falls under the domain Eukarya and were traditionally thought of as protozoa. Within the last two decades however more advanced identifying techniques have led us to believe that they are in fact metazoans more closely related to Cnidarians, but this will be discussed later in this essay. There are approximately twelve thousand species of Myxozoa, and it is believed that there may be more than this number. Most Myxozoa are parasites which inhabit primarily tissues and organ cavities of ectothermic vertebrates, especially fish, and can cause major problems within fish farms and hatcheries. Myxozoans are extra cellular parasites of ectothermic vertebrates and invertebrates. They mainly infect fish especially salmonoids, but do also infect some amphibians, reptiles and annelids. In fish they are found in cavities such as gall bladder, urinary tract, ureters or tissues including – cartilage, muscle gills and skin. In Annelids they can be found in the intestinal epithelium. Myxozoans have multicellular spores which contain two or more shell valves which join at a sutural plane, a sporoplasm that is infective to the host, and polar capsules containing polar filaments coiled within. Once ingested these polar filaments are then be expelled and it is thought that they are used as a means of attachment to the host. The most well known species of Myxozoa is the Myxobolus cerebalis due to its affect on salmonoids farms and hatcheries as it is responsible foe significant losses of stock. It affects the cartilage and nervous systems of many salmonoids worldwide. Nearly all Myxozoa have a typical lifecycle common amongst most organisms of the phylum normally involving two host species. The life cycle of Myxobolus cerebalis ids the best example as it is the most known about and most others follow essentially the same pattern. Spores released by the host species (salmonoids usually) are ingested by a tubificid oligochaete. The polar filaments within the polar capsules of the spore are then everted and the spores release the infective sporoplasma. During development within the oligochaete a form of sexual reproduction occurs along with the production of triactinomyxon spores. These new spores are released into the environment along with the host faeces. These spores were until recently believed to be a different species. When the next host, a salmonoids 2006-07-28T18:32:02-04:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/Analysis-of-the-Extracellular-and-Enigmatic-Myxazoa-30771.aspx Research Correlating Nutrition and Cancer Oct. 24, 2001-- Medical experts have been saying for years that a diet low in fat and high in fruits and vegetables is a good way to prevent certain cancers. But now a study from Denmark suggests that too many patients who actually have cancer are confused by the advice. And they may be endangering their recoveries by following it. Most cancer patients participating in a nationwide survey believed that vegetables and low-calorie foods were better choices than foods that are high in calories, according to researchers from Copenhagen University Hospital. A. Bonde Jensen, MD, says the results point to a need for improved dietary counseling for cancer patients. Jensen spoke Wednesday at the European Cancer Conference in Lisbon, Portugal. The issue of nutrition among cancer patients remains controversial. But most large health organizations, including the National Cancer Institute (NCI) in the U.S., recommend that cancer patients undergoing treatment try to eat high-calorie diets that emphasize protein. In its publication, Eating Hints for Cancer Patients, the NCI stresses foods like milk, cream, eggs, and cheese and recommends cooking with butter or oil. "Recommendations about food and eating for cancer patients can be very different from the usual suggestions for healthful eating," the publication states. "This can be confusing for many patients because these new suggestions may seem to be the opposite of what they've always heard." The high-calorie diet is advocated to combat the weight loss and malnutrition that frequently occurs with cancer and cancer treatments. Malnutrition is a major cause of illness and death in cancer patients. As many as one in four people with cancer report anorexia, or the loss of appetite, at diagnosis and, among those with very advanced cancers, almost all patients lose their desire to eat. Loss of appetite is also a frequent side effect of various cancer treatments. Most agree that cancer patients who have completed treatment and are in recovery should follow general healthy eating guidelines. But experts disagree about the best nutritional course for patients who are undergoing therapy, and the evidence is inconclusive. While many cancer-nutrition experts favor the high-protein, high-calorie diet endorsed by the NCI, two other authorities tell WebMD that they do not. Both said that unless a patient is extremely malnourished, a high-calorie, high-fat diet could do more harm than good. 2006-07-27T15:36:18-04:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/Research-Correlating-Nutrition-and-Cancer-30745.aspx Advances in the Detection of Cancer Most of us if not all of us have had someone in our lives that we know to have cancer. One of the worst problems in the world today cancer is an undetectable (until present) killer. Over the years scientist have been working on ways to either slow or stop the cancers process of killing. Cancer has many forms from breast cancer to lung cancer. The way it kills? Cancer causes abnormal growth of cells, these cells then choke of a source that we need to live or will destroy a vital source that we need to live. Now, scientists have created many things that can slow or stop this process. In the following I will show some of the many medical advances in the fight against cancer. The first is self-examination. The American Cancer Society has set forth a set of rules one can follow to give ones self a self-examination. The only problem with this process is by the time one can find this mass of cells on their body the mass has grown to large and operation may be too late. Also one cannot check their vital organs from the outside. This way has saved many lives but there are also many other ways through technology to prevent cancer. One of the easiest ways to tell if you're at risk for cancer is to look into your families past. Cancer can be genetic. If you’re a person that has a family history of cancer then extra precautions can be taken to make sure that if cancer were to develop it can be stopped before it becomes a problem. The most technical way to detect cancer that we have today is the use of molecular probes. The use of cells from anything from a blood test, urine sample, or Pap smear can be used to determine if you have cancer. The body will dump these extra cells into any liquid form in your body, then these cells can show up on many of the simple things we have done to check our health everyday! Overall cancer is a very terrible disease. Cancer claims more lives then any other disease in America every year. These numbers have been dropping slowly which shows our process. I hope one day we can live in a world were no one has to worry about these 2006-07-27T12:52:54-04:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/Advances-in-the-Detection-of-Cancer-30730.aspx Significance of AIDS to Humanity In an extensive article in the Summer-Autumn 1990 issue of "Top Secret", Prof J. Segal and Dr. L. Segal outline their theory that AIDS is a man-made disease, originating at Pentagon bacteriological warfare labs at Fort Detrick, Maryland. "Top Secret" is the international edition of the German magazine Geheim and is considered by many to be a sister publication to the American Covert Action Information Bulletin (CAIB). In fact, Top Secret carries the Naming Names column, which CAIB is prevented from doing by the American government, and which names CIA agents in different locations in the world. The article, named "AIDS: US-Made Monster" and subtitled "AIDS - its Nature and its Origins," is lengthy, has a lot of professional terminology and is dotted with footnotes. AIDS FACTS "The fatal weakening of the immune system which has given AIDS its name (Acquired Immuno-Deficiency Syndrome)," write the Segals, "has been traced back to a destruction or a functional failure of the T4-lymphocytes, also called 'helper cells`, which play a regulatory role in the production of antibodies in the immune system." In the course of the illness, the number of functional T4- cells is reduced greatly so that new anti-bodies cannot be produced and the defenceless patient remains exposed to a range of infections that under other circumstances would have been harmless. Most AIDS patients die from opportunistic infections rather than from the AIDS virus itself. The initial infection is characterized by diarrhea, erysipelas and intermittent fever. An apparent recovery follows after 2-3 weeks, and in many cases the patient remains without symptoms and functions normally for years. Occasionally a swelling of the lymph glands, which does not affect the patient's well-being, can be observed. After several years, the pre-AIDS stage, known as ARC (Aids- Related Complex) sets in. This stage includes disorders in the digestive tract, kidneys and lungs. In most cases it develops into full-blown AIDS in about a year, at which point opportunistic illnesses occur. Parallel to this syndrome, disorders in various organ systems occur, the most severe in the brain, the symptoms of which range from motoric disorders to severe dementia and death. This set of symptoms, say the Segals, is identical in every detail with the Visna sickness which occurs in sheep, mainly in Iceland. (Visna means tiredness in Icelandic). However, the visna virus is not pathogenic for human beings. The Segals note that 2006-07-27T12:42:39-04:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/Significance-of-AIDS-to-Humanity-30724.aspx Information about Down Syndrome Down syndrome is a genetic disease caused by three major factors, genetics, chromosome formation and cell division. Through scientific research, scientists have made vast discoveries on how to "treat" people with the disease and how to help families cope with a child with Down syndrome. Through our research we hope to make more people aware of Down syndrome, how it is caused, how they can help and what is being done to treat people with the disease, so that one day it may be "curable." Down's syndrome was discovered in the late 19th century by John Langdon Down. His scholarly work published in 1866 earned him the recognition as the "father" of the syndrome. "Jerome Lejeune identified Down syndrome as a chromosomal anomaly. Down syndrome is an extra partial or complete 21st chromosome, which results in the characteristics associated with Down syndrome" (Madnick 2). "It is characterized by low muscle tone, flat facial profile, oblique palpebral fissures, dysplastic ear, single deep crease across the center of the palm, hyperflexibility, dysplastic middle phalanx of the fifth finger, epicanthal folds-small skin folds on the inner corner of the eyes, excessive space between large and second toe, and enlargement of tongue in relationship to size of mouth" (Madnick 5). One of the causes of Down syndrome is genetics. "Genetics are grouped along rod-like structures called chromosomes. Normally, the nucleus of each cell contains 23 pairs of chromosomes, half of which are inherited from each parent" (Madnick 2). However, in Down syndrome, the cells usually contain not 46, but 47 chromosomes; with the extra chromosome being a number 21. "Because 95 percent of all cases of Down syndrome occur because there are three copies of the 21st chromosome, it is referred to as "trisomy 21" (Madnick 2). Chromosomes can be studied by examining blood or tissue cells. Individual chromosomes are identified, stained, and numbered from largest to smallest; this visual display is known as a karyotype. Another way that Down syndrome is caused is through cell division; usually through an error in non-disjunction. However, two other types of chromosomal abnormalities, mosaicism and translocation, are also implicated in Down syndrome-although to a lesser extent. Regardless of the 2006-07-27T08:05:48-04:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/Information-about-Down-Syndrome-30695.aspx Information about Down Syndrome Down syndrome is a genetic disease caused by three major factors, genetics, chromosome formation and cell division. Through scientific research, scientists have made vast discoveries on how to "treat" people with the disease and how to help families cope with a child with Down syndrome. Through our research we hope to make more people aware of Down syndrome, how it is caused, how they can help and what is being done to treat people with the disease, so that one day it may be "curable." Down's syndrome was discovered in the late 19th century by John Langdon Down. His scholarly work published in 1866 earned him the recognition as the "father" of the syndrome. "Jerome Lejeune identified Down syndrome as a chromosomal anomaly. Down syndrome is an extra partial or complete 21st chromosome, which results in the characteristics associated with Down syndrome" (Madnick 2). "It is characterized by low muscle tone, flat facial profile, oblique palpebral fissures, dysplastic ear, single deep crease across the center of the palm, hyperflexibility, dysplastic middle phalanx of the fifth finger, epicanthal folds-small skin folds on the inner corner of the eyes, excessive space between large and second toe, and enlargement of tongue in relationship to size of mouth" (Madnick 5). One of the causes of Down syndrome is genetics. "Genetics are grouped along rod-like structures called chromosomes. Normally, the nucleus of each cell contains 23 pairs of chromosomes, half of which are inherited from each parent" (Madnick 2). However, in Down syndrome, the cells usually contain not 46, but 47 chromosomes; with the extra chromosome being a number 21. "Because 95 percent of all cases of Down syndrome occur because there are three copies of the 21st chromosome, it is referred to as "trisomy 21" (Madnick 2). Chromosomes can be studied by examining blood or tissue cells. Individual chromosomes are identified, stained, and numbered from largest to smallest; this visual display is known as a karyotype. Another way that Down syndrome is caused is through cell division; usually through an error in non-disjunction. However, two other types of chromosomal abnormalities, mosaicism and translocation, are also implicated in Down syndrome-although to a lesser extent. Regardless of the 2006-07-27T08:05:15-04:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/Information-about-Down-Syndrome-30694.aspx Information about Down Syndrome Down syndrome is a genetic disease caused by three major factors, genetics, chromosome formation and cell division. Through scientific research, scientists have made vast discoveries on how to "treat" people with the disease and how to help families cope with a child with Down syndrome. Through our research we hope to make more people aware of Down syndrome, how it is caused, how they can help and what is being done to treat people with the disease, so that one day it may be "curable." Down's syndrome was discovered in the late 19th century by John Langdon Down. His scholarly work published in 1866 earned him the recognition as the "father" of the syndrome. "Jerome Lejeune identified Down syndrome as a chromosomal anomaly. Down syndrome is an extra partial or complete 21st chromosome, which results in the characteristics associated with Down syndrome" (Madnick 2). "It is characterized by low muscle tone, flat facial profile, oblique palpebral fissures, dysplastic ear, single deep crease across the center of the palm, hyperflexibility, dysplastic middle phalanx of the fifth finger, epicanthal folds-small skin folds on the inner corner of the eyes, excessive space between large and second toe, and enlargement of tongue in relationship to size of mouth" (Madnick 5). One of the causes of Down syndrome is genetics. "Genetics are grouped along rod-like structures called chromosomes. Normally, the nucleus of each cell contains 23 pairs of chromosomes, half of which are inherited from each parent" (Madnick 2). However, in Down syndrome, the cells usually contain not 46, but 47 chromosomes; with the extra chromosome being a number 21. "Because 95 percent of all cases of Down syndrome occur because there are three copies of the 21st chromosome, it is referred to as "trisomy 21" (Madnick 2). Chromosomes can be studied by examining blood or tissue cells. Individual chromosomes are identified, stained, and numbered from largest to smallest; this visual display is known as a karyotype. Another way that Down syndrome is caused is through cell division; usually through an error in non-disjunction. However, two other types of chromosomal abnormalities, mosaicism and translocation, are also implicated in Down syndrome-although to a lesser extent. Regardless of the 2006-07-27T08:04:21-04:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/Information-about-Down-Syndrome-30693.aspx The Northern Lights Aurora Borealis," a name meaning "northern dawn" in Latin, is a phenomenon that occurs once every seven years in the Northern Hemisphere of Earth. Also known as the Northern Lights, it originates in the atmosphere very high above the Earth's surface. The light is emitted when charged particles from the Sun are guided by the earth's magnetic field into the atmosphere near the magnetic poles. When these particles collide with atmospheric molecules, primarily oxygen and nitrogen, at 100-300 kilometers altitude, some of the energy in these collisions transforms to visible light. (http://www.northern-lights.no/english/pages/facts/intro.shtml) This theory was proposed by Keay in 1980. It shows that audio-frequency electromagnetic waves can partially transfer their energy into acoustic waves with the help of appropriate objects in the vicinity of the observer. These objects can be hair, grass, trees etc. The laboratory experiments show that the 'most sensitive' subjects could perceive electric field peak-to-peak variations as low as 160 V/m for waves with frequency 4 and 8 kHz. However, the sensitivity among subjects could vary thousand times. Electromagnetic waves with audio frequencies are observed during the aurora both in the space with satellites and on the ground with radio antenna. Strong waves are observed also in connection with fireballs (very strong meteors falling on the earth) and nuclear explosions. In both cases sounds have the same character as auroral sounds. The auroral lights originate at heights from 60 to 400 km. One may assume that sounds are produced inside the aurora and afterwards propagate down to the earth. Then the sound will attenuate because of the spreading. In addition, the attenuation of high frequency sounds makes that there will be only 0.1% of 40 Hz wave energy reaching the ground level from the height 60 km, and even less for higher frequency waves. As a result, high frequency sounds will not be audible. Only ion acoustic waves with frequency around 1 Hz and less (infra sound) can propagate practically unattenuated. The infra sounds have been registered by scientific instruments, however, they are too weak to be audible. There is an 2006-07-26T12:37:09-04:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/The-Northern-Lights-30683.aspx The Job of an Aeronautical Engineer Aerospace engineers examine, analyze, design, produce, and occasionally install components that make up aircraft, spacecraft, high-altitude vehicles, and high-altitude delivery systems (missiles). Satisfaction with the romantic image of rocket building can buoy many engineers through the highly anonymous work environments that many of them face. Individuals don't assemble rockets; teams do, dozens of teams working in highly supervised coordination. An aerospace engineer plays some part on one of the teams, spending more of her time (roughly 70 percent) in a lab, at a computer, and assembling reports than doing anything else. Not being able to see the "big picture" frustrates some professionals. The path to becoming an aerospace engineer is a rigorous one, but those who manage to survive the difficult lift-off emerge with an above-average degree of career satisfaction. Academic requirements are strict and wide-ranging: Physics, chemistry, computer science, mathematics, materials science, statistics and engineering courses provide the base for any aspiring rocket scientist. Some colleges offer a degree in aerospace engineering; others offer a more generalized engineering degree with some coursework in aerospace engineering. These courses might include aerospace guidance systems, extreme-altitude material science, and the physics of high-altitude radiation. Internships, summer jobs, and any experience in the field are helpful, as entry into this industry is highly competitive. Many aspirants may need to relocate to California, Washington State, or Texas, where the majority of defense industry aerospace work is done, to work for companies such as NASA, Boeing and Lockheed Martin. Two years into their job an aerospace engineer can be planning on being Junior members of research staff are swamped with work, both in the lab and in offices, crunching data and organizing research. More like "lab assistants," their early years are marked by relatively menial tasks (testing of equipment, tracking results) with little input into the testing or recommendation process. Average hours and pay characterize these environments, but education continues apace. Few people leave the profession during these years; the hours already devoted in school make it easier to tolerate these few extra workplace indignities. And in about five years one will be leading research teams and turn into people managers as well as project managers. This is an unanticipated turn of events for some, as it removes them from the challenging, intellectually rarefied environment they enjoy and places them in a more administrative role. Most significant 2006-07-25T20:13:28-04:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/The-Job-of-an-Aeronautical-Engineer-30659.aspx The Dangers of Contracting Skin Cancer from the Sun Have you ever had a sunburn that was so bad that about a week later your skin started to peel, well this happened to a woman named Sharon Lasky. In her childhood she got her share of sunburns and now is paying the price. Two years ago at the age of 40 she was diagnosed with an intermediate-stage melanoma. According to the health journal Heart and Soul, it has been proven that “people who experienced blistering sunburns earlier in their life are particularly susceptible to malignant melanomas later on in life”. Hi, my name is Christie and today I will persuade to you that the harmful effects of the sun far outweigh the novelty of having a tan. Many people particularly high school and college-age students want nothing to do with sunscreen. Myself included, until I saw my mother’s friend had to have her nose removed because she had skin cancer. Before she was a very beautiful woman but after the operation she looked like a monster because her nose was replaced by two large holes in the center of her face. No one will see her outer beauty again. All she has left is her inner beauty. Today I would like to encourage you to protect your self from the sun by wearing sunscreen and sunglasses. People with fair skin, light hair, blue eyes, and or freckles are the people who are most likely to get sun damage. It is important that they are aware of this so that they can take extra precautions to protect themselves from the suns harmful rays. Some of these extra precautions are: 1. Using no less than SPF 15 that shields against UVA and UVB rays 2. Apply sunscreen 15-20 minutes before going into the sun and reapply every 2 hours 3. Use liberally, it takes about an ounce of sunscreen to cover the body and 8-ounce bottle shouldn’t last more that a week at the beach. 4. And always wearing sunglasses when ever they are out side It is not only fair skinned people that have to worry about the harmful effects of the sun. Many people think or like to think that just because they are naturally tan or dark skinned that that they don’t have to worry about the sun. They are only kidding themselves by thinking that. The sun is 2006-07-25T15:48:40-04:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/The-Dangers-of-Contracting-Skin-Cancer-from-the-Sun-30646.aspx Physiological Effects of Alcohol The following essay will introduce you to pros and cons of drinking. It will also give you a clear understanding in why you shouldn’t drink alcohol. Alcohol is a depressant; it impairs your ability to drive, slows down your reaction time and causes you to make some risky decisions that you wouldn’t normally take. This essay will also help you comprehend how and why things happen, because of alcohol. Alcoholism can kill in many different ways, and in general, people who drink regularly have a higher rate of deaths from injury, violence, and some cancers. The earlier a person begins drinking heavily, the greater their chance of developing serious illnesses later on. Any protection that occurs with moderate alcohol intake appears to be confined to adults over 60 who have risks for heart disease. Adults who drink moderately (about one drink a day) have a lower mortality rate than their non-drinking peers, their risk for untimely death increases with heavier drinking. Alcohol may not cause cancer, but it probably does increase the carcinogenic effects of other substances, such as cigarette smoke. Daily drinking increases the risk for lung, gastric, pancreatic, colorectal, urinary tract, liver, brain cancers, and leukemia. About 75% of cancers of the esophagus and 50% of cancers of the mouth, and throat are attributed to alcoholism. (Wine appears to pose less danger for these cancers than beer or hard liquor.) Smoking combined with drinking enhances risks for most of these cancers dramatically. When women consume as little as one drink a day, they may increase their chances of breast cancer by as much as 30%. In the liver, alcohol converts to an even more toxic substance, which can cause substantial damage. Not eating when drinking and consuming a variety of alcoholic beverages are also factors that increase the risk for liver damage. People with alcoholism are also at higher risk for hepatitis B and C, potentially chronic liver diseases than can lead to cirrhosis and liver cancer. People with alcoholism should be immunized against hepatitis B; they may need a higher-than-normal dose of the vaccine for it to be effective. Alcohol has widespread effects on the brain. The use of alcohol, however, eventually produces depression and confusion. In chronic cases, alcoholism can lead to mental disturbances. Alcohol can also cause milder problems, including headaches (especially after drinking red wine). Except in 2006-07-25T15:44:24-04:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/Physiological-Effects-of-Alcohol-30644.aspx Biology Lab Report: Genetic Exchange in Prokaryotes This lab deals with the process of genetic exchange in prokaryotes. There are three main mechanisms of genetic exchange which include transformation, transduction, and conjugation. In transformation, DNA is released from cells in the surrounding environment which is then incorporated into the recipient cells DNA. In transduction, DNA is transferred through a virus to the recipient. In conjugation, genetic exchange occurs through direct contact with another cell and the plasmid is transferred from the donor to recipient. Plasmids are circular modules of double-stranded DNA which are beneficial but not essential. R factors are plasmids which carry genes that confer resistance to antibiotics on the host cell. R factors have been a problem because they are causing many strains of pathogenic bacteria to be highly resistant to antibiotics. Transformation was the first mechanism of bacterial exchange that was discovered. A famous experiment with transformation dealt with injecting mice with an avirulent strain of bacteria with heat-killed cells of a virulent strain killed the mice while injecting these strains separately did not. This established that the surviving cells were recombinant. A genetic exchange of the DNA in the external medium had occurred between the dead cells and the live ones. The bacteria that we are using is E. coli bacteria which are capable of being artificially transformed. They are made competent (capable of being transformed) only after following subjection of cells to calcium chloride solution. II.Transformation of E. coli A. Summary – In this lab, we are investigating the method of genetic exchange called transformation through the insertion of plasmid pUCB DNA, which carries the gene for antibiotic resistance to ampicillin, into competent E. coli cells. B. Procedure – The procedure of this lab is somewhat complicated. 250uL of calcium chloride to 2 separate tubes labeled + and --. Next, transfer a large colony of bacteria from the starter plate to the tube of cold calcium chloride and twirl rapidly. Add 10uL of the plasmid solution to the "+" tube. Then, incubate both tubes on ice for 15 minutes. During this time, obtain 2 Luria agar plates and two Luria agar plates with ampicillin. Label one plate "+" and the other "--". Next, remove the tubes from ice and immediately 2006-07-25T15:37:57-04:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/Biology-Lab-Report-Genetic-Exchange-in-Prokaryotes-30640.aspx Lab Report on Cell Biology I made my cell project by myself. It took me 1 day to build it. I made the Mitochondria out of a dark blue glass squiggle, I made the Vacuole out of a light blue glass squiggle, I made the Golgi Complex out of a dark red string of yarn, and the Lysosomes were made out of a light blue pebble. I 2006-07-25T12:57:50-04:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/Lab-Report-on-Cell-Biology--30634.aspx Theory Of The Earth from The Edinburgh Review, January 1814 In giving to the treatise here announced the name of an Essay on the Theory of the Earth, the Editor has taken a liberty that is certainly not warranted by the original. The title of the French work makes no mention whatever of the theory of the earth. The fact is, that M. CUVIER having published, in the Annales de Museum, a succession of memoirs on the fossil remains of animals found in the strata around Paris, (of which an account was given in the 20th vol. of this Journal), was very naturally led to extend an inquiry, that became ever moment more interesting, to the fossil remains of land animals, wherever they had been found. His subject being thus enlarged, he has united the parts of a most ingenious and laborious investigation, in one work, comprehending four volumes in quarto, under the title of Recherches sur les Ossemens Fossiles des Quadrupedes. To this valuable and interesting book he has prefixed a Dissertation, (Discours Preliminaire), the same that appears here as an Essay on the Theory of the Earth. We are not sure that the author himself will be very thankful for this change of appellation. The preliminary discourse is a general view of the conclusions derived from certain animal remains, compared with the mineral beds in which they are contained, and with the principles of comparative anatomy. This subject, though of great importance, and of no small extent, is yet of too limited a nature to be regarded as a theory of the earth. A name that would have more exactly described the work, without departing from the conciseness essential to a title-page, might easily have been devised. Considerations, for instance, on the Fossil Remains of Quadrupeds, would have been a title much more appropriate. This translation has been made with singular expedition. The work was received about the middle of last summer; and the translation made its appearance in the beginning of winter. It seems, notwithstanding this haste, to be executed not only with fidelity, but with some degree of elegance; and the editor, Professor Jameson, has added notes, besides giving a very distinct and concise view of Cuvier's principal geological discoveries, which cannot fail to be very acceptable to those who have not an opportunity of perusing the large work and which will be found very 2006-07-25T12:50:26-04:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/Theory-Of-The-Earth-from-The-Edinburgh-Review,-January-1814-30632.aspx The Dangers of Alcoholism as a Disease Alcoholism is a primary, chronic disease with genetic, psychosocial, and environmental factors influencing its development and manifestations. The disease is often progressive and fatal. It is characterized by continuous or periodic: impaired control over drinking, preoccupation with the drug alcohol, use of alcohol despite adverse consequences, and distortions in thinking, most notably denial (NCADD)." It`s effects on an individual are an indescribable, harsh, reality of what one drug can do to an individual. Some people wonder when drinking becomes a problem. For most adults, moderate alcohol use, no more than two drinks a day for men and one for women is relatively harmless. A "drink" consists of 1.5 ounces of spirits, 5 ounces of wine or 12 ounces of beer (Etiology). Moderate use, however, lies at one end of a continuum that moves through alcohol abuse to alcohol dependence. Alcohol abuse is a drinking pattern that results in consequences that are significant and recurrent. Alcoholics may fail to fulfill major school, work, or family obligations. They may have drinking-related legal problems, such as DUI`s and they may have relationship problems related to their drinking. People with alcoholism have become compulsive in their alcohol use. Although they can control their drinking at times, they are often unable to stop once they start. As their tolerance increases, they may need more and more alcohol to achieve the same "high". Or they may become physically dependent on alcohol, suffering withdrawal symptoms such as nausea, sweating, restlessness, irritability, tremors and even hallucinations and convulsions when they stop after a period of heavy drinking. It doesn't matter what kind of alcohol someone drinks or even how much: alcohol dependent people simply lack control over their drinking. Alcohol-related disorders are caused by many things. Problem drinking has multiple causes, with genetic, physiological, psychological and social factors all playing a role (Sher & Trull). For some alcoholics, psychological traits such as impulsiveness, low self-esteem and a need for approval prompt inappropriate drinking. Others drink as a way of coping with emotional pain. Still others use alcohol to "medicate themselves. Heavy drinking can cause physiological changes that make more drinking the only way to avoid discomfort. Genetic factors cause some people to be especially vulnerable to alcohol. However, a family history of alcoholism doesn't mean that children of alcoholics will automatically grow up to become alcoholics themselves. Environmental factors such as peer 2006-07-25T12:34:33-04:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/The-Dangers-of-Alcoholism-as-a-Disease-30628.aspx Anonymous Letter on the Issue of Nuclear Waste Dear U.S. Citizen, Hello my name is ____________; I am a student at __________________. I am writing this letter in hope that I will cast some light on a very important decision that will affect you and your family. There is a bill in Congress right now that, if passed, will allow for nuclear waste to be transported through forty-three states, endangering most of the U.S. population, on its way to a general holding facility in Yucca Mountain located in Nevada. The government needed to find a place to store the nation’s nuclear waste. They chose the Yucca Mountain because it is not too close to human population. This site would be safer then what is being done with the waste now. Currently the waste is kept stuffed in small “garage style’’ buildings, which are quickly becoming overrun. With one hundred ten nuclear power reactors in seventy communities in the U.S., it’s no wonder that nuclear waste is building up at such and extreme rate. In order to deal with the build up, the government decided to dump the nuclear waste in Yucca Mountain. This site was chosen, not because the government thought that it was the best site in America to store it’s deadly waste, but because Nevada was so politically weak in the late eighties (when they decided to start the program) that it was easy for the federal government to force this decision on Nevada. If Congress passes this bill they will start shipping out huge quantities of nuclear waste. The shipments will be carried on trucks, trains, and barges. According to a spokesperson from the Department of Transportation, the shipments have to take the most direct Interstate routes, even if they have to go through large cities. Meaning if there were to be an accident it could wipe out the population of a huge city. According to a study that the American Petroleum Institute performed, heavy truck accidents occur about six times for every million miles traveled, which means about fifteen accidents a year will be expected. With this many accidents you would think the waste would be transported in very safe containers, they’re not. The containers that will be used for transportation are unsafe. First of all they are old, they 2006-07-24T19:47:04-04:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/Anonymous-Letter-on-the-Issue-of-Nuclear-Waste-30616.aspx The Importance of Our O-Zone Layer The ozone layer is one of the oldest things on the planet, older than any of the ancient creatures we see in our museums today. The ozone layer has provided protection for the living components under it for millions of years, and without the ozone layer, we most likely would not be here today. Our evolution would have been cut off millions of years ago without our planet’s ability to provide protection from the ever-harmful rays from our sun. Each year since the late 1970’s much of the protective layer of stratospheric ozone above Antarctica has disappeared during September, creating what is commonly known as the ozone hole. The Antarctic hole now measures about 9 million square miles, nearly the size of North America. Less dramatic, but still significant, depletion of ozone levels has been recorded around the globe. With less ozone in the atmosphere, more ultraviolet radiation strikes the earth, causing more skin cancer, eye damage, and possible harm to crops. At this point you may be asking yourself why is the hole over Antarctica? What is unique about Antarctica that would cause a hole the size of North America to form over its vast presence? Those seem to be some of the first questions that come to peoples’ minds when contemplating the hole in our atmosphere. The answer is this, During the Antarctic winter, an oval shaped polar vortex, is formed over the South Pole area. The vortex brings ozone rich air from above, ozone poor air is pushed out. The vortex is extremely cold, reaching temperatures of -80 degrees Celsius. These cold conditions help cause large clouds to form in the crystals of nitric acid inside of the clouds. As the cloud of water and nitric acid starts to grow, it can grow to the point where it covers the entire Antarctic region. When sunlight passes through the cloud, ozone-destroying chlorine and chlorine oxide are formed from the inactive chlorine and nitric acid in the cloud. The chlorine and chlorine oxide can count for up to 70% of the ozone depletion over Antarctica each year. Possible solutions to this problem are being evaluated many ideas of trying to manually repair the ozone hole have been looked at. According to what I have read and researched the most 2006-07-24T08:04:05-04:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/The-Importance-of-Our-O-Zone-Layer-30568.aspx Synopsis of the Ebola Virus One of the deadliest viruses known to man could quite possibly be the virus that lies dormant in Africa called Ebola. The Ebola virus is a member of a family of RNA viruses known as filoviruses. Ebola made its first human contact in 1976, which during this outbreak caused the death of 340 people. Because the outbreak was in Zaire, This particular strain was called Ebola Zaire. Since there isn’t a cure for Ebola, people were left to die, without hope for survival. After this major outbreak, researchers have searched for the origin and cure of the virus. Unfortunately there has not yet been a cure for the Ebola Virus, but if the virus is detected in it’s early stages and the patient receives appropriate medical attention, there may be a chance of survival. There has only been one small Ebola outbreak in North America, which occurred when monkeys were transported to Virginia from the Congo region. Luckily these monkeys carried an Ebola strain which was non-harmful to humans. Besides other Symptoms, the most common symptoms include hemorrhaging, internal bleeding and violent vomiting. The virus can be spread easily through an infected patient’s body fluids, which only gives the new infected person two to twenty one days to live, unless he or she is lucky enough to survive. Most viruses are spread to organisms through other organisms that are infected with a virus. However, The natural hosts of the Ebola virus in nature are not yet identified. Experiments on animals such as guinea pigs, mice, and monkeys show that some strains of the Ebola virus could be present in these animals, but no real evidence has been given to indicate where the Ebola virus originated. Many scientists believe that most patients were infected from the Ebola virus from either Green monkeys or Rheas monkeys. Such a case has been thought to be the cause in the most recent outbreak of Ebola that occurred in Gabon 1996. No conclusive evidence has been given to support this theory, but many scientists were infected while handling monkeys. Although there has been no concluding evidence as to which organism carries the virus, the following strains of viruses indicate the areas from which they originated: Ebola Reston, Ebola Zaire, Ebola Tai and Ebola Sudan. 2006-07-24T07:59:53-04:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/Synopsis-of-the-Ebola-Virus-30566.aspx Statistical Anaylsis of Human Grasping As the size of the object increases, so does the number of fingers used to grasp the object. The preferred grasp for the marble was the same as the minimum, and close to the number of maximum fingers used. Two fingers was the mean for the preferred and minimum and the maximum was 2.5 with a standard deviation of .2. The mean of the preferred grasp of the golf ball was 2.7 fingers, with a standard deviation of .2. It was above the minimum number of fingers used, which was 2, and below the mean of the maximum grasp, which was 3.8 with a standard deviation of .3. The mean of the preferred grasp of the tennis ball was 3.5 with standard deviation of .3. Two was the minimum grasp of the tennis ball, while the maximum grasp was 4.2 with a standard deviation of .3. The preferred grasp of the softball was 4.5 with a standard deviation of .2, which is double the mean of the minimum grasp, which was 2.2 with a standard deviation of .2. However, the mean of the preferred grasp is close to the maximum grasp, which was 5. The grasp of the basketball is unique in comparison to the other objects. It had no deviation in the grasps for any of the subjects tested. The mean of the preferred and the maximum grasps were the same, being 10 fingers, and the minimum grasp was 6 fingers. The preferred grasp for the smallest sphere, the marble, was the same as the minimum, both being 2 fingers. For the largest sphere, the basketball, the preferred grasp was the same as the maximum grasp, both being 10 fingers. For the other three balls, the preferred grip was in between the minimum and maximum grips. The preferred grasp for the golf ball was closer to the minimum grasp than the maximum grasp. The preferred grasp for the tennis ball was closer to the maximum grasp than to the minimum grasp, and the preferred grasp for the softball was also closer to the maximum grasp than to the minimum grasp. For the previous 3 objects, the subjects did not use the maximum or minimum number of fingers used because it was more natural 2006-07-24T07:58:45-04:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/Statistical-Anaylsis-of-Human-Grasping-30565.aspx Analysis of Genetically Altered Food “Biotechnology involves any technique that uses living organisms or parts there of to make or modify products, to improve plants or animals or to develop micro organisms for specific uses” In the past century humans have been lucky enough to stumble upon one of the basic building blocks of organisms, DNA. In recent years scientists have been able to develop ways in which they can manipulate, alter, and transfer DNA in forms that can help improve our lives. One way in which DNA research has been used to improve our lifestyle, is by engineering the deoxyribonucleic acid into ways which can alter food supplies to make them bigger, taste better, resistant to pests and even make them have a greater concentration of nutrients. Of course this is great news to the human population, but there are still a few disadvantages. With all the good news these altered crops provide for humans, concerns are still among people. These concerns include; whether or not these alterations will affect humans in a negative way, and what impact they will have on the environment. Although no one can know for sure., the effects of these genetically engineered crops are probably overstated. Bioengineered crops could play a significant role in increasing crop production which will allow the world to feed more people and do it using less land. A recent study on bioengineered crops concluded that these crops are safe and can improve production dramatically. Those opposing the genetically altered crops state that “when altered DNA molecules are introduced into a living organism in the filed, the full range of their effects cannot be predicted or known before commercialization (over)." In the near future, shoppers will be able to find foods that last longer, taste better and are more nutritious than the foods currently eaten. And an even greater variety of foods all year round. These products will be made possible through biotechnology, and some of them are already available. For centuries, farmers grew plants to produce special foods with unique characteristics: better taste, higher yield or greater resistance to drought or frosts. “History shows that five thousand years ago in Peru, potatoes were grown selectively. Plants, which produced potatoes with desirable characteristics, such as higher yields, were used to produce future plants. 2006-07-23T19:53:25-04:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/Analysis-of-Genetically-Altered-Food-30558.aspx Lightning and its Effects in Thunderstorms There are many violent forces in nature: such as tornadoes, hurricanes, and volcanoes. Although, most weather-related occurrences can be seen in the magnificent thunderstorm. Thunderstorms are not just seen as one product of nature, because so many things can happen with a thunderstorm. One single thunderstorm can include tornadoes, high winds, hail, rain, and lightning. These are all products of just one thunderstorm. One of these products that a storm creates is lightning. Lightning is also listed as one of the most dangerous and deadliest natural occurrences. Lightning bolts can meet and exceed temperatures of thirty-thousand degrees Celsius, which exceeds the temperature of the surface of the sun by four or five times(Robinson 148). Even though lightning is so deadly, it can create beautiful forms and colors as it gives off the greatest light show on earth. Man, as of today, is still trying to learn about this awesome force we know as lightning. Lightning is a very powerful force of nature and it has many different aspects, such as how and why lightning bolts are formed, how lightning produces thunder, and also through the many forms and shapes that lightning bolts produce. How exactly is a lightning bolt created? Meteorologists are still trying to figure out the exact answer to this question. The sequence of events that gives birth to lightning—whether the familiar flashes of a summer storm or the strange variations on that meteorological staple—remains somewhat of a mystery(Time 118). Inside a thundercloud warm air rises to the top very fast, and then cools down once it has reached the top. The air then begins to sink and it warms up again as it sinks, and then it rises again(Allaby 80). All of this air movement forms convective cells. The transfer of heat causes convective cells by the circulation or movement of the heated air. All of this motion in the cloud causes the top of the cloud to get a positive electric charge and the bottom of the cloud to get a negative electric charge(Allaby 80). Scientists are not sure how this happens, but it may be due to collisions between small ice particles as they move up and down inside the cloud building up a static electric charge(Allaby 80). Little ice crystals 2006-07-23T19:30:44-04:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/Lightning-and-its-Effects-in-Thunderstorms-30546.aspx Analysis of our Solar System On a hot summer night, as you are sitting outside enjoying the evening, you tilt your head back and look into the night sky. You begin to wonder what is really out there? How far away are the stars? Are they stars or are they planets? We live in a part of the night sky called the ¡§Milky Way Galaxy.¡¨ Our galaxy can be seen with the naked eye on a clear summer night. It resembles a ribbon stretched across the night sky. During the summer is when the Milky Way is at its fullest with the stars so clustered together they look like one white mass. Our galaxy is a gigantic agglomeration of stars and planets whose numbers will probably never been known. Currently we estimate this number to be about thirty billion. Scientists have estimated that the radius of our galaxy if it were to be traveled, would take us about fifty thousand light years and the thickness to be about fifteen to twenty light years. We live in small part of the Milky Way Galaxy, which is referred to as a solar system. Our solar system is made up of nine planets and 31 moons, which orbit the center of galaxy. At the center of our galaxy is our Sun, which is approximately twenty-five thousand light years from our solar system. These nine major planets in order from the center are Mercury, Venus, Earth, Mars, Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, Neptune, and Pluto. Mercury is the planet nearest to the Sun. As it orbits the Sun, it does not rotate, keeping the same face of the planet toward the Sun at all times. This means that one side of the planet has a continual burning day of 900„a F, and the other side a continual night and a deadly cold of 450„a F below zero. Mercury is the fastest traveling of the nine planets making one full orbit around the Sun in only eight days. Life on mercury would be impossible. If you could live where the night meets the day and survive the extreme conditions, you would need dark goggles to protect you eyes from the extreme light. Mercury has little or no atmosphere to diffuse the Sun’s light. You would also 2006-07-23T17:56:43-04:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/Analysis-of-our-Solar-System-30542.aspx Pollution that Comes from our Use of Energy Using energy Now people used a lot of energy for their requirement. It makes a lot of pollution, and it is endangering people now. Most of the pollution comes from burning fossil fuels and coal. Smog from burning fossil fuels and coal can pollute the atmosphere and the air. Vile smelling, smog were common in winter in most industrial towns 2006-07-23T17:29:26-04:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/Pollution-that-Comes-from-our-Use-of-Energy-30533.aspx Effects our Behavior is Having on the Environment In my seminar work I will try to explain you what is happening to global climate, which are the consequences and what can we do to stop changing our climate. Humans are heating the planet. Official confirmation for that came in 1995, when the Inter-Governmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) – the official scientific body established in 1988 by the UN to investigate climate change - published its Second Assessment Report, written and reviewed by some 2 000 scientists. A consensus now undeniably exists that human-induced climate change is real and has to be tackled. Governments and scientists alike have agreed that the problem is real, and serious. At the climate summit in Kyoto in late 1997, industrialized countries agreed, at least on paper, to reduce the amount of carbon dioxide and other greenhouse gases they pump into the atmosphere. Greenpeace has identified global climate change as one of the greatest threats to the planet. 2. HOW AND WHY IS OUR CLIMATE CHANGING Energy from the sun drives the earth’s weather and climate, and heats the earth’s surface; in turn, the earth radiates energy back into space. Atmospheric greenhouse gases (water vapor, carbon dioxide, and other gases) trap some of the outgoing energy, retaining heat somewhat like the glass panels of a greenhouse. Without this natural “greenhouse effect,” temperatures would be 33°C lower than they are now, and life as known today would not be possible. Instead, thanks to greenhouse gases, the earth’s average temperature is a more hospitable. However, problems may arise when the atmospheric concentration of greenhouse gases increases. Since the beginning of the industrial revolution, atmospheric concentrations of carbon dioxide have increased nearly 30%, methane concentrations have more than doubled, and nitrous oxide concentrations have risen by about 15%. These increases have enhanced the heat-trapping capability of the earth’s atmosphere. Sulfate aerosols, a common air pollutant, cool the atmosphere by reflecting light back into space; however, sulfates are short-lived in the atmosphere and vary regionally. Why are greenhouse gas concentrations increasing? Scientists generally believe that the burning of fossil fuels, destruction of natural forests and other human activities are the primary reason for the increased concentration of carbon dioxide. Plant respiration and the decomposition of organic matter release more than 10 times the CO2 released by human 2006-07-23T17:27:15-04:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/Effects-our-Behavior-is-Having-on-the-Environment-30532.aspx Alternative 2006-07-23T17:10:47-04:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/Alternative-Energy-Sources--30527.aspx Research on Brazilian Toucans Toucan is the Brazilian name for a bird of the family, Ramphastidae, with approximately 42 different species of the bird. These peculiar birds belong to the order Piciformes, whose members have feet with the first and fourth toes reversed and are all cavity nesters. The toucan is an unusual –looking bird, characterized by an enormous but light-weight bill, that has many useful qualities. Most species, posess a brilliant solid or multi-colored bill. They live in the tropical and subtropical forests of Central and South America, especially in the Amazon regions. Toucans are intelligent, curious and entertaining creatures. Eventhough they do not have the ability to mimic speech, they are playful and can be taught to perform tricks, including catch. The most common toucans in the wild include, the Keel Bill, Toco, and the Yellow Throated Toucan. Commonly available pet species include, the Toco, Red Bill, Keel Bill and Channel Bill Toucans. . The Toucan is an attractive neotropical bird, whose large slender body can be approximately 33 to 64 centimeters long. They have rounded wings with a small tail. Their bill may be as long as their body and appear in any colorful variation. The bill of a Toucan may be black, blue, brown, green, red, white, yellow, or any combination of colors. Toucans use their colorful bill to attract their mate. Their broken pattern also allows the bird to camoflage itself among the panorama of the forest colors. The canoe- shaped bill of a Toucan appears to be heavy, but is actually light, containing many air pockets. The edges of the bill are serrated, to allow the bird to skin fruit, drill wood, probe in the mud or tear flesh, as necessary. Inside the bill, is a long, narrow, feather-like tongue. The toucan can be easily found by listening for their loud croak, which can be heard up to half a mile away. Most species of toucans live in small flocks of generally 6 to 8 and sleep in hollow trees. When a toucan sleeps, they turn their head around and place their bill down the center of their back, then fold their tail over their head. Most species of toucans mate once a year, nesting in a hollow tree. Although the nest 2006-07-23T16:28:54-04:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/Research-on-Brazilian-Toucans-30518.aspx Study on the Human Sense of Smell "What I remember most vividly is the aroma of toast at the old drugstore lunch counter. It was like no other. I don’t know why; we toasted the same white bread at home, but it never smelled as good or as intensely as it did in the drugstores. Maybe it was the high-volume buildup that did it. I loved that aroma. It made me feel good just to inhale it. Sometimes today, I’ll walk blocks out of my way to shop for something I don’t need at Kaufman’s on Lexington Avenue – the only pharmacy I know of that still maintains a real lunch counter – to drink in that toasty aroma" (qtd. in Engen 1991). Sniff a rose or freshly cut grass. Scents evoke many images and sensations so common we don’t even give them much thought. The olfactory system, which senses and processes odors, is one of the oldest and most vital parts of the brain. Despite the tendency of humans to underestimate the role of smell in our every day lives, for most mammals, smell is the most important sense. Dogs are probably the most obvious example of this, it is their primary mode of communication and influences many important functions, including reproduction and taste. Scientists are just beginning to learn how the olfactory system works. At the time Rachel Herz began her work with Olfaction, there had been relatively few studies on odor and memory (Holloway 1999). Researchers knew that the olfactory system was unique among the senses and that the primary olfactory cortex, in which higher-level processing of olfactory information takes place, forms a direct link with the limbic system, including the amygdala and hippocampus (Weiten 2000). Researchers could also trace the physiological path of a smell through the brain. It was known that after an odor molecule enters the nose and is recognized by the olfactory sensors, the signals are eventually sent to the olfactory bulb that is located right above the eyes (Passer 2001). The signals only go to two areas in the olfactory bulb, and signals from different sensors are targeted to different spots that then form a sensory map. From there the signals reach the olfactory area of the cortex (2001). An important quality of the olfactory system 2006-07-23T16:25:11-04:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/Study-on-the-Human-Sense-of-Smell-30516.aspx Pros and Cons to Biological Pesticides What are Biopesticides? Biopesticides (also known as biological pesticides) are certain types of pesticides derived from such natural materials as animals, plants, bacteria, and certain minerals. For example, garlic, mint, and baking soda all have pesticidal applications and are considered biopesticides. At the end of 1998, there were approximately 175 registered biopesticide active ingredients and 700 products. Biopesticides fall into three major categories: 1) Microbial pesticides contain a microorganism (bacterium, fungus, virus, protozoan or alga) as the active ingredient. The most widely known microbial pesticides are varieties of the bacterium Bacillus thuringiensis, or Bt, which can control certain insects in cabbage, potatoes, and other crops. Bt produces a protein that is harmful to specific insect pests. Certain other microbial pesticides act by out-competing pest organisms. Microbial pesticides need to be continuously monitored to ensure they do not become capable of harming non-target organisms, including humans. Microbial and Antimicrobial Pesticides: These are two separate and distinct types of pesticides registered by EPA. Microbial Pesticides are microbes, including bacteria, that help to control insects and weeds, as well as fungi and bacteria that cause plant diseases. These are one type of biopesticide. Antimicrobial Pesticides are pesticides that control unwanted microbes on inanimate objects, in water, and on selected foods under certain circumstances. These pesticides are almost always chemicals, and they act by killing or inactivating microbes that are pests. Antimicrobial pesticides include the disinfectants used in swimming pools, drinking water supplies, and in hospitals to control microbes that can cause disease. 2) Plant-pesticides are pesticidal substances that plants produce from genetic material that has been added to the plant. For example, scientists can take the gene for the Bt pesticidal protein, and introduce the gene into the plants= own genetic material. Then the plant B instead of the Bt bacterium--manufactures the substance that destroys the pest. Both the protein and its genetic material are regulated by EPA; the plant itself is not regulated. 3) Biochemical pesticides are naturally occurring substances that control pests by non-toxic mechanisms. Conventional pesticides, by contrast, are synthetic materials that usually kill or inactivate the pest. Biochemical pesticides include substances that interfere with growth or mating, such as plant growth regulators, or substances that repel or attract pests, such as pheromones. Because it is sometimes difficult to determine whether a natural pesticide controls the pest by 2006-07-23T13:51:03-04:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/Pros-and-Cons-to-Biological-Pesticides-30514.aspx Engineering the Katse Dam in South Africa Lesotho, a neighboring country of South Africa is facing some problems in the construction of the Katse dam. This dam will be the highest superdam in Africa (185 m tall), it is being constructed to benefit the city of Johannesburg in South Africa, which has 6 million inhabitants, since it does not have enough water to supply its needs. The construction of the Katse superdam will have some very important advantages, it will provide Johannesburg with the water it needs allowing the city to progress in relation to mining and the most important, providing drinking water to the population, this would better health and the level of life. At the same time the Katse dam will produce a big amount of electricity which is needed in lots of places in the zone, this electricity will be transported North in order to carry energy wherever needed. Another important advantage is the creation of seven thousand new jobs in a country with a high unemployment rate which would help improve the difficult economic situation of it, also the help that South Africa has promised (35,000,000) will better the conditions of people in Lesotho supporting the development of this country. People who will also be benefited, live in squatter camps because they do not have now drinking water and have to fetch it from a sharing tap, with the dam they will have drinking water in their homes. Together with all these important advantages, the construction of the Katse Dam will bring crucial disadvantages that will affect a lot of people in the area since the Senqu river valley will be flooded. This will change their lives: they will lose their houses and fields, their cattle will not have grass to eat and they will not be able to cross the valley for more grass, children will not be able to go to school at the other side of the river; also these people are not being informed on what the future of the zone will be and what help they will receive. These people only understand the losses knowing that most of the water that the dam will produce can’t be used by them, they feel the same about the electricity that the dam is going to produce. Another big disadvantage is the effect of the dam in the environment since it will flood a natural 2006-07-23T13:45:35-04:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/Engineering-the-Katse-Dam-in-South-Africa-30512.aspx Studying the Scientific Method Science is a system of knowledge which we derive from observation. Science can be divided into two distinct fields One of these is Social Science, which can be described as the study of the social life of human beings. Social Sciences, such as economics, law, criminology, and psychology consider the nature, growth, and functioning of human society. While Social Sciences are focused on human interaction, the other major field, Natural Sciences, studies the environment that humans live in. It does this by developing and testing laws of mass, motion, energy, etc. Even though the two fields are different, they both use the same system to collect information and test theories. This system used by both fields is the scientific method. There are many different versions of the Scientific Method. They differ by the number of steps each uses. But in my opinion, the Scientific Method has only four key steps. The first is observation. All Science begins with the observation of facts in our environment. Then, after we collect enough information about the development of a certain event in nature, we begin to formulate questions. Questions such as, “why can birds fly, but humans cannot,” or “why must everything fall to the ground.” After we have a lot of questions about the event that we can’t understand, then we try to explain a reason for the event. Therefore, the second step is to make a hypothesis. A hypothesis is an idea that suggests an explanation for something that has not yet been proven to be true. For example, Galileo guessed that the world was not the center of the universe and Columbus guessed that the world was not flat, but round. But the only way to know if a hypothesis is accurate is to prove it by using an experiment. So, the third step is to test the hypothesis with a thorough experiment. Testing should occur in a situation where the surroundings are fixed and controlled. Furthermore, the same test should be repeated multiple times in order to make sure that the result can be trusted. The final step is to summarize the findings of the experiment. In this step, the hypothesis is either confirmed or it is changed and more testing is done. Therefore, it is possible that the summary of 2006-07-22T18:56:56-04:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/Studying-the-Scientific-Method-30496.aspx The Biology of Survival According to Charles Darwin, the various species and individuals compete for the same territories, and thus organisms that are better adapted to their environment are more likely to survive, reproduce, and transmit their features or traits to the next generation. Ø Ability to reproduce efficiently In actuality, there are a few brain structures that give humans the arousal, desire, and necessity to reproduce. However, the Reticular Activating System and the Hypothalamus are particularly responsible for these needs. The Reticular Activating System serves primarily for arousal, while the Hypothalamus produces sexual behavior and mating desire. This is perhaps the most important factor of human survival, without these instincts and desires there would be no future for the continuation of human life. Ø Ability to communicate superior to any other animal Humans are able to communicate on the highest intelligible level ever known, we are able to communicate with body language, sign language, code and symbol language, and spoken language. The main part of the brain that instills us with this ability is the cerebral cortex. Humans are able to decipher speech (left cortex) and the imagery (right cortex) with cerebrum. Communication is essential to increasing knowledge from generation to generation, thus making humans the most intelligible of all animals. The main difference between human knowledge is that it can be taught, whereas all other animals have to re-learn what their parents learned. Humans are able to take over where the last generation left off because of our ability to communicate. Ø Ability to adapt to almost any environment on earth The hypothalamus limits and controls motivation and body temperature; the cerebrum also gives humans the ability to think, reason, and survive. Both of these structures are necessary for adaptation or migration to survive. Most animals are only capable of surviving in their natural habitat- or another habitat closely related, but humans have the ability to survive just about anywhere. This is so, because humans are equipped with enough reasoning that we can decide to protect ourselves from the environment. We are able to make clothing, artificial heat, and houses to keep us warm, we are able to realize if our body temperature is getting too high or low, we are able to make oxygen if there is not 2006-07-22T13:38:46-04:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/The-Biology-of-Survival--30465.aspx Is Nuclear Power Safe for the Environment There are many controversies about whether nuclear power is really safe for the environment or not. This paper will put all doubt aside and inform the pros and cons of nuclear power to the environment. First look will be at the alternatives in America’s power supplies: coal, natural gas, and oil. They are not environmentally sound, as some people believe. Some countries use nuclear power as a primary source of energy, and almost all countries use nuclear power on some level. Where there is nuclear power there is radiation. There has been a misunderstanding on how dangerous radiation is. What people don’t realize is that they are exposed to radiation on a daily basis, but the radiation is so minimal that there is no medical proof that radiation is responsible for health problems. Nuclear reactors are the same way. No one has been able to prove that people become ill because they live near a nuclear facility. Other controversies are over the extensive nuclear waste that comes from power plants. Scientists have long known how to deal with radioactive waste, but so far, the U.S government hasn’t implemented these recommendations. Nuclear power is not destructive to the environment as some people say, but has beneficial qualities for America’s power supply needs. Nuclear power is the most scrutinized power supply in the world. Environmentalists feel the use of nuclear power is too costly to the environment for humans to use. One allegation is that radiation leaks out of the reactor and into the air and water, causing thyroid disease. One fear was at the Hanford Nuclear Reservation in Richland, Washington. Researchers found that conclusions of 3,190 people who apparently had thyroid disease because of the release of radioactive iodine from Hanford were false (Sternberg). All of these people were born between 1941 and 1957 when Hanford was built. Researchers showed that Hanford was not the result of the thyroid disease (Sternberg). Since nuclear reactors need lots of water, they are always located on major rivers. This is another suspected problem with nuclear power. Environ-mentalists think nuclear power plants heat river waters and damage the aquatic life. They conclude that this isn’t only from nuclear power, but it is true from all 2006-07-22T13:03:52-04:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/Is-Nuclear-Power-Safe-for-the-Environment-30453.aspx The Topic of Acid Precipitation Acids are an important group of chemicals. All acids contain chemicals that are combined with hydrogen in a specific way. Acids are present in aspirin, carbonated drinks, and your stomach. Another group of chemicals is called bases. They contain oxygen and hydrogen that are combined with other chemicals. Chemicals containing bases are called alkaline. Examples of alkaline substances are deodorants, ammonia cleaners, and the mortar around bricks. Liquids are sometimes measured in terms of acidity or alkalinity. A scale called the pH scale is used for this measurement. 2006-07-22T12:59:45-04:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/The-Topic-of-Acid-Precipitation-30451.aspx Widespreading Effects of AIDS AIDS is short for: Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome. It is a serious condition in which the body's defenses against some illnesses are broken down. People with AIDS develop many different kinds of diseases which the body would usually fight off quite easily. AIDS is caused by a virus called HIV, which is short for Human Immunodeficiency Virus. HIV can be passed on because it would be present in the sexual fluids and blood of infected people. If infected blood or sexual fluid gets into your blood, then you will become infected. If a man with HIV has vaginal intercourse without a condom, infected fluid could pass into the woman¹s blood stream through a tiny cut or sore inside her body. This can be so small that you don¹t know about it. If a couple has anal intercourse the risk of infection is far greater. HIV can also be passed on by sharing equipment used to inject drugs. Blood can remain on needles and syringes. If you share, and a person infected with HIV used the needle first, the virus can be injected directly into your blood. Some people think that AIDS is something that other people need to worry about like, gays, drug users, and people who sleep around. These ideas are mistaken. All young people need to take the threat of HIV seriously. The most effective way of fighting this deadly virus is to be educated about the disease and avoid activities which are risky. During the past decade , more than 400,000 individuals in the United States have been diagnosed with AIDS. Officials from the United States Centers for Disease Control and Prevention reported that the number of deaths from AIDS in the U.S. has dropped by a record 47 percent. Officials attributed the reduction to an extremely effective combination drug treatment that allows people infected with HIV to live longer and healthier lives. Unfortunately, no such decline occurred in the number of new Although the U.S. has a great deal of AIDS cases, it doesn¹t even come close to the numbers of cases that are in Africa. Of the 30 million people worldwide with AIDS, 21 million live in Africa. More than 16 percent of South Africa¹s 40 million people are infected with the HIV virus. The infection level among South Africans between the ages of 20 and 30 already is 2006-07-22T12:32:50-04:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/Widespreading-Effects-of-AIDS-30440.aspx Realities of Anthrax In the past 6 weeks the world has heard of disease call anthrax. There are many questions that people want to ask such as what is anthrax and what are the symptoms. The first question the people want to know is what is anthrax? Anthrax is an infectious disease caused by the spore-forming bacterium Bacillus anthracic. Anthrax most commonly occurs in warm-blooded animals, but can also infect in humans. Anthrax spores can be produced in a dry form, which may be stored and ground into particles. When inhaled by humans, these particles cause respiratory failure and death within a week. The next question is how is anthrax transmitted? Anthrax infection can occur in three forms: cutaneous, inhalation, and intestinal. Eating undercooked meat from infected animals can also spread anthrax. It is rare to find infected animals in the United States. One of the more popular questions is what are the symptoms of anthrax? Symptoms of disease vary depending on how the disease was contracted, but symptoms usually occur within seven days. Cutaneous is the moat common and is transmitted when bacterium enters a cut and the infection begins as a raised itchy bump that resembles an insect bite but then turns into a vesicle and 20% of untreated cases will result in death. Inhalation is the most dangerous and symptoms may resemble a common cold then into severe breathing problems and shock. It is also results in death in one to two days after onset of the first sign. Intestinal initial signs of nausea, loss of appetite, vomiting, and fever are followed by abdominal pain, vomiting blood, and severe diarrhea. 25% to 60% of cases result in death. Most people that are afraid of the disease want to know about the anthrax vaccine. The anthrax vaccine is a cell-free filtrate vaccine, which means it uses dead bacteria as opposed to live bacteria. After the first vaccine, the immunization consists of three subcutaneous injections given two weeks apart and then three more after that at 6, 12, and 18 months. The vaccine may cause soreness, redness, itching, swelling, and lumps at the injection site. Anthrax is a very dangerous disease. It comes in three forms skin, Inhalation, and the last is Intestinal. It is rare to find it in the Unites States but these days terrorism is using it for a weapon, but it is unlikely 2006-07-22T12:25:44-04:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/Realities-of-Anthrax--30436.aspx A Study of Blue Whales “All aboard the SS ‘Katie MS’ for an exciting tour of the deep blue sea in search of Blue Whales. Please keep your hands and feet inside the boat at all times. Ready, set, here we go! While we’re waiting to find a Blue Whale, here are some interesting facts about all whales. Whales are mammals who breathe air, are warm blooded, and produce milk to feed their young. To live in the ocean they have a streamlined form, nearly hairless skin, and an insulation of blubber that can be over 2 feet thick. Whales have one or two nostril openings, called blowholes, far back on the top of their heads. The blowholes close and the lungs compress when the whale dives. Most whales surface every 3 to 20 minutes to breathe. Some whales can remain submerged for more than an hour. When the whale surfaces they exhale and spout out the water in their blowhole. Whales have small eyes designed to withstand the great pressure of the deep sea. Most whales have very good vision and excellent hearing. Whales have brains larger than humans and are believed to be extremely intelligent. Most large whales travel in schools or pods. Some whales, like the Fin Whale, swim alone or in pairs. Some small whales form schools of up to several thousand individuals. Some larger whales, like the Blue Whale are believed to have lived 100 years or more. Oh wow, speaking of the Blue Whale, look to the right side of the boat, there’s a Blue Whale now! Look at the size of it! It’s about 3-4 times bigger than this boat. Did you know the Blue Whale is the largest animal on earth? Their weight varies from 120 to 190 tons, that means they can weigh around ½ million pounds. They can grow to 100 feet long. As you can see, the Blue Whale is not always blue. They are usually gray or an off white color like this one. See that they have a small dorsal fin and pointed pectoral (chest) fins and the tail is flat with flukes (arrow like points) to propel them through the water. They eat plankton, shrimp, and krill. They can eat as much as four tons of food a day. Look at their huge 2006-07-22T12:20:55-04:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/A-Study-of-Blue-Whales-30433.aspx The Ecosystems that Thrive in Hydrothermal Vents Some 7,500 feet below the ocean’s surface lies a intriguing and bizarre world unlike any other. Large black volcanoes tower above the ocean floor spouting out poisonous black gas into freezing cold waters and blind crabs roam endlessly in pitch darkness. These intolerable conditions could only mean one thing, hydrothermal vents. These mystical giants of the deep have stumped some of the worlds greatest scientists who have only recently discovered that they may hold the potential key to some of the worlds great scientific mysteries such as how an ecosystem can survive with out sunlight and the possible origin of life. Only by studying and understanding hydrothermal vents will we be able to start to unlock some of these puzzles. In discovering hydrothermal vents, many more questions arose. One of which relates to the excruciating circumstances organisms that inhabit these vent sites survive under. This includes how they are able to withstand poisonous toxins, unbearable temperatures, outstanding pressure, possess the ability to gather food and reproduce effectively. One of the finest examples of these amazing organisms is the tube worm. But before we tackle the many questions surrounding this unusual creature it is best to understand the environment it thrives in. History of Hydrothermal Vents Recently scientists began an in depth study on the potential existence of hot water vents. While the existence of the mid ocean ridges were known, some believed a similar type of vent resided that was supported by a hydrothermal system. From as early as 1972 scientists began taking water samples that indicated the presence of these hot water vents (Chu). Using this technique scientists gained strong evidence that one of these vents was sitting along the Galapagos Rift. On an expedition in 1977 a group of scientist fell upon a colossal discovery that gave proof to the outlandish theory (Chu). Using a submersible named Alvin researchers were able to view the sea floor from the ocean’s surface through photographs. They were in for a tremendous suprize. Not only did Alvin reveal the presence of hydrothermal vents but of a whole ecosystem of life. This essential discovery shocked and dumbfounded scientists all over the world. For the next two years Alvin would journey back to vent sites to get a better understanding of their existence. In 1979 this amazing sub captured another intriguing image. A 65 foot, chimney 2006-07-22T10:51:17-04:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/The-Ecosystems-that-Thrive-in-Hydrothermal-Vents-30420.aspx Argument for Animal Rights Ever since the society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Animals in England in 1824 was formed, there have been long running debates on the topic of animal rights. The first societies were formed to protect and maintain humane treatment of work animals, such as horses, cattle, and house hold pets. Towards the end of the nineteenth century more organizations were formed, this time to protest the use of animals in scientific experimentation. Today groups such as People for the Ethical Treatment of Animals (PETA) have continued these traditional fights as well as adding new agendas. "Life, liberty, and the pursuit of happiness; The Declaration of Independence holds these rights to be self evident and unalienable. In the eighteenth century when these words were written they were called natural rights, today we call them human rights" (McShea, 34). The issue of whether or not to grant animals rights such as those humans retain, is a greatly disputed issue. Animal right is an extremely intricate issue that involves the question of animal farming, animal experimentation, and animal activists. There is no happy little farmer milking his cow on a nice farm anymore; this is the food industry; it is dirty; it is unsafe, and it is a massacre of innocent animals. Cows, chickens, pigs, and other animals processed into food are not kept on a farm; they are crowded into pens and cages that are too small to even allow the animal to turn around (Krizmanic, 36). So if the animals are not growing up on farms, where are they? Animals are raised at places called "factory farms" (Krizmanic, 36), which is also known as intensive animal agriculture (Kamrin NA). A factory farm is just that, a factory. Food is brought to the confined animal on conveyer belts, and eggs and other products are taken away on conveyer belts (Krizmanic, 36). "Crowding, rough handling, mutilation, force feeding, genetic manipulation, and loss of offspring are the normal and standard operating procedures" (Karmin, NA). 90% of all slaughtered animals are raised in confinement (Krizmanic, 37). At these "farms", nine million chickens, turkeys, pig calves, and cows are slaughtered every day (Robins, NA), so that most of the United States' meat, milk, and eggs come from intensive confinement factory farms (Sequoia, 45). These animals are not just raised on animal feed alone. Animals are immobilized by machines and transported on assembly 2006-07-19T20:51:30-04:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/Argument-for-Animal-Rights--30405.aspx Function and Anatomy of the Human Eye The human eye is a wonderful thing. It lets us view things. They can give us another eye color, or we could just use them to simply view things. But it’s not that simple you see. Some people aren’t that lucky, and have impaired vision. This includes near-sightedness and far-sightedness. To begin though we must understand how the eye works, and why it works that way. First is the cornea, which is a clear dome that covers the front of the eye. The cornea accomplishes the majority, which is about 70%, of the bending of light rays. The crystalline lens finishes the rest of the 30% of focusing of light. It helps to "fine tune" vision, and it has the ability to change shape so that it focuses on one thing, normally near. When it becomes cloudy, it is called a cataract. Sometimes age has some thing to do with cataract. Unlike the cornea, the lens can be made to change its shape (and, therefore, its refractive power) often and however many times it pleases. Using its ability to change shape, the lens allows the eye to change its focal point. Changes in the shape of the lens will allow a normal eye to focus on near objects. Then there is the iris, which really doesn’t do anything except give the eye color, which I guess is pretty cool. It would be weird if everyone had black eyes, or brown eyes, so variety is good. The pupil is the little opening in the middle of the iris. It can change shape, as it controls the amount of light that enters an eye. When it is bright the iris will shrink, therefore not letting in as much light. When it is dim the iris will grow, therefore letting in more light. In the back of the eye there is nerve tissue that senses light and is called the retina. “Specialized cells called rods and cones convert light energy into nerve signals that travel through the optic nerve to the brain” I quoted that from Grolier encyclopedia 1996, simply because it was the best way to put it. Now that the basic knowledge has been taught, we move on to the next part, near-sightedness. 2006-07-19T12:35:44-04:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/Function-and-Anatomy-of-the-Human-Eye-30387.aspx General Information on the AIDS Virus Aids is the most serious disease in the world. This is because there is no cure for this deadly disease. Even though aids is a deadly disease it can also be prevented easily. People who avoid having unprotected sex and do not use drugs probably will not get aids. Aids (acquired immunodeficiency syndrome) is a deadly disease that attacks some of the body’s white-blood cells. Aids makes the body vulnerable to other infections such as the common cold which could kill you. Aids is caused by a retrovirus. HIV (human immunodeficiency virus) is “the aids 2006-07-18T19:21:34-04:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/General-Information-on-the-AIDS-Virus-30375.aspx Lifecycle of the Polio Virus Polio is an infectious disease that has haunted the lives of many for over 3,000 years. The first record of Poliomyelitis in the human body dates back to ancient Egypt where inhabitants of the area engraved a documented version of paralytic Poliomyelitis into stone. When indoor plumbing came into use, in the 20th century, and sewage systems began to develop into complicated public works where waste was dumped into towns' water supplies; that is when Poliomyelitis began to spread. The disease causing organism, Poliomyelitis, spread throughout the United States and was a threat to the lives of the country’s citizens for decades. It was finally entirely eradicated in the later half of the century, but a childhood vaccine is still recommended to be given in order to prevent the RNA based virus. Efforts have been made to eradicate the disease world wide, but doctors have not completed conquered the virus. Poliomyelitis, a virus that’s apart of the Picornavirus group, takes an icosahedral shape. That is, a geometric figure consisting of 20 triangular sides. The viral capsid is the actual structure that forms the isocahedral shape. The capsid is the protein coat that surrounds the nucleic acid of the virus. Poliomyelitis is a non-enveloped virus, meaning that it lacks a membrane-like structure on the exterior of its cell. The life cycle of Polio is a lytic type of life style. The lytic life cycle is a five-step process where a virus invades a host cell, in this case the Poliovirus receptor (PVR). The procedure begins when the virus attaches itself to the host cell. The virus, using its tail fibers, attaches itself to a receptor site, a familiar place for a virus to attach itself. In the second stage of the lytic cycle, the viral DNA is released into the cell after an entrance is created. No actual hole is made in the cells surface; however, an enzyme, having been released from the virus, weakens a specific spot so that the viral DNA can be forced through and into the cell. After changing the cell’s makeup so that proteins are synthesized differently, a translation process results in viral proteins and enzymes, as well as the replication of the viral DNA from the bacteria that is hosting the virus. 2006-07-18T13:11:10-04:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/Lifecycle-of-the-Polio-Virus-30358.aspx Endangerd Species of Bird: The Roseate Tern Like many other species the Roseate Tern is also endangered. These creatures are some of the world’s most beautiful animals and are slowly being killed by man and nature. The Roseate Tern somewhat resembles a sea gull with a slender body and short reddish legs. They have pointed wings and long streamer tails, like the streamer on a kite. Their bodies are a pale gray and are white with a pink tinge on their underside in the early breeding season. This tinge however, is not a good way to tell if a bird is the Roseate Tern since the sun can bleach the colors out. They also have a black forehead and nape. Their upper wings are gray and have distinctly forked wings like that of a swallow. Their wingspan is about 72-80 centimeters and they weigh about 100-120 grams, which is slightly smaller that a mourning dove would be. Both male and female birds are similar in appearance; the only way to tell is that the male that isn’t breeding has a mixed black and white head. These bird life in quiet areas and live in small colonies. Areas where they can hide easily are taken advantage of. Places with things like dense grasses or other vegetation are the most common nesting sites. If these birds are disturbed in their nesting area, they will most likely abandon the site where their eggs are laid and predators will eat them. The most common areas where these nesting sites are found are in tropical areas such as the Indian, Pacific, Atlantic Oceans, South Africa and Western Australia. They can also like in the hotter areas of North America and Europe. The birds’ population was first dramatically changed in the 1980s when they were hunted for feathers. Due to hunting the population become about 2000 pairs in total. In the 1930s that grew to 10500 due to protective legislation to prevent further damage to the threatened species. Around 1950 again the population went down to only 3800, this time it was due to loss of habitat where the birds had a hard time finding quite nested areas. There are about 50 00 pairs in the world at this time but the population is still gradually decreasing, from both Human disturbance 2006-07-17T13:00:08-04:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/Endangerd-Species-of-Bird-The-Roseate-Tern-30288.aspx Mitochondria's Evolution from the Chloroplast I discovered that mitochondria evolved from the chloroplast (Audersirk p. 369). “The endosymbotic hypothesis championed most forcefull by Lynn Margulis of the University of Massachusetts, propose that cells acquired the precursors of mitochondria and chloroplast by engulfing certain types of bacteria.” This happens by the aerobe bacteria that absorbs those molecules and used energy oxygen to complete their metabolism. By gaining a high range of energy, using large food resources, great amount of energy leak out a ATP and right back into the host of cytoplasm that is how mitochondria came about. The role of the mitochondria in our are bodies is to process oxygen, convert fatty acids. Carbohydrates, and proteins from food that we eat turns into energy. The body’s mobile energy source is ATP (adenosine triphosphate). Within the mitochondria it has its own DNA. What mitochondria with DNA all thisis new to me. An a article in the newspaper the mentioning the role of mitochondria DNA causing genetic diseases. I could not believe my eyes, after reading the article I had in mind that the Mitochondria DNA was the same as the Nuclear DNA, not true at all. Mitochondria DNA verses Nuclear DNA. Nuclear DNA has twenty TRNA ( transferal RNA) proteins that are free radicals, which encodes of the subumits of oxidative phosphorylation. Whereas, Mitochondria DNA has twenty-two tRNA with no proteins. Nucleat DNA has a linear shape DNA but Mitochondria DNA have a circular DNA. Since Nuclear DNA has both extrons and introns the limitation of mutations are low. However, Mitochondria DNA only have introns, so Mitochondria DNA mutate to occur in the cell. Mutations occur in mitonchondria. When the vital supply of ATP is disrupted less and less energy is generated within the cell, the process is repeated continuous the body system begins to shut down. In further detail, in the mitochondria there are two through ten molecules that exist and each cell contains multiple mitochondria within that cell. There can be normal and mutant Mitochondria DNA. (New England Journal…) There is a condition known as hetroplasmy that allow otherwise lethal mutations to persist. Homplasmy is the presence of either completely normal or completely mutant Mitochondria DNA. An individual may be life-treaten. “Mutations with the 2006-07-16T22:05:16-04:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/Mitochondria-s-Evolution-from-the-Chloroplast-30270.aspx Overview of Stem-Cell Research After a brief study of stem cell research, I discovered that it is a largely debated topic and that many find it ethically wrong. I certainly understand the perspective of those morally opposed to the research, however I concluded that the positive aspects of the research far outweigh the negatives. Most of those who are morally opposed to the research believe that the embryo has the moral status of a person from the moment of conception. Similar to opponents of abortion in relation to the fetus, they think that research (or any other activity) that would destroy the embryo is wrong. Many of those who condemn the research fail to realize that the embryos are typically extracted from surplus frozen embryos left over from in-vitro fertilization procedures at fertility clinics. For those who support the research, 2006-07-13T19:17:10-04:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/Overview-of-Stem-Cell-Research-30241.aspx Genetic Engineering and Cloning Cloning In today’ world of advanced technology and even faster progress of this technology one has to stop and examine what we have accomplished. How far do we want to go with this technology of genetic engineering, particularly in the field of cloning. Examining genetic engineering and its many possibilities holds great hope for the future. Centrally the issue of cloning has been a hot topic in the media mainly because its has become a technological as well as a medical breakthrough. The possibilities of cloning are innumerable that is, if it works. But the other side of the coin are the ethics of the process. What happens when we master cloning of body parts and venture out to clone humans? Will this clone be someone who has feelings, and mind and a spirit of its own? Will it have a soul? Genetic Engineering, the alteration of an organism's genetic, or hereditary, material to eliminate undesirable characteristics or to produce desirable new ones(Brennan, 57) . Genetic engineering is used to increase plant and animal food production; to diagnose disease, improve medical treatment, and produce vaccines and other useful drugs.(Brennan, 58). Included in genetic engineering techniques are the selective breeding of plants and animals, and recombinant DNA. The first genetic engineering technique, still used today, was the selective breeding of plants and animals, usually for increased food production. In selective breeding, only those plants or animals with good characteristics are chosen for further breeding. Corn has been selectively bred for increased kernel size and number and for nutritional content. More recently, selective breeding of wheat and rice in an effort called the green revolution has helped supply the world's ever-increasing need for food(Clarke, 1211). This is also another aspect of technology that has improved over the years. Production has proved that we can grow more with less land mass. Cattle and pigs were first domesticated about 8000 years ago and through selective breeding have become main sources of meat for humans. Dogs and horses have also been selectively bred for thousands of years for recreational purposes. Over the past 20 years, genetic engineering has been revolutionized by a new technique known as recombinant DNA, or gene splicing, with which scientists can directly alter genetic material (Encarta, 03). Genes consist of the chemical deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA). In recombinant DNA, the DNA of one organism is joined to the DNA 2006-07-13T18:58:31-04:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/Genetic-Engineering-and-Cloning-30231.aspx Scientific Analysis of Silicon Silicon is a semiconductor which means it's a "substance whose electrical conductivity is intermediate between that of a metal and an insulator; it increases with temperature and in the presence of impurities." The conductivity of silicon can be controlled by adding small amounts of impurities, called dopants. This ability to control the electrical properties of silicon have 2006-07-10T18:41:42-04:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/Scientific-Analysis-of-Silicon-30200.aspx Academic Arguments of Evolutionism vs. Creationism This is possibly the most fundamental question man has struggled with over the centuries. Philosophers have toiled countless hours, volumes have been written, and many a good friendship destroyed in argument about this formidable question. It touches on who we are, on our religion, and even our destiny. As introduction the theory of creationism, some of its major supporters, and some of its stronger points will be discussed. Creationism is the belief (regardless of religion) that all living things originated from a Higher Power in the form they are today. This Higher Power has many names; to some it is Buddha, to some, Thor, Ao, God and many more. But the belief still remains that It is an all-powerful entity to whom we should give thanks and praise for the privilege of existence. However, not all creationists are created equal. Many are quite humble in their beliefs and will ponder and consider other opinions, but will simply refrain from following evolutionist beliefs despite scientific evidence presented. For them, it is often simply a question of blind faith. Others will try to utilize and manipulate whatever ‘science’ they can find to ‘prove’ that creation in fact took place. They would consider that any other opinion on the origination of our current state as sacrilege. Faith, for many, is just as important as discovering fossils from millions years ago. This is not necessarily wrong, as will be further discussed in the conclusion. A strong supporter of creationism (and a perfect example of extreme faith) is Dr. Duane Gish. Gish, who seems frustrated at constantly having to use faith as his evidence and having to receive perpetual slander from the evolutionists, has become somewhat resentful. Gish is, in all respects, an educated and rational man. He has written a few books on his beliefs; the book Creation Scientists Answer Their Critics is a good example of his work. Gish is an accomplished scientist who appears to utilize analytical thought. Most reviews of the book agree that Dr. Gish "scored some points" in the book. The Institute for Creation Research (ICR) published Duane Gish's Creation Scientists Answer Their Critics. A 451-page book which, "evaluates the major arguments for and against special creation and evolution and defends 2006-07-10T18:36:20-04:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/Academic-Arguments-of-Evolutionism-vs_-Creationism-30198.aspx Biological Threat of Contracting Anthrax Recently there have been several cases of anthrax. 2006-07-10T18:10:09-04:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/Biological-Threat-of-Contracting-Anthrax-30189.aspx Scientific Benefits of Cloning Research We have seen comic material in the movies and on television. The entertainment industry usually shows it in a humorous situation such as Danny Devito and Arnold Schwannager as genetically engineered twins while Michael Keaton was duplicated to make his life easier. Cloning is only achieved after intensive research and experimentation where as in the movies; it is made out to be as easy as 1, 2, 3. Even though animal and human cloning has only been announced recently to the public, it has been around for the many decades, and is very beneficial to our future generations. In 1938, a German scientist by the name of Hans Spemann came to the conclusion that organisms can, in fact, be reproduced. His belief was that by transplanting the central element of one animal’s cell into the egg of another animal, the animal could be reproduced, or “cloned”. Dr. Spemann believed that the central element or “nucleus” of a cell contained the genetic blueprint for the structure of the organism. He was awarded the Nobel Prize in 1935 for his discovery of what he called the “organizer effect” (“Bio of Hans”). After Spemenn’s discovery, there were two other tries to replicate what he did. The first was in 1952, when American scientists tried by infusing the nucleus of a frog’s embryo into a frog egg, but this attempt resulted in failure. In 1970, a British scientist repeated the same experiment. This attempt resulted in the development of some specimens, which died after reaching the tadpole stage. Over time, there have been many claims to cloning, but have all turned up as either frauds or they produced organisms that have died after a few days (Plutonium). There have been cases of cloning of several types of animals beginning in 1984. Embryonic animal cells were what clones were produced from in the past. Scientists have developed a new process called somatic cell nuclear transfer, which is performed using nature cells. This is the science that was used to produce Dolly in 1997(Roslin 1). It has been said that after 277 failures, Dolly was finally produced. The team of scientists who made Dolly described that they removed cells from under the arm of an adult sheep, starved those cells from nutrients so they would enter a dormant state and then used an electrical charge to force the cell’s pores to open. 2006-07-09T14:52:48-04:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/Scientific-Benefits-of-Cloning-Research-30139.aspx Questions Concerning Human Development Throughout life a person goes through a process called growth. Everyone grows at a different rate. However everyone goes through the some of the stages of life. Cells make up all living lives. Cells are the basic units, or building blocks of life. Everyone and everything is made up of billions of cells. Every cell in your body does a specific job. Cells that do similar jobs form tissues. The body is made up of many kinds of tissues. Nerve tissues and muscle tissues are just a couple examples. Like cells tissues are combined into larger structures called organs. Organs are body parts like the stomach brain or lungs. Groups of organs that work together are called systems. The body has several systems too like digestive or respiratory for example. Sometimes you wonder why am I am like I am? There are a number of factors that answer this question. Two of the most important factors are heredity and environment. Heredity is the passing of traits from your parents. Environment is the area around you. There is also chromosomes. Chromosomes are the tiny structures found within cells that determine the specific type of person you turn out to be. Insides chromosomes are genes. Genes are tiny bits of matter that control which traits of your parents gets passed down to you. Sometimes when a woman is pregnant she doesn’t do everything she is supposed to do and when the baby is born it might have a disease like fetal alcohol syndrome. For a baby to hopefully turn out right the mother should eat right, get enough rest, get enough exercise, and avoid all drugs and tobacco. Sometimes though it isn’t anybodies fault the baby can be born with genetic disorder. That is a disease or condition in which the body does not work normally because of a problem with genes. Several hundred thousand babies are born each year with a genetic disorder and it isn’t anybodies fault. The first year of life is when the fastest physical growth takes place. The weight of the child triples and the height doubles. During infancy trust develops. Infancy is the first years of life. The child needs loving care and they need to trust you and know that they are safe. 2006-07-09T14:14:56-04:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/Questions-Concerning-Human-Development-30123.aspx Biological Study of Gotu Kola Plant Gotu Kola is a slender, creeping plant that grows commonly in swampy areas of India, Sri Lanka, Madagascar, South Africa and the tropics. Its fan shaped leaves are about the size of an old British penny - hence its common names Indian pennywort, marsh penny and water pennywort. It is regarded as one of the most spiritual and rejuvenating herbs in Ayurveda and is used to improve meditation. It is said to develop the crown chakra, the energy center at the top of the head, and to balance the right and left hemispheres of the brain, which the leaf is said to resemble. Gotu kola has been widely used for a number of conditions, particularly in traditional Eastern health care. In Ayurveda Gotu kola is one of the chief herbs for revitalizing the nerves and brain cells. It is said to fortify the immune system, both cleansing and feeding it, and to strengthen the adrenals. It has been used as a tonic for purification of blood and for promoting healthy skin. It has also been used to aid in restful sleep, treat skin inflammations, as a treatment for high blood pressure and as a mild diuretic. Recent studies (1995) demonstrated that Gotu kola destroyed cultured tumor cells in the laboratory setting (in vitro). The leaves of this swamp plant have been used around the world for centuries to treat leprosy, cancer, skin disorders, arthritis, hemorrhoids, and tuberculosis. In recent years, Gotu kola has become popular in the West as a nerve tonic to promote relaxation and to enhance memory. The herbs calming properties make it well suited for overcoming insomnia and making one calm for yoga and meditative practices. It is commonly used to rebuild energy reserves improve memory and treat fatigue, both mental and physical. Gotu kola has been referred to as "food for the brain". This oriental herb has demonstrated mild tranquilizing, anti-anxiety and anti-stress effects, as well as improving mental functions such as concentration and memory. It has a calming effect on the body and is chiefly used to support the central nervous system. These beneficial qualities make Gotu kola an excellent herb for children with A.D.D. because it has a stimulating effect on the brain that increases one's ability to focus while having a soothing and relaxing effect on an overactive nervous system. Gotu 2006-07-09T13:46:03-04:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/Biological-Study-of-Gotu-Kola-Plant-30113.aspx Examination of the Big Bang Theory It is always a mystery about how the universe began, whether if and when it will end. Astronomers construct hypotheses called cosmological models that try to find the answer. There are two types of models: Big Bang and Steady State. However, through many observational evidences, the Big Bang theory can best explain the creation of the universe. The Big Bang model postulates that about 15 to 20 billion years ago, the universe violently exploded into being, in an event called the Big Bang. Before the Big Bang, all of the matter and radiation of our present universe were packed together in the primeval fireball--an extremely hot dense state from which the universe rapidly expanded.1 The Big Bang was the start of time and space. The matter and radiation of that early stage rapidly expanded and cooled. Several million years later, it condensed into galaxies. The universe has continued to expand, and the galaxies have continued moving away from each other ever since. Today the universe is still expanding, as astronomers have observed. The Steady State model says that the universe does not evolve or change in time. There was no beginning in the past, nor will there be change in the future. This model assumes the perfect cosmological principle. This principle says that the universe is the same everywhere on the large scale, at all times.2 It maintains the same average density of matter forever. There are observational evidences found that can prove the Big Bang model is more reasonable than the Steady State model. First, the redshifts of distant galaxies. Redshift is a Doppler effect which states that if a galaxy is moving away, the spectral line of that galaxy observed will have a shift to the red end. The faster the galaxy moves, the more shift it has. If the galaxy is moving closer, the spectral line will show a blue shift. If the galaxy is not moving, there is no shift at all. However, as astronomers observed, the more distance a galaxy is located from Earth, the more redshift it shows on the spectrum. This means the further a galaxy is, the faster it moves. Therefore, the universe is expanding, and the Big Bang model seems more reasonable than the Steady State model. The second observational evidence is the radiation produced by the Big Bang. The Big Bang model predicts that the 2006-07-09T13:32:34-04:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/Examination-of-the-Big-Bang-Theory-30106.aspx Some Important Elements in the Cloning Debate Cloning is producing a genetically identical organism to its parent. Since 1997, there have been many examples of cloning. Two examples are of Dolly the sheep and Tetra the monkey. These two clones are examples of different techniques used for cloning. And because of the previous two examples of cloning many ethical questions have been raised. In 1997, Scottish scientist Ian Wilmut and his workers produced a sheep named Dolly. What was so great about Dolly? Dolly was a clone. She was made from a cell of an adult female sheep. This technique is known as Nuclear Transfer. It removed the Nucleus from a female’s egg and replaces it with a nucleus from a different animal from the same species. Then they place the egg in the uterus of a third animal. On January14, 1999 Tetra, a rheas monkey, was produced. The technique used for the cloning of Tetra was Embryo-splitting. This involves splitting an early-stage embryo. This creates multiple embryos that are genetically identical. In Nuclear transfer when the nucleus is removed it carries genetic information and directs all cell activities. After the nucleus is implanted into another cell without a nucleus. Then the egg is placed into the womb of a surrogate mother. Embryo- splitting causes the embryo to continue dividing in half, thirds, or fourths which causes identical twins, triplets, or quadruplets. It can only make up to a maximum of four genetically identical animals. In genetically identical animals. In Nuclear transfer unlimited numbers of genetically identical animals. Both of these techniques have something in common. They raise many ethical questions. Some of these questions are Does man have the right to control life? Would we make a human clone later on? Should cloning be banned from the United States? No one can make the decisions for everyone and they can't please them as well. These ethical questions lead us to the pros and the con’s of cloning. There are two sides to any perspective. The Pros are not as numerous as the Cons but they are just as important. The Pros are that cloning can genetically alter individual animals within a group so all of them would carry a desired trait, increased growth potential or 2006-07-07T13:25:56-04:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/Some-Important-Elements-in-the-Cloning-Debate-30091.aspx Biography of the Hubble Telescope Perhaps more than any other person, Edwin Hubble (1884-1953) expanded our view of the universe. At the dawn of the 20th century, most astronomers thought that the Milky Way Galaxy was the universe, and it measured only a few thousand light-years across. In the 1910s, Harlow Shapley showed that the galaxy actually stretches about 100,000 light-years, and Henrietta Leavitt determined that the Large and Small Magellanic Clouds (two companion galaxies to our own, visible from the Southern Hemisphere) lay slightly outside the Milky Way’s border. But one big question that remained was the nature of the fuzzy patches of light known as nebulae. In 1923 and 1924, Hubble used the largest telescope in the world—the 100-inch Hooker Telescope at 2006-07-07T12:59:44-04:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/Biography-of-the-Hubble-Telescope-30079.aspx Cloning is Inevitable becasue of Technology Dr. Severino Antinori, who gained notoriety after helping a 62-year old woman to bear a child is collaborating with fertility specialist Panos Zavos to offer desperate infertile couples a chance to conceive a child via cloning. Both researchers plan to describe their work at a conference of the National Academy of Science. Italian medical authorities strongly oppose Antinori's stated plans and are threatening to yank his medical license. He and his associates may also find themselves on the wrong side of the law in the US. The House of Representatives has passed legislation to ban human cloning and the Senate will now consider the issue. Antinori and Zavos claim to have developed a new technique to clone a human embyro. While techniques have been developed for cloning sheep, mice, cattle and even monkeys, there is no publication in the scientific literature where a method for cloning humans is described. There is, however, a published body of research detailing problems with animals created using the cloning process. These problems include miscarriage, abnormal growth, anatomic abnormalities and premature death. The cloning process is laborious and expensive, producing far more failures than successes. In the case of Dolly, it took nearly 300 attempts before success was achieved. Further out on the fringe, a group called Clonaid claims to have established a human cloning laboratory somewhere beyond the border of the US. Clonaid is an offshoot of the Raelian religion, whose followers believe that life on Earth was planted by UFOs. That company also offers, for a significant fee, to save cells of loved ones (and pets) for future cloning. The proposals to attempt human cloning have chilling implications for human research. First of all, there would be significant concerns for the health of the cloned baby. Second, biologists could only guess what sort of problems the clone would develop later in life. Finally, there is the additional concern that the clone would pass along potentially serious traits to his or her own offspring. This latter case would assume that the cloned person was fertile, by no means a sure thing. If they haven't already done so, it is only a matter of time before researchers adapt the method used to clone Dolly, the sheep that became the first vertebrate animal cloned from a cell derived from an adult animal donor. 2006-07-07T12:57:27-04:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/Cloning-is-Inevitable-becasue-of-Technology-30078.aspx Analysis of Traditional and Modern Medical Methods God has gifted us with medical information to know his great ability in creating us. He gave us mind and feelings to use them for our benefit and progress. Medicine reflects God’s sympathy for us, as it is the only means for curing and relieving pains. Doctors are like angels who help people and work hard to heal and cure their pains. They help patients to live happily and in a more comfortable way. Unfortunately, some doctors follow the traditional medicine schools blindly, they deal with patients as cases ignoring their feelings and stick only to their medical information’s and what they have been taught in the faculty of medicine while treating their patients. Other physicians treat their patients in a friendly way; they are concerned about their patients’ humanity and feelings. They comfort patients and help to relieve their pains. The latter method is better way in dealing with patients as it respects the patients’ humanity, help them to get over their fears and achieve its goals faster and in a more effective way. Doctors following the traditional method treat their patients as cases neglecting the patients’ feelings and stick to their medical knowledge only. They deal with their patients in a cold and unrespectable way as if they were problems to solve. They take medicine as a job not as a humane message as it supposed to be. However, others who take medicine as a message of mercy treat their patients in a friendly way, show them care and try to inform the patient of his/ her own problem to make him/her independent and capable of speeding his/her recovery. Another major drawback is that the traditional methods may raise the patients’ fears. As, the patients will become machines obeying the doctors without any thinking. Unfortunately, this method is useless, because doctors have forgotten that half of the patients’ recovery depends on their psychological state in addition to their awareness of their role to boost their own improvement. On the other hand, untraditional doctors comfort the patients and help them to overcome their fears’. They are equally concerned about the psychological state of the patient as a major and as a more reliable factor for treatment, thus speeding their recovery. Traditional physicians can not achieve their goals in properly in treating their patients. They only focus on the physical 2006-07-06T00:10:25-04:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/Analysis-of-Traditional-and-Modern-Medical-Methods-30066.aspx Important Information about Anthrax Anthrax is an acute infectious disease caused by the spore-forming bacterium Bacillus anthracis. Anthrax most commonly occurs in warm-blooded animals, but can also infect man. Anthrax spores can be produced in a dry form (for biological warfare ) which may be stored and ground into particles. When inhaled by humans, these particles cause respiratory failure and death within a week. Why has anthrax become a current issue? Because anthrax is considered to be a potential agent for use in biological warfare, the Department of Defense (DOD) announced that it will begin systematic vaccination of all U.S. military personnel. Who gets anthrax? Anthrax is most common in agricultural regions where it occurs in animals. These include South and Central America, Southern and Eastern Europe, Asia, Africa, the Caribbean, and the Middle East. When anthrax affects humans, it is usually due to an occupational exposure to infected animals or their products. Workers who are exposed to dead animals and animal products (industrial anthrax) from other countries where anthrax is more common may become infected with B. anthracis. Anthrax in animals rarely occurs in the United States. Most reports of animal infection are received from Texas, Louisiana, Mississippi, Oklahoma and South Dakota. How is anthrax transmitted? Anthrax infection can occur in three forms: cutaneous (skin), inhalation, and gastrointestinal. B. anthracis spores can live in the soil for many years and humans can become infected with anthrax by handling animal products from infected animals or by inhaling anthrax spores from contaminated animal products. Anthrax can also be spread by eating undercooked meat from infected animals. It is rare to find infected animals in the United States. What are the symptoms of anthrax? Symptoms of disease vary depending on how the disease was contracted, but symptoms usually occur within seven days. Cutaneous: Most anthrax infections occur when the bacterium enters a cut or abrasion on the skin, such as when handling contaminated wool, hides, leather or hair products (especially goat hair) of infected animals. Skin infection begins as a raised itchy bump that resembles an insect bite but within 1-2 days develops into a vesicle and then a painless ulcer, usually 1-3 cm in diameter, with a characteristic black necrotic (dying) area in the center. Lymph glands in the adjacent area may swell. About 20% of untreated cases of cutaneous anthrax will result in death. Deaths are rare with appropriate antimicrobial 2006-07-05T23:34:55-04:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/Important-Information-about-Anthrax-30050.aspx Analysis of the Chemistry of Artificial Sweetener Chemists have been looking for a sweetener that is sweet or sweeter than sucrose. They want it to have a pleasant taste with no aftertaste, is nontoxic, inexpensive, easy to make, stable to heat, stable in light, dissolves Readily in water, 2006-07-05T23:23:58-04:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/Analysis-of-the-Chemistry-of-Artificial-Sweetener-30046.aspx Analysis of the Practice of Combinatorial Chemistry This article mainly talks about how combinatorial synthesis or chemistry is being used in the drug industry today. The article starts with how combinatorial synthesis began. It said it started in the early 1990s as an ambition of revolutionizing drug discovery. The rest of the article mainly talks about how they screen for highly complex mixtures, mixtures of equivocal mixtures. Then they move on to talk about screening of the interior of resin beads and then the screening of mircoarrays. This article says that if bridging the gap between combinatorial synthesis and bioassays is important if combinatorial chemistry is to achieve is ambitious goal of supplying efficient methods for the selection of biologically active molecules.”(Direct from article). This article had some good and some bad points throughout it. The main problem with the article is that it was really hard to understand. They used a lot of terms that as the reader, I would not know. This article also seemed very technical, saying that this, this and this did this. Not much was on what is combinatorial synthesis. This article was probably intended for those who know about this stuff already. But why then start with something that would sound like some who has never know about this before what to find out more about it. This article was brief too; it sped through things really quick and ended pretty quickly too. It should have flowed so the reader could read it more easily. Fairley, Peter. (1998). Combinatorial Chemistry. Chemical Week, 150, 18 In the article Combinatorial Chemistry they basically talk about what it is. The article says that it is a “the rapid synthesis of thousands or millions of chemical com-pounds.” It says that combinatorial chemistry has revolutionized the drug industry discovery process. The company R&D wonders what this experimentation could do for their product research. It provides many uses for combinatorial chemistry in research and the development of combinatorial chemistry in the chemical industry. There is one question that arises with combinatorial chemistry, which is whether this rapid screening can detect qualities of interest to industry researchers. But skepticism is fading rapidly with the recent research that they have found from companies like R&D, and by academic researchers. 2006-07-05T22:45:13-04:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/Analysis-of-the-Practice-of-Combinatorial-Chemistry-30034.aspx ENZYME INVESTIGATION Planning Introduction: An Enzyme is any one of many specialised organic substances, composed of polymers of amino acids, that act as catalysts to regulate the speed of the many chemical reactions involved in the metabolism of living organisms. Those enzymes identified now number more than 700. Enzymes are classified into several broad categories, such as hydrolytic, oxidising, and reducing, depending on the type of reaction they control. Hydrolytic enzymes accelerate reactions in which a substance is broken down into simpler compounds through reaction with water molecules. Oxidising enzymes, known as oxidises, accelerate oxidation reactions; reducing enzymes speed up reduction reactions, in which oxygen is removed. Many other enzymes catalyse other types of reactions. Individual enzymes are named by adding ASE to the name of the substrate with which they react. The enzyme that controls urea decomposition is called urease; those that control protein hydrolyses are known as proteinases. Some enzymes, such as the proteinases trypsin and pepsin, retain the names used before this nomenclature was adopted. Structure and Function of an Enzyme Enzymes are large proteins that speed up chemical reactions. In their globular structure, one or more polypeptide chains twist and fold, bringing together a small number of amino acids to form the active site, or the location on the enzyme where the substrate binds and the reaction takes place. Enzyme and substrate fail to bind if their shapes do not match exactly. This ensures that the enzyme does not participate in the wrong reaction. The enzyme itself is unaffected by the reaction. When the products have been released, the enzyme is ready to bind with a new substrate. Properties of Enzymes As the Swedish chemist Jöns Jakob Berzelius suggested in 1823, enzymes are typical catalysts: they are capable of increasing the rate of reaction without being consumed in the process. Some enzymes, such as pepsin and trypsin, which bring about the digestion of meat, control many different reactions, whereas others, such as urease, are extremely specific and may accelerate only one reaction. Still others release energy to make the heart beat and the lungs expand and contract. Many facilitate the conversion of sugar and foods into the various substances the body requires for tissue-building, the replacement of blood cells, and the release of chemical energy to move muscles. Pepsin, trypsin, and some other enzymes possess, in addition, the peculiar property known as autocatalysis, which permits them to cause their own formation from an inert 2006-07-05T15:19:16-04:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/Enzyme-investigation--30009.aspx Assessing Man's Evolution The origins of man is an extremely controversial issue within today’s society. Scientists have a host of different theories pertaining to man’s inhabitance of earth. Many disagreements arise between scientists who have different beliefs pertaining to where and how mankind arose. One such argument is the conflict involving the theory of evolution versus the theory of creation. After extensive scientific research, it is apparent that the theory of evolution is correct. Evolution is the theory that life arose by natural processes at an early stage of the earth’s history and that complex organisms developed from simpler organisms by a process of slow change (Coren 209). It’s the idea that new species arise from older species after thousands of years of gradual chemical, environmental, and genetic change (Coren 142). Evolution can also be described as the complex processes by which living organisms originated on earth and have been diversified and modified through sustained changes in form and function (“Evolution”). Scientists, looking for an explanation to the origin of man and other organisms created this evolutionism theory, which also presented answers to the many asked questions dealing with similarities between species. Unlike the theory of creation, which states that the complexity of life and different species can only be explained in terms of a supernatural creator or god who placed life on earth, the theory of evolution has a plethora of evidence proving it to be true (“Creation”). There are several different types of observations that support the theory of organic evolution as an explanation for the similarities and the differences among species. One such observation is in the geologic record. The geologic record is the rock scheme found within the earth’s outer crust. By means of radioactive dating, the ages of rocks in many places on earth have been determined. It’s a timetable of the earth’s geologic history. This combined with the fossil record, another observation supporting the evolutionary hypothesis, has produced an apparent sequence of life forms from most simple to most complex during the history of the planet. Fossils are any remains or traces of a once-living organism, which are formed by preservation, petrifaction, or sedimentation. Organisms can be preserved and protected against decay by being trapped in amber, tar, or frozen in ice. The hard parts of an organism, such as shells or bones, can be preserved when the flesh of an organism has decayed away. In 2006-07-04T16:38:07-04:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/Assessing-Man-s-Evolution-30005.aspx Medical Analysis of Lyme Disease I.The Bacteria- Borrelia Burgdorferi Lyme disease is caused by Borrelia burgdorferi, a spiral-shaped bacterium that is frequently carried by deer ticks of the genus Ixodes. Borrelia burgdorferi is named after its discoverer, Willy Burgdorfer, PhD. When the deer tick bites a human being, the bacteria are transmitted to the human bloodstream, where it travels throughout the body. Because the bite of the deer tick is usually painless and does not itch, most people do not recall the bite and so cannot trace the origin or the time of onset of the infection. Borrelia burgdorferi is a spirochete. Spirochetes are a group of phylogenetically-distinct procaryotes that have a unique mode of motility by means of axial filaments. Spirochetes are widespread in viscous environments and they are found in the intestinal tracts of animals and the oral cavity of humans. The spirochetes have a unique cell surface which accompanies their unique type of motility. The axial filaments are contained within the periplasmic space between a rigid peptidoglycan helix and a multi-layer, flexible outer membrane sheath. When the filaments rotate within this space, the spirochetes move in cork-screw fashion. This mode of motility in spirochetes is thought to be an adaptation to viscous environments such as aquatic sediments and the intestinal tracts of animals. Spirochetes are usually much longer than they are wide. Hence, most spirochetes cannot be viewed using conventional light microscopy. Dark-field microscopy must be used to view spirochetes. Dark field microscopy utilizes a special condenser which directs light toward an object at a angle, rather than from the bottom. As a result, particles or cells are seen as light objects against a dark background. The spirochetes are not classified as either Gram-positive or Gram-negative. When Borrelia burgdorferi is Gram-stained, the cells stain a weak Gram-negative by default, as safranin is the last dye used. Borrelia, like most spirochetes, does have an outer membrane that contains an LPS-like substance, an inner membrane, and a periplasmic space which contains a layer of peptidoglycan. Therefore, it has a Gram-negative bacterial type cell wall, despite its staining characteristics. II. The Disease-Lyme Disease Lyme disease first appeared in Lyme, Connecticut, in October 1975. Several people complained to their doctor of feeling fatigued, having pain in their joints, and noticing an unusual rash on their body. Also, several children were reported to 2006-07-04T13:43:45-04:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/Medical-Analysis-of-Lyme-Disease-29979.aspx Biological Inspection of Cell Membranes The plasma membrane is the boundary of life; this selectively permeable membrane allows the cell to maintain a unique internal environment and to control the movement of materials into and out of the cell. The phospholipid bilayer (fluid mosiac model) with specific membrane proteins accounts for he selective permeability of the membrane and passive and active transport mechanisms. Membrane phospholipids are amphipathic. Cell membranes are phospholipid bilayers with the hydrophobic hydrocarbon tails in the center and the hydrophilic heads facing the aqueous solution on both sides of the membrane. The phospholipid bilayer also called the fluid mosiac model has proteins embedded in the phospholipid bilayer with their hydrophilic regions extending out into the aqueous environment. Membranes are held together by weak hydrophobic interactions that allow the lipids and some of the proteins to drift laterally. Phospholipids with unsaturated hydrocarbon tails maintain membrane fluidity at lower temperatures. The steroid cholesterol restricts movement of phospholipids, therefore, reducing fluidity at warmer temperatures. Cholesterol also prevents the close packing of lipids and thus enhances fluidity at lower temperatures. The plasma membrane permits regular exchange of nutrients, waste products, oxygen, and inorganic ions. Membranes are selectively permeable which means that they allow some substances to cross more easily than others. Hydrophobic molecules, such as hydrocarbons, can dissolve in and cross through a membrane. Very small polar molecules, including water, can cross a plasma membrane easily. Ions and polar molecules may move across the plasma membrane with the aid of transport proteins, which may provide a hydrophilic channel or may physically bind and transport a specific molecule. The selectively permeability of a membrane depends on both the discriminating barrier of the lipid bilayer and the specific transport proteins built into the membrane. The structure of membranes is directly related to the transport of materials across a membrane. Diffusion is the spontaneous movement of a substance down its concentration gradient. The cell does not expend energy when substances diffuse across membranes therefore, the process is called passive transport. Osmosis is the diffusion of water across a selectively permeable membrane. Water diffuses down its own concentration gradient and water will move from a hypotonic solution across a membrane into a hypertonic solution. Specific proteins facilitate the passive transport of selected solutes. Facilitated diffusion involves the diffusion of polar molecules and ions across a membrane with the aid of 2006-07-03T23:37:41-04:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/Biological-Inspection-of-Cell-Membranes-29965.aspx Symptoms of Chronic Leukemia Chronic myelogenous leukemia (CML) is one of the four most common types of leukemia and is responsible for 15 to 20 percent of all adult leukemia’s. CML is a deadly cancer of the bone marrow cells that causes white blood cells to increase to more than twelve times their limit, at an uncontrollable rate. Normally, this can lead to fatigue, fever, and a fatal 5-year survival rate. Novartis Oncology Pharmaceuticals, the second largest drug company in the world, with headquarters in Switzerland, is the main company investigating a new drug to cure CML, called STI-571 (Gleevec). This drug has taken on many names such as Glivec, Imatinib Mesylate, CGP57148B, but due to nomenclature issues with the F.D.A., the drug is now named Gleevec. Novartis’ primary goal of their studies was to discover an ability to treat cancer by eliminating only the cancer cells with minimal or no effects on normal cells. From many years of research, doctors have successfully created the drug Gleevec, which does just that. Gleevec selectively blocks mutant enzymes that cause CML without harming its molecular correspondents. Gleevec has been put into the class of “cytostatics.” Cytostatics are designed to focus in on cancer cells without harming healthy ones. This is significantly more effective when compared to the normal treatments of leukemia such as radiation and bone marrow transplant. Specifically, Gleevec disrupts the Abelson kinase (Abl) from its accidental activation. This then leads to CML by activating other proteins by adding phosphate to them in a process called phosphorylation. Kinase plays an important role in regulating cell growth and division. Gleevec inactivates the Abelson kinase by binding to it, thus inhibiting it to reproduce. Gleevec works by blocking signals within cancer cells that contain Abl and prevents a series of chemical reactions that cause or signal the cell to grow and divide. With these results, doctors agree that with these same ideas, the pill can be adapted to cure various types of other cancers. Gleevec has already been used in clinical trials to cure certain types of brain and stomach cancers. Gleevec is still at a relatively early phase of clinical testing and has recently been submitted to the F.D.A. for further tests to determine its effectiveness on February 27, 2001. According to the F.D.A., approval for Gleevec can take up to six months before it is available on the market for patients. If 2006-07-03T22:59:07-04:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/Symptoms-of-Chronic-Leukemia-29946.aspx Letter in Response to Hospital Negligence This letter is in response to your communication dated November 21, 2001. The review you mentioned on your letter of the medical record of my mother, appears to be flawed and biased. In very few cases does the E.R. have the luxury of a patient arriving within minutes of the onset of an acute cerebro-vascular event (stroke). My mother arrived at the E.R. within twenty minutes of the onset of the symptoms. She was an ideal candidate for immediate use of intravenous T.P.A. If the E.R. physician had any concerns about the possibility of rectal bleeding due to a history of “recent” surgery, those concerns should have been totally dispelled as soon as I was consulted. I am the Chief of Surgery I was one of the surgeons who participated in the removal of a rectal polyp, which occurred months prior to this incident not two to three weeks as your letter proclaims. If an attending surgeon informs your resident of this fact, and requests that T.P.A. be administered intravenously, there should not have been hesitation in the timing of the infusion of this medication. This emergency room physician had been tasked to find as many cases as possible for intra-arterial T.P.A., because your Hospital was doing a study on this procedure. He was frantically paging the ‘team,’ and received no response to his queries. The ‘team’ was in the Hospital performing another procedure and had disconnected or turned off their pagers. A member of my family, my sister, was insisting that there should be no delay in administering the T.P.A., but her frantic requests were completely ignored; in fact, a member of the E.R. team threatened that if my sister continued to insist on this, nothing would be done for my mother. Six hours later, by the time my mother was taken to the cath-lab to receive the intra-arterial drug, the golden period to dissolve the clot had passed, and the procedure was just an exercise in futility. My family and I will never be able to forget the fact that my mother’s stroke could have been reversed, or at the least reduced in severity had the drug been administered within that crucial period of the first arrival at your E.R. I do agree with one item your letter, and that is that the decision to withhold and approve 2006-07-03T13:52:49-04:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/Letter-in-Response-to-Hospital-Negligence-29932.aspx The Process of Human Digestion Digestive System, series of organs put together that purpose is to break down, or digest, the food we eat. Food is made up of large things called, complex molecules, which the digestive system breaks down into smaller things called simple molecules that get absorbed into the bloodstream. The bloodstream is our blood. The simple molecules travel through the bloodstream to all of the parts of the body, which we use for growth, repair, and energy. All living things that eat to get energy have a digestive system, a feature that makes us different from plants. Plants make their own food in a process called photosynthesis, photosynthesis is when plants make sunlight to convert water and carbon dioxide into simple sugars. But animals, including humans, must take in food in the form of organic matter, such as plants or other animals. Digestion generally involves two parts: a mechanical part and a chemical part. In the mechanical part, teeth physically break down large pieces of food into smaller pieces. In the chemical part, digestive chemicals called enzymes break apart individual molecules of food to yield molecules that can be absorbed and distributed throughout the body. These enzymes are secreted by glands in the body. The digestive system of most animals consists mainly of a long, tube called the alimentary canal, or digestive tract. This canal has a mouth at one end, through which food is taken in, and an anus at the other end, through which pup is taken out the body.. Muscles in the walls of the alimentary canal move the food along. Most digestive organs are part of the alimentary canal. However, two digestive organs, the liver and pancreas, are located outside the digestive system. These organs put in chemical digestion by releasing digestive juices into the digestion system through tubes called ducts. If an adult’s digestive tract were stretched out, it would be 20 to 30 ft long. In humans, digestion begins in the mouth, where both mechanical and chemical digestion occur. The mouth quickly turns food into a soft, moist mass. The muscular tongue pushes the food against the teeth, which cut, chop, and grind the food. Glands in the cheek linings secrete mucus, which lubricates the food, making it easier to chew and swallow. Three pairs of glands empty saliva into the mouth through ducts to moisten the food. 2006-07-03T13:45:09-04:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/The-Process-of-Human-Digestion-29928.aspx Global Significance of the AIDS Virus Acquired Immunodeficiency Syndrome which stands for AIDS, Aids is a human viral disease that ravages the immune system, undermining the body’s ability to defend itself from infection and disease. Caused by the human immunodeficiency virus (HIV), AIDS leaves an infected person vulnerable to opportunistic infections. Such infections are harmless in healthy people, but in those whose immune systems have been greatly weakened, they can prove fatal. While there is no cure for AIDS, new drugs have prolonged the life spans and improved the quality of life of many infected people. Infection with HIV does not necessarily mean that a person has AIDS, although people who are HIV-positive are often mistakenly said to have AIDS. Some people who have HIV infection may not develop any of the clinical illnesses that define the full-blown disease of AIDS for ten years or more. Doctors prefer to use the term AIDS for cases where a person has reached the final, life-threatening stage of HIV infection. AIDS was first identified in 1981 among homosexual men and intravenous drug users in New York and California. Shortly after its detection in the United States, evidence of AIDS epidemics grew among heterosexual men, women, and children in sub-Saharan Africa. AIDS quickly developed into a worldwide epidemic, affecting virtually every nation. By 1999 an estimated 33.6 million adults and 1.2 million children worldwide were living with HIV infection or AIDS. The World Health Organization (WHO) estimates that from 1981 to the end of 1999, about 16.3 million people died as a result of HIV infection. More than 3.6 million of those who died were children under the age of 15. In the United States and Canada, at least 44,000 new HIV infections occur each year. Over 30 percent of these infections occur in women, and 60 percent in ethnic minorities. In 1999 more than 900,000 Americans and Canadians were living with HIV infection. The incidence of new cases of HIV infections and AIDS deaths has significantly decreased in Canada and the United States since 1995. This decrease is attributed to the availability of new drug treatments and public health programs that target people most at risk for infection. But while the overall rate of HIV infection seems to be on a downturn, certain populations appear to be at greater risk for the disease. In the United States in 1987, Caucasians accounted for 2006-07-02T22:43:17-04:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/Global-Significance-of-the-AIDS-Virus-29910.aspx Study of the Hippopotamus Amphibious Hippos have historically been found throughout all of Africa. Currently most populations have been greatly reduced. The only large population of hippos lives near the Nile river valley of east Africa. The scientific name for hippo is hippopotamus amphibious. Hippos are about four and a half feet tall and eleven feet long. They weigh about three to seven thousand pounds and are the second largest land mammal. A hippos skin is gray- brown. The upper parts are blue- black and the under parts are pink. Hippos have glands inside their skin that release thick red oil, the oil shields against sunburn. Hippos have excellent hearing, sight and smell. They also have fine hair that covers their entire body. The eyes and ears are small, set far back and high on the head. The neck is short with many folds of skin on it. A hippos muzzle can measure up to fifty centimeters wide. Each foot has four toes with thick nails on it. The tail is short and flat with thick bristles on the end. Males are much larger than females with thicker necks, more skin folds and larger tusks. Hippos need water to submerge in, but they can temporarily survive in mud holes. They spend their days in the water to keep cool and avoid insects. They leave the water to sunbathe and eat. Hippos can swim on the surface of water or walk along the bottom, staying under water for up to six minutes. When they come to the surface they exhale by grunting. Hippos can move very fast. They are active on land at night for five to six hours when grazing. They strictly eat grass. If there is a food shortage they will eat floating water plants. A hippo’s life span is thirty-five to forty-five years. They mate in the dry season. Females give birth in shallow water. The young are reported to be able to swim before they can walk. Baby hippos lie across their mother’s back in deep water. Hippos live in schools of thirty. There is a single nt bull that defends their stretch of water. Their tusks are used to fight, stabbing the thick 2006-07-02T22:29:59-04:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/Study-of-the-Hippopotamus-Amphibious-29906.aspx Treatment of Alzheimer's Disease Alzheimer's Disease is a progressive and irreversible brain disease that destroys mental and physical functioning in human beings, and invariably leads to death. It is the fourth leading cause of adult death in the United States. Alzheimer's creates emotional and financial problems for many American families every year. Fortunately, a large amount of progress is being made to combat Alzheimer's disease every year. To fully be able to comprehend and combat Alzheimer's disease, one must know what it does to the brain, the part of the human body it most greatly affects. Many Alzheimer's disease sufferers had their brains examined. A large number of differences were present when comparing the normal brain to the Alzheimer's brain. There was a loss of nerve cells from the Cerebral Cortex in the Alzheimer's victim. Approximately ten percent of the neurons in this region were lost. But a ten- percent loss is relatively minor, and cannot account for the severe impairment suffered by Alzheimer's victims. Neurofibrillary Tangles are also found in the brains of Alzheimer's victims. They are found within the cell bodies of nerve cells in the cerebral cortex, and take on the structure of a paired helix. Other diseases that have "paired helixes" include Parkinson's disease, Down's Syndrome, and Dementia Pugilistica. Scientists are not sure how the helixes are related in these very different diseases. Neuritic Plaques are patches of clumped material lying outside the bodies of nerve cells in the brain. They are mainly found in the cerebral cortex, but have also been seen in other areas of the brain. At the core of each of these plaques is a substance called amyloid, an abnormal protein not usually found in the brain. Cast off fragments of dead or dying nerve cells surrounds this amyloid core. The cell fragments include dying mitochondria, presynaptic terminals, and paired helical filaments identical to those that are neurofibrillary tangles. Many neuropathologists think that these plaques are basically clusters of degenerating nerve cells. But they are still not sure of how and why these fragments clustered together. Congophilic Angiopathy is the technical name that neuropathologists have given to an abnormality found in the walls of blood vessels in the brains of victims of Alzheimer's disease. These abnormal patches are similar to the neurotic patches that develop in Alzheimer's disease, in that amyloid has been found within the blood-vessel walls wherever the 2006-07-02T22:26:07-04:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/Treatment-of-Alzheimer-s-Disease-29904.aspx Analysis of the Planet Uranus Our planet Uranus. Uranus is the seventh planet of our solar system. Uranus is the mysterious blue planet that circles the sun, far from the Earth. A man named William Herschel first discovered this mysterious planet in 1781, he was a German musician living in England who had a great interest in Astronomy. He believed the sky held secrets he wanted to know. He couldn’t afford to buy a big telescope, so he made his own. One night in March 1781, Herschel was studying constellations of Gemini. He spotted by accident a blue-green dot. He studied it for several nights and he realized that it was moving very slowly across the sky. Herschel believed that he found a new comet. As the word of his discovery spread, professional astronomers measured the distance to the object and decided it was too far away to be a comet. It must be a planet instead. The new planet was twice as far from the sun as Saturn. This mysterious planet got its name from the tradition held. Like the six other planets, it was named for a god in Greek mythology. So it was named after the goddess that gives life. Because it orbited just beyond Saturn and was named Uranus for the god of the sky who furthered Saturn. Uranus is the third largest planet in our solar system. It is huge compared to Earth. Its diameter is 31,764 miles, which makes it about four times the size of Earth. Like all the other giant planets in out solar system, Uranus is made of a swirl of gases, liquids and solids. It has no solid surface to stand on. The solids are mostly silicon, iron, and basalt like rock. The center of Uranus is a solid core about the size of Earth. At the outer edge of the core, are the solid elements mix with the great ocean that surrounds the rocky heart of the planet. This ocean is about 5,000 miles deep. The deepest parts of the Earths oceans are only about seven miles deep. Scientists think Uranus’ ocean is mostly water mixed with a bit of liquid ammonia and methane. The thing that we thought was amazing was about 2006-07-02T22:20:32-04:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/Analysis-of-the-Planet-Uranus-29901.aspx Biology of the Galapagos Giant Tortoises The giant tortoise is probably the best known of all Galapagos animals and even gave the archipelago its name; 'Galapago' means tortoise in Spanish and may derive from the word for saddle, referring to the distinctive saddle-like shell of some of the tortoises. Galapagos giant tortoises can weigh up to 250 kg and live for more than 100 years. They are thought to belong to just one species, Geochelone elephant opus, with 14 different races or sub-species, three of which are believed to be extinct. Persecution In the 1600s, buccaneers started to use Galapagos as a base, restocking on water and repairing their boats before setting off to attack the Spanish colonies on the South American mainland. But the main attraction of the islands were the giant tortoises which were collected and stored live on board ship where they survived for many months, providing invaluable fresh meat. In the 1800s, whaling ships and then fur-sealers collected tortoises for food and many more were killed for their fine 'turtle oil' from the late 1800s until early this century. Early settlers then hunted them for their meat and cleared large areas of their habitat for agriculture. The settlers also introduced domestic animals, many of which went wild and had a disastrous effect on the tortoises. No-one knows exactly how many giant tortoises there were originally but it has been estimated that more than 100,000 were hunted in total over the centuries. The result today is that three races of Galapagos giant tortoise are extinct while just one individual survives from a fourth. There are about 15,000 tortoises left altogether. As the hunters found it easier to collect the tortoises living round the coastal zones, the healthiest populations today tend to be those in the highlands. Persecution still continues on a much smaller scale; more than 120 tortoises have been killed by poachers since 1990. Arrival It is likely that all the present races of giant tortoise evolved in Galapagos from a common ancestor that arrived from the mainland, floating on the ocean currents. Although this seems an incredible journey it is known that Galapagos tortoises can float easily in sea water. Only a single pregnant female or one male and one female needed to arrive in this way, and then survive, for Galapagos to be colonised. It is likely that the 2006-06-27T03:11:07-04:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/Biology-of-the-Galapagos-Giant-Tortoises-29881.aspx Results of Sexually Contracting Chlamydia We have always known of the existence of many diseases, but some of us don’t realize that, these diseases are very easy to catch. There are many diseases caused by bacteria, while others are caused by viruses. Diseases caused by viruses are genital herpes, genital warts and AIDS. Other sexually transmitted diseases that are caused by bacteria are: gonorrhea, syphilis and Chlamydia. Chlamydia is a sexually transmitted infection caused by bacteria. Chlamydia is spread by direct person-to-person contact. It is always transmitted through sexual contact. Because symptoms are not always present, one may be infected with Chlamydia and not know it. Therefore, it is possible for pregnant women to pass the bacteria to their infant during birth, or women can become sterile due to the disease. If Chlamydia present, symptoms may appear in a week to a month after infection. Seventy-five percent of persons with Chlamydia may show no symptoms, they are asymptomatic. Men are more likely than women to show sign of infection. Chlamydia in men causes painful urination, testicular pain, irritation around the opening of the penis and mild, sticky, milky or mucus-like discharge from penis. The symptoms may seem to “come and go.” Chlamydia is often silent in women, with up to 90% of women asymptomatic. Women can carry the bacteria for months or even years without knowing it. This makes screening very important. When the symptoms are present in women, they include the following: mild, milky or mucus-like discharge, painful urination and intercourse, bleeding between menses an abdominal pain. When treated early, there are no long term consequences of Chlamydia, but when is not treated, long term complications in men may include: epididymitis, prostatitis, Reister’s syndrome and sterility. In women the complications may include: perihepatitis, pelvic inflammatory disease, Reiter’s syndrome and sterility. Chlamydia is very dangerous when passed to infants. It can cause eye infections, blindness, ear infections, pneumonia, and death. Chlamydia can be treated with antibiotics. It is important that all the antibiotics are taken as prescribed, and the infected person to avoid sexual intercourse during treatment. Proper hand washing is essential, as the bacteria can be transferred to the eyes. Abstinence from both genital and oral sex is the only way to be 100% sure that you are 2006-06-26T17:13:43-04:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/Results-of-Sexually-Contracting-Chlamydia-29849.aspx An Immodest Proposal for Cancer Treatment Before proposing my solution, I must first explain the problem that I intend to solve. The problem is breast cancer. At the current rate, over 192,000 women in the United States will be diagnosed with it this year, 40,200 of which will die. It is the leading cause of death among middle aged women. If these facts seem impersonal, then you should know that one of every nine women in this classroom will be diagnosed with cancer and that in the length of one class period over eight women will die from it in the United States alone. Although a total cure has not been found, there are several treatments that can save lives. There is the possibility of surgery if detected at an early state, but most cases require intensive radioactive chemotherapy. These two most common treatments cause serious side effects. Surgery can be painful and leave scars both physically and emotionally. And many victims say that going through chemotherapy is worse than the cancer itself. A longtime friend of my parents, Janine Clements has had cancer for almost two decades. During that time she has gone through a series of chemotherapy treatments. The radiation neutralized the cancer and kept her bedridden for days, but the cancer came back in less than a year. By seeing the terrible suffering firsthand, I have seen the stark reality of cancer. I came to the conclusion that no one needs to go through the pain and agony that it brings. I have searched for a solution and after much time and energy I found it right under my nose, or should I say right under any woman’s nose. Breast cancer would not be a threat if women did not have breasts! If all women had their breasts removed, it would cure breast cancer and provide numerous other positives. In the following paragraphs I will address how the lack of breasts would help teen girls, middle aged women, and feminists. Please note that I am in no way trying to make light of the subject, and I have nothing to gain (or lose) by my proposition. With that in mind, here are the positives of worldwide breast removal. In today’s culture where teen women are so caught up in their image and whether or not they are catching the eye of that guy, the subject of who has 2006-06-22T16:26:54-04:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/An-Immodest-Proposal-for-Cancer-Treatment-29816.aspx Summary of the Peridoic Table of Elements In the early 1800s, many attempts were made to organize the arrangement of the 2006-06-22T14:27:16-04:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/Summary-of-the-Peridoic-Table-of-Elements-29801.aspx History of Thinkers who led the Scientific Revolution Astronomy made up the majority of the Scientific Revolution, and only a few significant figures made significant advances in Astronomy, while church dogma hindered many efforts to make sense out of rational theories that were opposed to the Holy Scripture. Aristotle, father of science, was born in 384 B.C. and inaugurated the first theory to make sense of planets, stars, and the universe in general. In the 16th century Copernicus, created a theory rejecting some of Aristotle’s theory’s principles. Soon after Copernicus, Tycho Brahe meticulously plotted the theories and mathematical proofs of Copernicus. Johannes Kepler was a student of Brahe, and made use of Brahe’s neatly organized information. Brahe died soon before he could make use of it. Galileo relied on mathematics and empirical evidence to derive his conclusions, and farther promoted and refined Copernicus’ theory. The telescope helped Galileo immensely in proving his corresponding mathematical evidence. Sir Isaac Newton was a mathematical genius who had to create calculus to solve his challenging problems, made stunning discoveries with prisms and light, and came up with three physical laws of motion. Ecclesiastical forces suppressed all information “contrary to the scripture.”1 The Roman church’s threat could be felt by Copernicus, who hesitated for a very long while without publicizing his findings, and Galileo, who renounced his astronomical breakthroughs. Aristotle, Copernicus, Tycho Brahe, Johannes Kepler, and Galileo were each an essential part of the Scientific Revolution – that moved from an earth centered universe to faith in a sun centered universe, and all made significant astronomical advances. Newton finalized what Galileo hadn’t, created calculus, and made impressive discoveries in physics and light properties. 1 Hooker, Richard. The European Enlightenment and Scientific Revolution. (1996). Aristotle focused on evidence, and scrutinized absolutely everything to insure validity. He also exposed the famous Ptolemaic system. He used inductive reasoning and dealt with “epistemology,” or the study of knowledge. The Greeks believed that one should be careful when they assess how sure they are of the knowledge they have, or are studying. Aristotle stated that mathematical knowledge was certain, but everything else was a probability. Unlike Plato and Socrates, he didn’t demand certainty. His ideas were based on the four causes that bring change and motion: the material cause, or subtance, the formal cause, the model or structure on which a shape is made, the efficient 2006-06-22T14:20:35-04:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/History-of-Thinkers-who-led-the-Scientific-Revolution-29798.aspx History of Thinkers who led the Scientific Revolution Astronomy made up the majority of the Scientific Revolution, and only a few significant figures made significant advances in Astronomy, while church dogma hindered many efforts to make sense out of rational theories that were opposed to the Holy Scripture. Aristotle, father of science, was born in 384 B.C. and inaugurated the first theory to make sense of planets, stars, and the universe in general. In the 16th century Copernicus, created a theory rejecting some of Aristotle’s theory’s principles. Soon after Copernicus, Tycho Brahe meticulously plotted the theories and mathematical proofs of Copernicus. Johannes Kepler was a student of Brahe, and made use of Brahe’s neatly organized information. Brahe died soon before he could make use of it. Galileo relied on mathematics and empirical evidence to derive his conclusions, and farther promoted and refined Copernicus’ theory. The telescope helped Galileo immensely in proving his corresponding mathematical evidence. Sir Isaac Newton was a mathematical genius who had to create calculus to solve his challenging problems, made stunning discoveries with prisms and light, and came up with three physical laws of motion. Ecclesiastical forces suppressed all information “contrary to the scripture.”1 The Roman church’s threat could be felt by Copernicus, who hesitated for a very long while without publicizing his findings, and Galileo, who renounced his astronomical breakthroughs. Aristotle, Copernicus, Tycho Brahe, Johannes Kepler, and Galileo were each an essential part of the Scientific Revolution – that moved from an earth centered universe to faith in a sun centered universe, and all made significant astronomical advances. Newton finalized what Galileo hadn’t, created calculus, and made impressive discoveries in physics and light properties. 1 Hooker, Richard. The European Enlightenment and Scientific Revolution. (1996). Aristotle focused on evidence, and scrutinized absolutely everything to insure validity. He also exposed the famous Ptolemaic system. He used inductive reasoning and dealt with “epistemology,” or the study of knowledge. The Greeks believed that one should be careful when they assess how sure they are of the knowledge they have, or are studying. Aristotle stated that mathematical knowledge was certain, but everything else was a probability. Unlike Plato and Socrates, he didn’t demand certainty. His ideas were based on the four causes that bring change and motion: the material cause, or subtance, the formal cause, the model or structure on which a shape is made, the efficient 2006-06-22T14:20:05-04:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/History-of-Thinkers-who-led-the-Scientific-Revolution-29797.aspx Examining Endangered Frog and Toad Species The toad ranges in length from about 1 to 7 in. (2.5–18 cm). Although there is no clear-cut distinction between toads and frogs, the name toad commonly refers to those species that have relatively short legs, stout bodies, and thick skins, and are less aquatic as adults than the long-legged, slender-bodied frogs. They generally live in cool, moist places and absorb moisture through the skin. The white fluid that they send out through the skin is very poisonous and causes intense burning if it comes 2006-06-21T17:27:09-04:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/Examining-Endangered-Frog-and-Toad-Species-29791.aspx Information on Contracting the AIDS Virus Introduction: AIDS is a life and death issue. To have the AIDS disease is at present a sentence of slow but inevitable death. I've already lost one friend to AIDS. I may soon lose others. My own sexual behavior and that of many of my friends has been profoundly altered by it. In my part of the country, one man in 10 may already be carrying the AIDS virus. While the figures may currently be less in much of the rest of the country, this is changing rapidly. There currently is neither a cure, nor even an effective treatment, and no vaccine either. But there are things that have been PROVEN immensely effective in slowing the spread of this hideously lethal disease. In this essay I hope to present this information. History and Overview: AIDS stands for Acquired Immune Defficiency Disease. It is caused by a virus. The disease originated somewhere in Africa about 20 years ago. There it first appeared as a mysterious ailment afflicting primarily heterosexuals of both sexes. It probably was spread especially fast by primarily female prostitutes there. AIDS has already become a crisis of STAGGERING proportions in parts of Africa. In Zaire, it is estimated that over twenty percent of the adults currently carry the virus. That figure is increasing. And what occurred there will, if no cure is found, most likely occur here among heterosexual folks. AIDS was first seen as a disease of gay males in this country. This was a result of the fact that gay males in this culture in the days before AIDS had an average of 200 to 400 new sexual contacts per year. This figure was much higher than common practice among heterosexual (straight) men or women. In addition, it turned out that rectal sex was a particularly effective way to transmit the disease, and rectal sex is a common practice among gay males. For these reasons, the disease spread in the gay male population of this country immensely more quickly than in other populations. It became to be thought of as a "gay disease". Because the disease is spread primarily by exposure of ones blood to infected blood or semen, I.V. drug addicts who shared needles also soon were identified as an affected group. As the AIDS epidemic began to affect increasingly large fractions of those two populations (gay males and IV drug abusers), many of 2006-06-21T17:23:02-04:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/Information-on-Contracting-the-AIDS-Virus-29788.aspx Issues About Breast Augmentation Surgery Breast Implantation is a surgery being done across America within 40% of all women. Thought women do know that this surgery can be very dangerous, the effects are often being ignored. Most women have the want for a larger bust size, and enhanced cleavage. With doctors now saying implantation is a simple surgery and very affective, more women throughout America are now choosing to get the surgery done. There are many new ways to enhance the bust size of a woman, yet breast implantation is still the most common method being used. Breast implantation is a surgery that can be done to increase breast size. It can be used for many other situations, like when women have breast cancer they can be given breasts. When women get breast cancer they can have a vasectomy, which is a surgical procedure that can be done to remove the breast. Women that have had a vasectomy choose to have a breast implant surgery, which are bags of silicone gel, saltwater, and many other fillings. Breast implants are useful in many ways, but can be dangerous as well. Many people have different opinions on Breast Implantation. Many people think that breast implants are a big risk that should not be taken is women. It is estimated that since 1962, between one and two million women have had silicone breast implants to enhance their physical appearance. Some 30 years later, thousands of women are second-guessing the wisdom of this choice because they are now suffering with new illness make up everyday (Jordan, 1992). There are no cures to these new diseases because they are caused by a reaction to toxic chemicals that are spread throughout the body such as, silicone toxicity and immune dysfunction syndrome. It is possible to develop ripples in the breast if patience’s start without or little breast tissue, which will make the bag very noticeable and not camouflaged, like usually (Wesley, 1991, pp.2-3). This is especially true for textured implants over the muscle. the patience is also going to have really bad scars, which are going to there for the rest of their life. Breast implants bags are also known for busting, if the patient’s bag bust you are going to have to get immediate surgery. All of this surgery is going to cost thousands 2006-06-21T17:14:49-04:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/Issues-About-Breast-Augmentation-Surgery-29786.aspx Important Facts about the AIDS Virus AIDS, or acquired immune deficiency, is a deadly virus that kills and damages cells of the body's immune system. When the immune system is attacked, the body's ability to fight infections and certain cancers becomes considerably weaker. (Malan, Rian p70) AIDS is caused by the human immune deficiency virus (HIV) and both can be transmitted through sex, contact with contaminated blood, sharing or syringes or needles, and through birth. Africa, unfortunately, is home to the world’s largest number of victims suffering from the AIDS virus. (Malan, Rian p70) Those experts who immediately began plotting graphs have seen their conclusion come true. Since 1983, when Pait accidentally discovered that AIDS had spread around the globe, AIDS in Africa has grown at a rapid pace year by year. As the epidemic continues to spread, it has had a severe impact on Africa. The virus affects people of all ages throughout the entire continent. It is at the point where AIDS in considered no longer a public health crisis, but rather a mass murderer. (Time Magazine – Death Stalks A Continent – 12 Feb 2001 – Vol, 157 No. 6) Since that first case back in 1983, twenty-five million people have died from the horrific virus, three and a half million of them children under fifteen. (Time Magazine) Currently, it is estimated that twenty-eight million people are currently living with AIDS in Africa. More than half of them will die. The twenty-eight million people who live with AIDS in Africa are three-fourths of the AIDS cases reported globally. In 2001 alone, the virus infected an estimated three and a half million people. (AIDSandAfrica.com) That is roughly 9340 people infected a day or one person every twenty-six seconds. (Time Magazine) AIDS is the leading cause of death in Africa, with statistics showing that roughly 6,000 Africans die each day. (Royal, Leslie & Alleyne, Sonia - Black Enterprise, October 2001, Vol. 32, p166). About 13 million children have been orphaned by AIDS in Africa. (Time Magazine) Those who have lost family are usually children under the age of 12 and must find ways to survive despite their dire poverty. (Time Magazine) AIDS itself as the disease, is not only the major killer of people. Many who have AIDS do not seek help for fear of fellow villagers discovering their problem and murdering them. AIDS infected individuals have two options. They 2006-06-21T15:31:48-04:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/Important-Facts-about-the-AIDS-Virus-29766.aspx Analysis of Chromatography Methods Chromatography is the method of separating chemical substances that makes uses of the relative rates at which they are adsorbed from a moving stream of gas or liquid on a stationary substance, which is usually a finely divided solid, a sheet of filter material, or a thin film of a liquid on the surface of a solid. It is a versatile method that can separate very complex mixtures even in the absence of detailed previous knowledge of the number, nature, or relative amounts of the individual substances present. Chromatography has many uses in which chemists find exciting. One of the uses that chromatography has is to measure or identify low concentration of substances. Another use is to separate and identify products to chemical reaction. Chemists also use this method to separate pure substances from impurities. There are three main methods of common chromatography: liquid column, thin layer, and gas chromatography. The method that was used in the lab was thin layer chromatography. Thin layer chromatography uses a plate, which is a thin, flat sheet of glass or other material that is coated with an adsorbed film. Chemists place a drop of the mixture on one end of the plate, then stand that end of the plate in a shallow pool of liquid. The liquid travels up the film, moving along with it. The substances separate from one another as they are adsorbed. Procedure First, a TLC plate must be marked with nine equally spaced marks for each over the counter medicine. Second, take the sample of the medication and crush it into a powdery substance. Third, mix 1-2mL of ethanol and the crushed medication into a pipette allowing the ethanol to filthy through. Fourth, place the long, slender capillary tube to get a drop of the mixture. Fifth, place the drop onto the TLC plate where it is labeled to go. After that, put everything back into a test tube rack and pass it clockwise. When you get the next medication, repeat the steps starting with getting a drop and putting it onto the TLC plate. When that is finished, place the plate into a cup with a little bit of fingernail remover and let stand for about five minutes. When the liquid gets about one centimeter from the top of the plate, 2006-06-20T17:20:29-04:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/Analysis-of-Chromatography-Methods-29717.aspx Is Alcoholism a Hereditary Disease? Imagine yourself being 11 years old. You and your next-door neighbor just finished eating dinner, and now playing cards in front of the television. A few hours pass and your mother tells you that its bedtime. After being asleep for a couple of hours, you hear your father come inside your house. This was not unusual; he always comes home late at night. You hear your parents yell at each other and then you hear an awful sound. Did your father just hit your mother only because his dinner was cold, and he was late? You ask yourself why, why is he like this? He is like this because he is an alcoholic and cannot control his temper when he has been drinking. The next day you promise your mom and yourself that when you grow up you were never going to become an alcoholic. You see what your father’s alcoholism has done to your family and yourself and would never want that to happen to your family when you become an adult. Twenty years later, you too become an alcoholic. Children of alcoholics are four times more likely to grow up to be an alcoholic than any other children, according to the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry. (NCADI: Fact is Alcoholism Runs in Families) One in five adult Americans lived with an alcoholic while growing up. (AACAP) Studies have shown that even twins separated at birth and living in two very different environments still became alcoholics. There were an estimated 28.6 million Children of Alcoholics (COAs) in the United States in 1991, nearly 11 million of them under the age of 18. Of the under 18-age group, there will be almost 3 million that will develop alcoholism and other drug problems. More than half of these teens will marry alcoholics and are likely to recreate the same kinds of highly stressful and unhealthy families in which they grew up. (NCADI) I am not saying that alcoholism is hereditary. It can and does skip some generations. What I am trying to say is that it definitely has genetic factors. Although, you become an alcoholic does not mean that your sister will become an alcoholic too. She might not have inherited that particular gene. If your mother was a good math student in high school, it does not mean that you will be good in math also. 2006-06-20T15:43:32-04:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/Is-Alcoholism-a-Hereditary-Disease-29695.aspx Methamphetamine abuse linked to brain cell damage BETHESDA, MD -- March 28, 2000 -- New research shows that those who use methamphetamine, often called "meth" or "speed," risk long-term damage to their brain cells similar to that caused by strokes or Alzheimer's disease. In an article published in the March 28 issue of Neurology, scientists at the Harbor-UCLA Medical Center in Torrance, California, used magnetic resonance spectroscopy to take measurements of three parts of the brains of 26 participants who had used methamphetamine and then compared them with measurements of the same regions in the brains of 24 people who had no history of drug abuse. "While the meth users in this study hadn't used the drug for some time--anywhere from two weeks to 21 months, this research strongly suggests that methamphetamine abuse causes harmful physical changes in the brain that can last for many months and perhaps longer after drug use has stopped," said Dr. Alan I. Leshner, Director, National Institute on Drug Abuse (NIDA). In their study, Dr. Linda Chang and Dr. Thomas Ernst measured levels of brain chemicals that indicate whether brain cells are healthy or are diseased or damaged. "We found abnormal brain chemistry in the methamphetamine users in all three brain regions we studied. In one of the regions, the amount of damage is also related to the history of drug use -- those who had used the most methamphetamine had the strongest indications of cell damage," Dr. Chang said. The researchers found that levels of one chemical marker, N- acetyl-aspartate, were reduced by at least five percent in the methamphetamine abusers. "Many diseases associated with brain cell loss or damage, such as Alzheimer's disease, stroke, and epilepsy, are also associated with reduced N- acetyl-aspartate," said Dr. Ernst. "Reduced concentrations of N-acetyl-aspartate in the drug users' brains suggest that long-term methamphetamine abuse results in loss or damage to neurons, the cells we use in thinking." Two other chemical markers, myo-inositol and choline-containing compounds, are associated with glial cells, which act to support neurons. "Methamphetamine abusers showed increases of 11 percent and 13 percent in levels of these markers compared with normal individuals," Dr. Ernst said. "This suggests an increased number or size of glial cells as a reaction to the injurious effects of methamphetamine." The researchers, who received funding from NIDA, plan to conduct more extensive studies to determine if these brain changes caused by methamphetamine abuse might be reversed or 2006-06-20T15:27:41-04:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/Methamphetamine-Abuse-Linked-to-Brain-Cell-Damage-29689.aspx Negative Effects of Marijuana (Essay with Outline) A drug is described by Webster’s New World Dictionary as, “any chemical agent that effects body processes.” Is marijuana good or bad? Does it have more positive short-term effects than bad? What about the long-term effects? Is there really something that smokers have to be in fear of? By examining both sides of this controversy, we can decide if marijuana has more positive or negative effects. Marijuana is a green, brown, or gray mixture of dried shredded flowers and leaves of “cannabis sativa,” or more simply, the hemp plant. Marijuana is a mood altering or “psychoactive” drug, it is also known as weed, trees, pot and many more nicknames.(Comptons) Marijuana itself comes from the Indian hemp plant. It is the third most widely used drug in the United States. And according to a survey taken in 1988, and it is the number one illegally used drug in the United States. Marijuana is so popular that an estimated one out of every three people in the US has tried it and around 44% of US high school students have smoked it. Marijuana users are not easily detected. It is a drug used in all areas of society. The Indian hemp plant is found all over the world, including the US. There are three different types of Indian hemp, “Cannabis Sativa,” which is the most widely used and grown type of marijuana.(Wu, TC) Marijuana can be taken in three ways: by eating, made into a tea, or smoking (the most popular).Sometimes, when potential smokers cannot bear the inhale of the smoke into their lungs, they will eat it, chewing it up, so it get diffused into their bloodstream, or make it into a tea, for the same reason. Smoking can be done two ways using a pipe, or by one of two cigarettes called a “joint” or a “blunt”. A joint is a rolled piece of paper that is twisted at the ends. A blunt is normally an emptied cigar wrapper filled with marijuana. In a blunt you can fit much more marijuana. Though a blunt isn't always purely marijuana, it can be mixed with other drugs such as angel dust. Marijuana has different effects on people, and certain types of cannabis can cause different effects in the same 2006-06-16T18:53:39-04:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/Negative-Effects-of-Marijuana-Essay-with-Outline-29648.aspx Pursuing a Career in Civil Engineering Why do I want to be a civil engineer? Until recently, I did not know the answer to this question myself. I was extremely confused when it came to choosing a career. There were so many fields that interested me that I found it difficult to make up my mind. Then I read about civil engineering, an occupation involving the construction of buildings, roads, and bridges. As I looked further into civil engineering, I began to like many aspects of this career. Civil Engineers play a crucial role in the design, construction, and maintenance of buildings. Before beginning construction civil engineers plan layout and every other aspect of a building. As the article “Architecture (building)” on Microsoft® Encarta® remarks “Architecture must satisfy its intended uses, must be technically sound, and must convey aesthetic meaning” because “Architecture is a social art” (page 1 of 19). Structural engineers are principally concerned with the structural form of a building, whereas architects are concerned with the integration of the building functions, form, mechanical system, as well as the building itself. It is through their collaboration that complex building can be designed. Designing the overall frame of a building is the first step in constructing a viable and stable structure. According with the Attila Lawrence’s article on the “architectureweeek” web page, “ In today’s competitive business environment, corporate cultures tend to focus on improving product quality while minimizing costs and managing risks”, (page 1 of 2). Furthermore, the English poet Sir Henry Wotton said: “ Well building have three conditions: Commoditie, Firmenes, and Delight” (qtd. In Architecture (building) page 1 of 19). Structure and aesthetics of a building are related through efficiency, lightness, elegance, and the principles of minimizing weight and using the least material possible to control cost. Civil engineers and architects together design in detail the various components of a building and the materials to be used. According with the article “Building Construction” on Microsoft® Encarta®, “ The major elements of a building include the following: The foundation, the structure, the exterior walls, the interior partitions, the environmental-control systems, the vertical transportation communications, and the power, water supply system”, (III elements of a building, page 2 of 12). Furthermore, as the article “Building Construction” on Microsoft® Encarta® remarks, “As a general rule, state laws require a registered architect or engineer, or both, to execute the design and to 2006-06-16T15:41:06-04:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/Pursuing-a-Career-in-Civil-Engineering-29635.aspx Causes and Treatments for Alcoholism Alcoholism is a chronic illness marked by consumption of alcoholic beverages at a level that interferes with physical or mental health, and social, family, or occupational responsibilities. Alcohol dependence or alcoholism is the most severe form of alcohol abuse. Alcohol abuse also includes “problem drinking” such as drinking and driving or binge drinking (drinking six or more drinks on one occasion). Causes and Risk: Alcoholism is a type of drug addiction. There is both physical and psychological dependence with this addiction (Andrews, 1999). Physical dependence reveals itself by withdrawal symptoms when alcohol intake is interrupted, tolerance to the effects of alcohol, and evidence of alcohol associated illnesses. Alcohol affects the central nervous system as a depressant, resulting in a decrease of activity, anxiety, tensions and inhibitions (Ketcham, 2000). Even a low level of alcohol within the body slows reactions. Concentration and judgement become impaired. In excessive amounts, intoxication or poisoning results. Alcohol also affects other body systems. Irritation of the gastrointestinal tract can occur with erosion of the lining of the stomach causing nausea and vomiting (www.drkoop.com/conditions.htm). Vitamins are not absorbed properly, which can lead to nutritional deficiencies with the long-term use of alcohol. Liver disease, called hepatic cirrhosis, may also develop (www.drkoop.com). The cardiovascular system may be affected by cardiomyopathy. Sexual dysfunction may also occur, causing erectile dysfunction in men and cessation of menses in women (Andrews, 1999). Alcohol affects the nervous system and can result in neuropathy and dementia. Chronic alcohol use also increases the risk of cancer of the larynx, esophageus, liver and colon. Alcohol consumption during pregnancy can cause problems in the developing foetus known as foetal alcohol syndrome, which may result in mental retardation of the child (Milam, 2001). The social consequences of problem drinking and alcohol dependence can be as serious as the medical problems. People that abuse alcohol have a higher incidence of unemployment, domestic violence, and overall difficulty with the law (Milam, 2001). About half of all traffic fatalities are related to alcohol use. The development of dependence upon alcohol may occur over a period of years, following a relatively consistent pattern of progression. At first, a tolerance of alcohol develops. This results in a person being able to consume a greater quantity of alcohol before it’s adverse effects are noticed. Memory lapses relating to drinking episodes may follow tolerance (Milam, 2001). Then a lack of control over drinking occurs, 2006-06-16T15:24:56-04:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/Causes-and-Treatments-for-Alcoholism-29625.aspx Analysis of Atherosclerosis Atherosclerosis is the hardening of the innermost portion of the arteries; it is also the most common form of arteriosclerosis. With atherosclerosis, fatty material containing cholesterol or calcium is deposited on the innermost layer of the artery. The result is a narrowing of the inside diameter of the blood vessel, constricting blood flow. . This can progress to the point where the artery becomes so narrow that a blood clot, or thrombus, forms and blocks blood flow to an entire portion of the body. This type of atherosclerosis is considered to happen with the gradual aging of the vessels and plaque build up. Eating foods containing high volumes of cholesterol and saturated fats speeds up this process. In another form of atherosclerosis, a rough area or ulcer forms in the diseased interior of the artery. Blood clots then tend to develop on this ulcer, break off, and travel further downstream, forming a blockage where the arteries get narrower. This kind of blockage resulting from a clot formed elsewhere in the body is called an embolism. Excessive alcohol use, direct trauma to the vessel, and bacterium tend to cause such lesions. Nicotine contained in tobacco, also tends to enhance platelet aggregation, which may lead to thrombotic (blood clot) events. Irritation to the endothelium causes immune system response. The injured endothelial cells release chemo tactic compounds and growth factors, which transport greater amounts of lipids, particularly LDLs, to the irritated site. LDLs then in turn become oxidized, and attract macrophages. Plaque becomes full of phages that migrate beneath interna, where they are transformed into foam cells, and loose there scavenging ability. The smooth muscle cells also deposit collagen and elastin fibers, thickening the interna and producing fibrous lesions with a core of dead and dying foam cells called fibrous or atherosclerotic plaques. As the inner portion of the vessel starts to die it is replaced with non-elastin scar tissue, and calcium salts begin to accumulate in the area. The once elastic vessel is now calcified, and scared, disabling its ability to stretch, increasing systemic blood pressure. The narrowed vessels, and increased blood pressure decreases localized blood flow to the area. As the artery becomes blocked, it can cause a noise very much like water roaring over rocky rapids. Your physician can listen to this noise, or bruit, directly, or can use special amplification systems to hear this noise. 2006-06-16T15:01:45-04:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/Analysis-of-Atherosclerosis-29612.aspx Why Storms are Important in Weather and Climate Weather is the condition of the air that surrounds the earth. Weather affects our lives in many ways; for example, the type of clothing that we wear any given day depends largely on the weather. If it is cold we put on slacks, if it is hot we slip on shorts. The United States has to deal with the wildest weather in the world. Other countries deal with weather, but the USA brings blizzards, +100°F heat and -35F cold, desert dryness, hurricanes and the world’s deadliest tornados. The weather also has a big impact on agriculture. Farmers need clear weather to plant and harvest their crops. Farmers’ plants require the right about of sunlight and rain to grow and ripen. A severe storm or frost can damage and kill many crops. All weather develops in the atmosphere (the air that surrounds the earth). The atmosphere consists chiefly of the gases nitrogen and oxygen. It also has small amounts of other gases. Water vapor and dust are mixed together in the atmosphere. Nearly all weather occurs in the lowest layer of the atmosphere. This layer is called the troposphere. It begins at the surface of the earth and extends from six to ten miles away. Weather conditions in the troposphere and earth depend on four elements: temperature, air pressure, wind, and moisture. Temperature is the degree of heat in the atmosphere. The heat that the earth receives comes from the sun; however, only about one billionth of the heat given off by the sun enters the atmosphere. The rest is lost in space. About thirty-four percent is reflected back into space; the atmosphere absorbs another nineteen percent. Forty-seven percent of the sunlight that enters the atmosphere reaches the earth’s surface. Air pressure is the force of the atmosphere pushing on the earth. This is greatly affected by the temperature. Warm air weighs less than cool air, and as a result warm air puts less pressure on the earth than does cool air. These are called low and 2006-06-16T14:22:16-04:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/Why-Storms-are-Important-in-Weather-and-Climate-29588.aspx Good Procedure to Follow when Conducting an Experiment A. Experiment 1: Developing a Hypothesis Interpret the Results 1. The cytoplasm in the cut off foot got the information it needed to rebuild an entire Acetabularia cell from the nucleus. The nucleus contains all of the DNA (genetic information) and can therefore control all other functions of the cell. It has ability to control growth and reproduction of a new cell based on the information stored in the nucleus. The cell will not change because the information in the nucleus is still there to reproduce another new cell. 2. In the cell’s foot, the function of the nucleus is to control the reproduction of a new cell and to maintain and use the same genetic information as the first cell. B. Experiment 2: Testing the Hypothesis Interpret the Results 1. Yes, the results of Experiment 2 support our working hypothesis, because a new cell identical to the first cell was created. This is because of the nucleus containing the same genetic information which allows a new identical cell to be created just from the stalk. It is the nucleus that controls the functions of the cell and allowed a new cap and foot to be created using the same DNA as the first. 2. The cytoplasm in the stalk got the information it needed to rebuild an entire cell from the information contained in the nucleus. 3. When moved to a new location, it is obvious that the nucleus still performs the same function as it regularly does-controls the actions of other functions in cell. It contains the same genetic information as in the first location and continues to regulate cell activity (growth/reproduction). The chromosomes (DNA) do not change and the genetic information is still the same. 4. To perform all it’s life functions, the cell gets its information from the nucleus. C. Experiment 3: Testing the Hypothesis Another Way Predict the Results Analyze 1. A) Yes, this result supports my original hypothesis because a new, identical cell was created just using the information from the nucleus because of the identical DNA. B) I can draw the conclusion that the genetic information remains identical and will therefore create the same cell as in the first picture despite the location of injection (and in what kind of cell). C) The final conclusion I can draw at 2006-06-15T19:27:43-04:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/Good-Procedure-to-Follow-when-Conducting-an-Experiment-29555.aspx Studying the Human Genome Project The Human Genome Project is a 15-year international research program to find the estimated 80,000 human genes and determine the sequence of the three billion DNA building blocks that underlie all of human biology and its diversity. The purpose of The Human Genome Project will characterize the genomes of human and selected model organisms through complete mapping and sequencing of their DNA. It will also develop technologies for genomic analysis and examine the ethical, legal, and social implications of human genetics research. Finally it will train scientists who will be able to utilize the tools and resources developed through the HGP to pursue biological studies that will improve human health. The Human Genome Project has several goals including mapping, sequencing, storing and analyzing data, identifying genes, and addressing the ethical, legal, and social issues that may turn out from availability of personal genetic information. The absolute goal of the Human Genome Project is to procure the DNA sequence of the three billion DNA subunits present in human DNA. The Human Genome Project started in October 1990 to discover all the estimated 100,000 human genes and make them accessible for further biological study. In 1992 a low-resolution genetic linkage map of entire human genome was published. In 1995, the genetic-mapping 5 year-goal achieved 1 year ahead of schedule. In 1997, high-resolution physical maps of chromosomes X and Y were completed. Then on December 1, 1999 researchers in the Human Genome Project announced the complete sequencing of the DNA making up human chromosome 22. Chromosome 22 is the first Human chromosome completed. These dates were just a few of the important events that has going on throughout the Human Genome Project. The process of the project has gone far in many years. Since technology is advancing the scientists will be able to speed up their work and complete the project sooner then scheduled. The progress toward the Human Genome Project sequencing goals is thirty-six percent of 3 billion DNA base pairs. Chromosome 1 is consisted of 839 genes. Chromosome 1 also consists of 34 pseudogenes. Some of the diseases associated with chromosome 1 are Alzheimer’s disease and Gaucher disease. Alzheimer’s disease is named after a German neurologist Alois Alzheimer. Alzheimer’s disease is the fourth leading cause of death in adults. Alzheimer’s disease is twice as common in women then in men. The circumstances of the disease worsen with age. 2006-06-15T16:01:40-04:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/Studying-the-Human-Genome-Project-29541.aspx Synopsis of Orion Consellation Orion has been recognized as distinct group of stars for thousands of years. The Chaldeans knew it as Tammuz, named after the month that the familiar belt of stars first rose before sunrise. The 2006-06-13T03:25:56-04:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/Synopsis-of-Orion-Consellation-29405.aspx Important Information on Cervical Cancer The following guide is organized to help you find all the information you need on cervical cancer. This folder contains a fact sheet full of information regarding this disease including definitions, symptoms, causes, treatments, prognosis, etc. After reading this fact sheet you may want to use the footnotes to find further information on each subject. I have also included a guide to internet sites in this packet. On this guide you will find nine internet sites that will help you as you surf the net for more information. These websites are overflowing with interactive pages and helpful resources. Next, you will find a list of several local and online support groups. These will be helpful to you as you learn to cope with having cervical cancer. It is very important to surround yourself with loved ones and people to share your pain and feelings with during these hard times. I also added three magazine articles that I believe you will find interesting and helpful to read. They all deal with cervical cancer in one way or another and are a good source of information. Finally, I have included a medical journal that I found to be extremely helpful in learning what to expect after treatment is over. This article gives detail about what you may experience when you finish treatment. Being diagnosed with cervical cancer is not an easy thing to deal with. It is my hope that after you finish reading through this guide you will better understand your disease, what has happened, what is happening and what lies ahead for you. I encourage you to use any and all of the information that I have provided. It is there for you to use as much as you need to. May the Lord Bless You and Keep You May His Grace Shine Upon You. “Cervical cancer is an uncommon, slow growing cancer that usually takes several years to fully develop. If caught in its pre-cancer stage, the abnormal cells (cervical dysplasia) are almost always easily treated and cancer doesn’t develop. This helps to make cervical cancer the most preventable cancer in the United States.” Approximately 12,900 women in the United States and 400,000 women worldwide are diagnosed with cervical cancer each 2006-06-13T03:09:22-04:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/Important-Information-on-Cervical-Cancer-29395.aspx Introduction Aspirin was the first drug to come in common usage and it is still widely used in the world. It is a pain-reliever that reduces fewer and is an inhibitor of platelet aggregation. It is an ingredient in a large pain-relieving and cold/flu preparations. Nowadays doctors often prescribe it as a valuable medicine to prevent heart attacks and it is under examination for other medical conditions such as cancer and diabetes. Aspirin was origined from a willow tree (herbal tree) in olden days. In Greece Hippocrates leaves from the willow tree was used to make a tea that relieves the pain of childbirth for women. In 1763 Reverend Edward Stone of Oxford gave dried bark of the willow tree to 50 parishioners suffering rheumatic fever. In Italy (1823) the main ingredient was extracted from the willow tree and named salicin. Salicin was also found in the meadowsweet flowers by the Swiss and German researchers. In Germany (1897), Bayer's Felix Hoffmann got an approval for a trademark and develops a process for synthesizing acetyl salicylic acid or Aspirin and the clinical trial begins. In 1899 clinical trial are successfully completed and for the first time Aspirin was launched. Chemical Process As the active ingredient in aspirin, acetylsalicylic acid works by going through several different chemical processes within the body, including the natural physiological processes causing pain and inflammation. Aspirin is known as ‘acetylsalicylic acid’ and has a chemical formula of C9H8O4. It inhibits enzyme converting acid to prostaglandin. Aspirin is pain-relieving, anti-inflammatory, a drug that reduces fewer and is an inhibitor of platelet aggregation. Preparation of aspirin Aspirin is prepared by the synthesis from acetylic acid. Nowadays doctors use aspirin in small daily doses to prevent diseases such as heart attack, stroke and the blindness and kidney damage suffered by many patients with diabetes. If Aspirin is dissolved in water the solution will be acidic (just like vinegar and lemon juice are acidic). Aspirin is a weak acid, so basically unless lot of aspirin is dissolved in water it will not be nearly as strong as an acid. The formula of aspirin C9H8O4 tells you how many atoms are in each molecule of salicylic acid. So there are 9C (carbon) atoms, 8H (hydrogen) atoms and 4O (oxygen) atoms. These atoms are ordered (arranged) in a very cool manner. Six 2006-06-13T02:25:16-04:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/Chemistry-of-Aspirin--29391.aspx Global Medical Treatments for Multiple Sclerosis Traditional Chinese medicine is today the second largest health-care system in the world, after modern Western medicine. Traditional Chinese Medicine holds that the causes of most diseases originate from spiritual, emotional, behavioral, dietary, and climatic factors, in contrast to the biological and biochemical basis seen by practitioners of modern Western medicine. Chinese medical treatment is aimed at adjusting the environmental and human influences through lifestyle adjustments the use of medicinal herbs, and n and physical therapies. Since modern Western medicine, with its reliance on the latest research findings and technologies describes the causes of most diseases as originating from genetic, structural pathogenic (infective or toxic), nutritional, and behavioral factors, treatments are bioengineering, surgery, chemotherapy, dietary restriction, nutritional supplements and behavior modification. As relates to Multiple Sclerosis, the Chinese believe that the disease most likely originates with a combination of spiritual and emotional factors, and that the trigger for the disease may be an experience of a feverish illness, usually an infectious disease. The weakening of and loss of control over the musculature may come about because the critical energizing and regulating functions of the internal organs have become disturbed due to the loss of spiritual focus, perhaps because of a frightful experience which has scattered one’s soul from its resting place. The disease consumes vital fluids essences that are essential to nourishing the body and providing a relaxing medium for the spirit. According to the Chinese medicine without spiritual relaxation, there is ongoing agitation, and destruction of bodily harmony. Western medicine is still pursuing the precise description of MS, but currently it is believed that a combination of genetic predisposing factors and an episode of a common viral disease initiates an autoimmune process which leads to the symptoms of the disorder (inhibition of nerve transmission to the muscles), exacerbated by subsequent infections or other stimulants to the autoreactive immune system. In other words, the disease has nothing to do with either personal experiences (other than having an infection) or general bodily balance, but rather is attributed to an inherited coil of DNA and another slice of DNA provided by the virus. Therefore, TCM diverges from Western medicine by placing human experiences above inheritance and biology as a cause. Although the Chinese see anxiety, depression, fright, and fear as contributors to the disease process, Western doctors 2006-06-12T21:19:48-04:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/Global-Medical-Treatments-for-Multiple-Sclerosis-29389.aspx Definition of Aeronautical Engineering The American Heritage Dictionary defines aeronautical engineering as the application of scientific and mathematical principles to practical ends such as the design, manufacture, and operation of efficient and economical construction of aircraft in regards to the science and art of ascending and sailing in the air (20; 433). The word aeronautical comes from the word aeronautics which, as defined by Webster’s Dictionary, is the science and art of ascending and sailing through the air and is the theory and practice of navigation through air and space (17). The word engineering comes from the prefix engineer who is a person who is skilled at or trained in a branch of engineering (394). Therefore, the topic at hand is that of the role the aeronautical engineer plays and how he performs his job as well as what, exactly, his job is. Aeronautical engineers 2006-06-12T20:58:51-04:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/Definition-of-Aeronautical-Engineering-29376.aspx Strategic Managment of the Canberra Hospital Introduction The Canberra Hospital is the primary public medical facility within the Australian Capital Territory (ACT) and provides health care to Canberra and surrounding regional New South Wales (NSW). The organisational goals for The Canberra 2006-06-12T20:37:08-04:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/Strategic-Managment-of-the-Canberra-Hospital-29368.aspx A Study of the Battery In this highly technological world with advanced machines, electronics have been woven into almost every aspect of everyday life. Batteries are integrated into the majority of any electric appliance found in the home and work place, and therefore could be titled as one of the most important tools to ever be invented. The knowledge of how batteries operate is substantial to understanding the basics of any electrical contraption. The first evidence of batteries was dated to be from in the neighborhood of 250B.C. These ancient batteries were discovered in archaelogical digs in Baghdad, Iraq. These antiquated batteries were used in simple operations to electroplate objects with a thin layer of metal, much the same way we plate things with gold and silver. Much later, batteries were re-discovered in 1800 by a man named Alessandro Volta. The electrical unit of potential was named after him-the volt. Alessandro Volta was born in 1745 and died in 1827, and in this time period he re-produced one of the most important parts of life. He developed the battery by alternating pieces of electrolyte soaked discs (sodium chloride), zinc, and copper plates. These plates and discs were stacked in a 1 2 3 order, and when a wire was placed on the two poles of the battery it would produce electricity. Battery chemistry is a complex science to gain complete knowledge about, but basic battery chemistry will be covered. “An electrochemical cell uses energy released from a spontaneous chemical redox reaction to generate electric current. The current is derived from the flow of electrons conducted through the metal and the movement of ions in a solution, called electrolytic conduction. A battery consists of a single electrochemical cell or a number of cells connected in series.”(Fisher,518) A battery could be created by using a Zinc anode and a copper cathode. An anode is a part of an electrochemical cell that releases electrons to the cathode, therefore being oxidized, and a cathode receives the electrons from the anode, therefore it undergoes reduction. So to create the Zinc/Copper battery, the Zinc rod would be placed into a Zinc Sulphate solution(ZnSO4), and the Copper rod would go into the Copper Sulphate solution(CuSO4). When the two rods are connects in some way, by wire or by deliberate touch, many things happen. 2006-06-12T19:04:16-04:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/A-Study-of-the-Battery-29356.aspx Understanding the Sky to Predict the Weather If you know where and when to look, you can treat yourself to a colourful display of atmospheric haloes, spots and pillars. These images can tell you something about the clouds overhead and possible changes in the weather. All of these images are created by light shining through cirrostratus clouds. These clouds occur at an altitude of 6,000-12,000 metres. They appear as a thin sheet or layer (strata) that is pure white. The layer of cloud is so thin (only 100-450 metres) that is doesn't obscure the sun or moon, so you should be able to see your shadow. Cirrostratus is made of many types of ice crystals. However, four crystal shapes are responsible for producing most of the commonly see haloes-plate crystals, columns, capped columns and bullets. The most obvious halo is found around the sun. If the layer of cirrostratus is extensive, you'll see an entire ring. Within the layer of cloud, sunlight is striking and passing through the sides of randomly-oriented ice crystals. As the sunlight passes through each crystal, the light changes direction, or refracts. The radius of the hale depends on the amount of change in the direction of the sun's light. Usually this is 22 degrees. Since the sun is 1/2 of a degree across, the radius of the halo is 44 sun-widths. Occasionally you may see a second halo at 46 degrees from the sun (that is, with a radius of 92 sun-widths). This is produced by sunlight passing through both the side and bottom of each crystal. Moonlight will also produce a halo, around the moon, with the proper layer of cirrostatus. Another common optical effect is known as "mock suns" or "sun dogs" or "parhelia" (Greek for "with the sun"). These bright spots on either side of the sun, outside of the halo, occur when sunlight passes through the sides of capped columns, bullets and plate crystals, when these crystals are arranged with their sides vertical. The crystals wobble, diffusing and smearing the colours of the mock sun. You can see haloes and mock suns more clearly if you block out your view of the real sun by holding your hand in front of it at arm's length. Another spectactular optical effect is the 2006-06-12T18:45:39-04:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/Understanding-the-Sky-to-Predict-the-Weather-29346.aspx Important Information People Should Know about Cancer The Mysterious Face Of Cancer Every person on earth will eventually one day have to leave it behind. It is not the choice of the person whether they go peacefully or whether they go with pain. More often than not a person will go with pain. This is the case with cancer. More and more people die everyday from cancer and it appears to ruin the lives of all those associated with it. What people need to understand though is yes cancer is a life altering chain of events but cancer is not the end of the world. Death is inevitable; there is no way around it. Perhaps cancer patients realize this more than anyone. “All creatures born upon this earth must, in the end, die. Some live long and peaceful lives. But others are caught up in struggles-must fight for their lives” (Silverstein 12-13). This is the case with cancer. Cancer patients will struggle and fight for their lives and not have the luxury of dying peacefully. The cause of cancer is still unknown to scientists but they have been able to come up with some possible explanations. Cancer affects newborn babies, boys, girls, women, men, animals and even plants. The possible causes of the cancers that affect each of these groups include chemicals in the body, viruses, ultraviolet rays, smoking, and it has been proven to be hereditary in some cases. Many people who develop cancer have had repeated or prolonged contact with one or more of these cancer causing agents (Silverstein 27). With the many different types of cancer it may, for some people, seem impossible for scientists to discover a cure. There are more than one hundred known types of cancer. Scientists are sure there are many more they just have not yet been diagnosed. The cancers that are most common in women are breast cancer and cancer of the uterus. The cancers that are most common in men are lung cancer, prostate cancer, and colon cancer. Lung cancer kills more than 50,000 men a year. More men are likely to get lung cancer because in general men smoke more than women. Along with these leading cancers among women and men there are several other cancers that are common in both. Cancers of the colon, rectum, and large intestine kill more than 45,000 Americans a year (Altman and Sang 78). With 2006-06-12T18:44:10-04:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/Important-Information-People-Should-Know-about-Cancer-29345.aspx CHAPTER 1 • A machine is a device that makes a physical task easier. • A lever is a simple machine that uses the turning effect of a force to make a task easier. • Turning point of lever = Fulcrum • Resistance to motion = Load • The force caused to make movement = Effort • First Class levers = Effort, Fulcrum, Load • Second class levers = Effort, Load, Fulcrum • Third class levers = Fulcrum, Effort, Load • First and second class levers are force multipliers • Third class levers are speed multipliers • Force multipliers move a heavy load using little force • Speed multipliers move a large load quickly using allot of effort • A ramp is a machine because it makes the physical task of raising an object easier • It is a inclined plane (a surface that is set at an angle horizontally) • Wedges are inclined planes they can be used to penetrate or split objects or stop them from moving • They reduce the force needed to cut through objects • The screw is an inclined plane: it is a curved ramp • The ramp cut into a screw is called the thread the distance between two threads is called the pitch • A circular doorknob is a simple machine called a wheel and axle • The inner smaller wheel of the doorknob is the axle • When you open the door you apply an effort to the wheel and the axle pulls on the load to open the door. The turning point is at the very centre of the doorknob it is a force multiplier • The pulley is a simple machine that consists of a single wheel and axle. • It simply changes the direction of the effort • When more than 1 pulley is used is can be lifted with a small effort it acts as a force multiplier • There is a cost the rope needs to be pulled a large distance to move the load through a small distance • A multiple-pulley system is a block and tackle. The block is a frame around the pulleys and the tackle is the string joining the load to the effort • Each gear on a clock is simply a wheel and axle when one gear turns the other moves in many ways • The gear that is moved first is the driving gear • The gear driven by the driving gear is called the driven gear • A large driving gear makes a small driven gear move faster but in opposite directions • A small driving gear makes a large driven move slower in opposite direction this is called a force multiplier Pairs of gears the same size change the direction of the turning with ought 2006-06-12T11:07:49-04:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/Colleg-Essay-on-Machines-29313.aspx The Extraordinary Mathematician Sir Isaac Newton Sir Isaac Newton was born on January 4, 1642, in the town of Woolsthorpe, near Grandtham in Lincolnshire. English mathematician and scientist who invented differential calculus and formulated the theories of universal gravitation, terrestrial mechanics, and color. His study on gravitation, presented in Principia Mathematica (1687), was supposedly inspired by the sight of a falling apple. When 2006-06-12T02:48:32-04:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/The-Extraordinary-Mathematician-Sir-Isaac-Newton-29284.aspx Examination of Liposuction and Cosmetic Surgery Procedures Fat cells lie beneath the skin throughout the body, but accumulate in greater amounts in certain areas. When we gain or lose weight, we are not adding or subtracting fat cells but rather changing the amount of fat within each cell. It is not surprising, therefore, that many people find that in spite of the weight they lose, they are left with bulges or fat deposits in undesirable places. Liposuction surgery is a technique that uses a high suction attached to special probes which are passed through tiny punctures made in inconspicuous places around the body. Fat cells are literally suctioned out, allowing the surgeon to shape or contour various parts of the body. The technique used at our Center combines the use of very tiny cannulas with the injection of fluids to minimize the risk of bleeding We can treat most areas of the body through this approach that virtually eliminates visible scars. Breast Augmentation Breast augmentation has been one of the most gratifying cosmetic operations from the standpoint of both the patient and the surgeon. Although controversy in the early 1990's led to widespread fear about the possibility of silicone breast implants causing autoimmune diseases, a significant body of recent scientific research has validated the overall general safety of silicone breast implants. Although every operation involves some risks, breast augmentation is generally not considered to be dangerous. The operation is carried out in our Cosmetic Surgical Center under anesthesia on an outpatient basis. It generally takes one to two hours. While breast augmentation will enlarge the breasts, it will not alter basic defects in breast shape or form. Major asymmetries may be improved, but will not be corrected. Slight differences in the size or shape of the two breasts is considered normal and should not be a cause for concern. Long experience with this operation has demonstrated highly satisfactory results for the majority of patients who are considered suitable candidates for the surgery. Blepharoplasty (Eyelid Surgery) Eyelid surgery, or blepharoplasty, is an operation which corrects drooping eyelids as well as bags and bulges about the eyes. These conditions develop as a result of laxity of the eyelid skin and protrusion of fat around the eyes. It is not limited to older patients, as many individuals inherit a predisposition toward development of fat pouches at an early age. Surgical correction is appropriate for all age groups. In some cases, the 2006-06-12T02:09:51-04:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/Examination-of-Liposuction-and-Cosmetic-Surgery-Procedures-29268.aspx The Importance of Celebrating the Environment on Earth Day Earth Day is something you should know more about and be more involved in because of its intriguing history, its wonderful purpose, and the many things you can do to help. It is simply nothing short of amazing that earth day is still making an impact on the United States today. I feel that Earth Day was a wonderful thing to start and I think that it has helped the USA stay a cleaner place on this earth. It is amazing that a day for cleaning our country that originated thirty years ago with hippies and it is still around today. Earth Day has a very interesting history that everyone should know about. Senator Gaylord Nelson was the founder of earth day. Earth Day’s main idea was conceived over seven years starting in 1962. President Kennedy tried to stop the anti-Vietnam War “teach-ins” and use some hippie power to a good cause by starting Earth Day. The President went around the country talking of how to keep our nation clean while congress accepted the idea of an “earth day”. The plan was now starting to work; now people had a new subject to talk about and now it was cleaner rivers and air, not Vietnam. The first Earth Day was celebrated on March 21st 1970. The very interesting history of Earth Day is something that everyone should know about. The purpose of Earth Day is to help to keep our grass green and our skies blue with more trees and less pollution. Earth Day was made for another reason, to focus the nation on its ecological problems and not its ones with Vietnam. Earth Day has lost its first reason of Vietnam and now it is out there so that people are more aware of what they are actually doing when they throw a candy wrapper out the window, or leave their Styrofoam cup sitting on the sidewalk. People need to use their streets and sidewalks and we cannot have them to be operating with massive amounts of trash on them. Keeping our national parks clean is another concern of Earth Day, volunteers go out to clean national parks such as Yellow Stone on Earth Day so that foreigners don’t think that all Americans are pigs. Most of all, Earth Day is a way to restore patriotism in American Citizen’s hearts; throwing a cup 2006-06-11T20:14:54-04:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/The-Importance-of-Celebrating-the-Environment-on-Earth-Day-29240.aspx Abnormal Cell Growth Leading to Cancer Cancer is the second leading cause of death in the United States. Half of all men and one-third of all women in the U.S. will develop cancer during their lifetimes. Although it is common knowledge that cancer is generally inherited, this paper will further explore the causes and what happens on a cellular level when cancer develops in the human body. Basics of signal transduction Cell communication, or signal transduction, is simply the means by which cells in the body respond to signals coming from outside those cells. The purpose of this chemical communication is to coordinate functions inside the cell, between cells or between organs in the body, allowing us the means to respond to our external environment. Normally, cell division is a very carefully regulated process that ensures the body has neither too few nor too many of a given cell type. Some cell types in the body wear out quickly and need to be continuously replaced as they die, such as most blood cells and cells lining the digestive tract. The production of these cells must be precisely regulated based on their rate of cell death so that the body has the exact number of cells it needs. (Kruh, 2000) The relationship with cancer Abnormal - or more specifically - uncontrolled, rapid cell growth is a central feature of cancer. Virtually every cancer is caused by mutations of DNA, the genetic material that controls how cells behave. Genes that regulate cell division are most susceptible to mutations, which may lead to abnormal cell growth. Cancer is a disease of the genes - it arises from defects in certain genes, the genes that normally regulate cell growth and cell death. Some genes, known as oncogenes, promote normal cell growth. Other genes, known as tumor suppressor genes, have the opposite effect, to retard cell growth. The normal division of our cells is a delicate balance of positive and negative growth signals from these genes. This balance may be upset by either the abnormal over activation of oncogenes or the abnormal inactivation of tumor suppressor genes. These genetic events may be caused by environmental toxins, random internal changes, and also may be inherited from a family who has a history of cancer where a defective growth-regulatory gene is passed down through generations. Cell division can get out of control when damage to specific genes in the cell’s DNA results in abnormally 2006-06-11T19:43:35-04:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/Abnormal-Cell-Growth-Leading-to-Cancer-29225.aspx Symptoms and Treatments for Grave's 2006-06-11T19:37:59-04:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/Symptoms-and-Treatments-for-Grave-s-Disease-29222.aspx Disruption of the Food Chain as a Result of O-Zone Depletion Ozone is a form of oxygen that is a human-made pollutant in the troposphere but a naturally produced, essential component in the stratosphere, which encircles our planet some 6 to 28 miles above the surface. The stratosphere contains a layer of ozone that shields the surface from much of the ultraviolet radiation coming from the sun. If ozone was to disappear from the stratosphere Earth would be uninhabitable for most organisms. The primary cause for this substantial ozone loss is a group of compounds called chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs). CFCs have been used in aerosol cans as propellants, as coolants in air conditioners, and refrigerators, as foam blowing agents for insulation as well as packaging like styrofoam. Other compounds that may attack the ozone include: halons, methyl bromide, methyl chloroform, and carbon tetrachloride. As CFC’s drift up into the atmosphere the UV radiation breaks them down, releasing chlorine. Bromine is released by the breakdown of halons and methyl bromide in the atmosphere. Under certain conditions in the stratosphere, chlorine and bromide are capable of attacking ozone and converting it to oxygen. UV radiation has the potential to penetrate tens of feet into clear ocean water. As we know, the entire marine food chain is based on phytoplankton, which float on or near the top of water bodies. Phytoplankton are the producers, they are on the first trophic level in the aquatic food chain. Phytoplankton is extremely sensitive to UV levels; scientists have found that phytoplankton decreases mobility, changes in photosynthesis and enzymatic reactions under UV radiation. Studies in Antarctica, directly under the ozone hole, found the rates of phytoplankton production to be depressed relative to similar areas. With a decrease of Phytoplankton in the water other fish will have to rely on other food sources, or they too will begin to decline. Higher levels of ultraviolet radiation could also reduce global plant coverage, thus enhancing climatic change. Plants have shown direct effects of UV are on photosynthesis and growth. More subtle changes related to UV are a delay in flowering, shift in distribution of leaves, changes in leaf structure, or a change in plant metabolism. The effects of this are wide spread; shifts in plant population and bio-diversity could be dramatically changed. 2006-06-11T19:18:39-04:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/Disruption-of-the-Food-Chain-as-a-Result-of-O-Zone-Depletion-29211.aspx Mathematical History and Explanation of Pi In mathematics pi is the ratio of the circumference of a circle to its diameter. The ratio for pi is about 3.14, but the strange thing about pi is that it goes on forever and it will never stop! No matter how hard you try, you will never reach the last number of pi. Pi is of great importance in the measurement of circles but also in more advanced mathematics in connection with such topics as continued fractions, logarithms of imaginary numbers, and periodic functions. Through out the ages of time many values have 2006-06-11T18:57:24-04:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/Mathematical-History-and-Explanation-of-Pi-29200.aspx Analysis of the Element Lithium Lithium, which is represented by the symbolic notation, Li, is the third element on the periodic table. The mineral Petalite (which contains lithium) was discovered by the Brazilian scientist José Bonifácio de Andrada e Silva towards the end of the 18th century while visiting Sweden. Lithium was discovered by Johan August Arfvedson in 1817 during an analysis of Petalite ore. Arfvedson subsequently discovered lithium in the minerals spodumene and lepidolite. C.G. Gmelin observed in 1818 that lithium salts color flames were bright red. Neither Gmelin nor Arfvedson were able to isolate the element itself from lithium salts, for example in attempted reductions by heating the oxide with iron or carbon. The first isolation of elemental lithium was achieved later by W.T. Brande and Sir Humphrey Davy by the electrolysis of lithium oxide. In 1855, Bunsen and Mattiessen isolated larger quantities of the metal by electrolysis of lithium chloride. In 1923 the first commercial production of lithium metal was achieved by Metallgesellschaft AG in Germany using the electrolysis of a molten mixture of lithium chloride and potassium chloride. Lithium’s origin name was founded from the Greek word “lithos” meaning “stone”, apparently because it was discovered from a mineral source. William Thomas Brande and Sir Humphrey Davy first isolated the element through the electrolysis of lithium chloride oxide. In 1855, Bunsen and Mattiessen isolated larger qualities of the metal by electrolysis of lithium chloride. Lithium is widely distributed in nature, in soil, plants, animals and even the human body. However, it is also located on the earth’s outermost layer, but makes up only .00007% of the earth’s crust. Lithium is a Group 1 (IA) element containing just a single valence electron. Group 1 elements are called "alkali metals". Lithium is a soft, white solid metal that is about half as dense as water. A freshly cut chunk of lithium is silvery, but tarnishes in a minute or so in air to give a grey surface effect. Many uses have been found for lithium metals and its compounds. Lithium has the highest specific heat of any solid element and is used in heat transfers and various nuclear applications. It is also used in the production of special glasses and ceramics pieces. Lithium is the lightest known metal and can be alloyed with aluminum, copper, manganese, and cadmium to make strong, lightweight metals 2006-06-11T18:49:02-04:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/Analysis-of-the-Element-Lithium-29195.aspx A History of the Events from "Three Mile Island" Power Plant On March 28, 1979, there was a nuclear accident at the Three Mile Island power plant near Harrisburg, Pennsylvania. Below is a summary of what happened: The reactor's fuel core became uncovered and more than one-third of the fuel melted. Inadequate instrumentation and training programs at the time hampered operator's ability to respond 2006-06-11T02:43:27-04:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/A-History-of-the-Events-from-quot-Three-Mile-Island-quot-P-29185.aspx Ethical Questions to Cloning Of all the terms coined by scientists which have entered popular vocabulary, 'clone' has become one of the more emotive. The question shakes us all to our very souls. For humans to consider the cloning of one another forces them all to question the very concepts of right and wrong. The cloning of any species, whether they be human or non-human, is ethically and morally wrong. Scientists and ethicists alike have debated the implications of human and non-human cloning extensively since 1997 when scientists at the Roslin Institute in Scotland produced Dolly. No direct conclusions have been drawn, but compelling arguments state that cloning of both human and non-human species results in harmful physical and psychological effects on both groups. The following issues dealing with cloning and its ethical and moral implications will be addressed: cloning of human beings would result in severe psychological effects in the cloned child, and that the cloning of non-human species subjects them to unethical or moral treatment for human needs. The possible physical damage that could be done if human cloning became a reality is obvious when one looks at the sheer loss of life that occurred before the birth of Dolly. Less than ten percent of the initial transfers survive to be healthy creatures. There were 277 trial implants of nuclei. Nineteen of those 277 were deemed healthy while the others were discarded. Five of those nineteen survived, but four of them died within ten days of birth of sever abnormalities. Dolly was the only one to survive (Fact: Adler 1996). If those nuclei were human, "the cellular body count would look like sheer carnage" (Logic: Kluger 1997). Even Ian Wilmut, one of the scientists accredited with the cloning phenomenon at the Roslin Institute agrees, "the more you interfere with reproduction, the more danger there is of things going wrong" (Expert Opinion). The psychological effects of cloning are less obvious, but none the less, very plausible. In addition to physical harms, there! are worries about the psychological harms on cloned human children. One of those harms is the loss of identity, or sense of uniqueness and individuality. Many argue that cloning crates serious issues of identity and individuality and forces humans to consider the definition of self. Gilbert Meilaender commented on the importance of genetic uniqueness not only to the child but to the parent as well when he appeared 2006-06-11T02:24:58-04:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/Ethical-Questions-to-Cloning-29176.aspx Pro - Animal Testing and Experimentation Essay Animal testing and experimenting has been practiced ever since the fifteenth century, although it did not become widespread until the 1800’s. Ever since that people realized animals had feelings and could feel pain, people have started debating over the issue of animal testing, and it soon became a highly controversial topic. Many people argues that it is unmoral to test products of any kind on animals, while scientists believes that animal testing and experimentation is just about the only way they can discover many medical or other unique breakthroughs. I stand firmly on the side of having animals for testing. Animal experimentation has played a part in many major medical advances, including the development of antibiotics, vaccines, and surgical techniques. Psychologists can observe the behavior of animals under a variety of conditions, such as hunger or stress, to learn how similar conditions might affect people. Food products and cosmetics can be tested on animals so they can avoid harmful effects when used on humans. Environmentalists can use animal testing to find better and humane ways to preserve, protect, and manage a range of animal species that are endangered. The world today is missing many animals. Many are endangered or extinct. By using animal testing, scientists can learn more about the animals, their habitats, and how to cure animal diseases. Animal testing has already helped find a cure for the infamous and deadly virus of rabies. Pest control that are harmful to insects but harmless to other animals has also been discovered that can stop pollution and the destruction of animals. Scientists can also test reproduction methods on animals to find better and more effective ways for animals to breed, so the endangered species can revive once more. Scientists use animals to test the safety of chemicals in food products and cosmetics. Scientists could test out food products on animals to see if they are safe and not poisoned. They could also use animal experiments to see how well a food can be digested. Cosmetics can be tested to different skin types, so they can be improved. Animal testing can prove how dangerous a certain product is. Most people thinks that a human’s and an animal’s body are two totally different things. However, as surprised as this may 2006-06-11T02:05:51-04:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/Pro-Animal-Testing-and-Experimentation-Essay-29167.aspx Damaging Effects of Cystic Fibrosis Cystic fibrosis is a debilitating disease facing many people today. At the present time there is no cure available. According to the cystic fibrosis foundation of America, cystic fibrosis can be traced back as early as 1595. The first documented case was not reported until 1936. One group of people that seem to be affected the most by cystic fibrosis is Caucasians. Recent statistics indicate that 1 in 3,200 live causcasian births are afflicted with cystic fibrosis. For reasons that are currently unknown African Americans have aslightly lower chance of developing cystic fibrosis usually 1 in 15,000 live births. Cystic fibrosis remains to be a rare disease in the asian population as well as the native American population. In the United States there are 1,000 children born each year with cystic fibrosis. Current numbers suggest that there is over 30,000 people in the United States alone living with this crippling disease. In the United states approximately 1 in 25 -30 people are carriers of the mutated gene that causes cystic fibrosis (Sheppard and Nicholson ). The cystic fibrosis foundation of America has repoted that there is over 10 million people who are possible carriers of the mutated gene. Cystic fibrosis is an inherited genetic disease. In actuality cystic fibrosis is an autosomal recessive disease(Lim and Zeitlin). Cystic fibrosis is now considered the most common genetic disease among Caucasians (Sheppard Nichsoln). Although cystic fibrous tends to display an ethnicity bias it does not have a gender bias. The autosomal recessive disease indicates that the mutated gene that causes cystic fibrosis is not located on the sex chromosome. In 1989 the mutated gene that causes cystic fibrosis was discovered, and this was one step closer to understanding a disease that affects so many people ( Sheppard and Nicholson). The mutated gene is located on autosomal chromosome number 7 . The mutation occurs in the cystic fibrosis transmembrane conductance regulator gene (CFTR). At the present time researchers have concluded that there are over 900 different mutations in the CFTR gene (Sheppard Nicholson). The severity of the disease is based upon the variations of mutations that are expressed (Panesear). For instance a gene with over 900 mutations can wreak havoc on the human body causing a plethora of problems. When a person is a carrier of the mutated CFTR gene , and is paired with a non-carrier the cystic 2006-06-11T01:48:42-04:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/Damaging-Effects-of-Cystic-Fibrosis-29159.aspx The Development of Medicine in the 19th Century Diseases and illnesses have been present from the very earliest times, and medicine and cures have always been reliefs widely searched for. It was a long time however, before man acknowledged the ability to apply the appropriate medical treatment for certain diseases. This was due to the slow increase of knowledge of how the parts of the human body function. Before the great scientific discoveries and breakthroughs of the 19th and 20th centuries, medical procedures were very reliant upon nature. The medical practice involved little more than comfort for the patient until nature took it’s course. Doctors were not as refined and knowledgeable, operations were not as clean, and hospitals were not as sanitary as the conditions we are accessible to today. Natural instincts and intelligence are what have brought the medical practice to the discoveries and higher level of success in which we have today. Early medicine was a mixture of a great deal of magic, charms and superstitions. The modern operation of trepanning for example was mimicked by the prehistoric people using a cure far beyond herbs, berries and chants. Skulls were found with little round pieces cut out of them which was known to be done in order to relieve sever headaches caused by brain tumours. Evidently, these primitive people abided to do this in order to let out and release evil spirits which they thought were lodged in the head. Trepanning was also a remedy for insanity, epilepsy and headaches, yet this procedure killed many people. Those who were practised on by such harsh medical techniques would probably have been more comfortable if the had not been treated at all. Unlike these prehistoric methods, techniques today have been discovered in order to assure the patient of a fear free and painless operation. In this 21st century, a patient will be put unconscious by an anaesthetic gas or injection if they undergo a major surgery. The part of the body that is being worked on will be numbed by a local anaesthetic if the surgery is only minor. Great measures are taken to see that the surgeons and their assistants wear sterile clothing, and use clean, sanitary instruments, bandages and other equipment. These procedures were not yet evident at the start of the 19th century, making 2006-06-11T01:18:06-04:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/The-Development-of-Medicine-in-the-19th-Century-29144.aspx Analysis of the metal silver's chemistry Hello my fellow readers. My name is Silver. My name comes from the Anglo-Saxon word of Siolfur. Some people call me Ag for short (Ag stands argentum.) I am a white shinny metal. Since I am a white shinny metal argentum is the Latin word for white and shinning. I live in the periodic table of elements and my address is 47. I usually weigh 107.868. I am solid at room temperature. Copper and gold are my good friends and they make me strong and help me to be more durable. You can find me almost anywhere. You can find me pure in silver ores and you can find me in structure forms in kitchens, jewelry stores, car shops, doctor offices, dentist offices, banks, and even in wallets. I am a very valuable metal. But although you can find me most anywhere, only 16% of me is used in coins and jewelry, while 40% is used to make photographic film. The rest of me is used in industries and health services. I am even used to make mirrors. I am only slightly reactive and because of this I am placed very close to the bottom of the reactivity chart. I have very little uses in chemistry because of my low reactivity status. I don’t form oxides when I touch air but I do form silver sulfide when I touch polluted air. I form a tarnish when I interact with the hydrogen sulfide in the air, especially near industrial cities. The result of this is that I turn to silver sulfide. Tarnish is a dark, brown, or black film that develops slowly on me. Some silver tableware can tarnish because some food that you eat contains hydrogen sulfide. Hard boiled eggs are the perfect example of hydrogen sulfide. You can also sometimes see it in the dark ring around the yolk. Sterling and I are used to make jewelry, cutlery and serving dishes. They are made of 92.5% of me and 7.5% of copper. Copper makes me harder, stronger, and more durable. I lie between gold and copper as one of the softest metals. I’m the best conductor of heat and electricity. My friends, gold, platinum, mercury, and I make up the noble metals. We don’t oxidize readily when heated and we don’t dissolve in most mineral acids. I am a rare element because I’m the 68th in the elements 2006-06-07T16:25:14-04:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/Analysis-of-the-Metal-Silver-s-Chemistry-29100.aspx The Possibility of Other Beings in Our Universe The view of Christiaan Huygens, the Dutch mathematician and physicist who discovered Saturn’s moon Titan in 1655, was as follows: Now can anyone look upon, and compare these systems (of Jupiter and Saturn) together, without being amazed at the vast magnitude and noble attendants of these two planets, in respect of this little pitiful Earth of ours? Or can they force themselves to think, that the wise Creator has disposed of all his animals and plants here, has furnished and adorned this spot only, and has left all those worlds bare and destitute of inhabitants…or that all those prodigious bodies were made only to twinkle to, and be studied by some few perhaps of us poor fellows? (qtd. in Sagan, Cosmos 130) Millions of dollars and many brilliant minds have long been dedicated to unlocking the great mysteries of the universe. Perhaps the greatest mystery is whether or not life exists on planets other than Earth. Plato, Epicurus, Isaac Newton, and Benjamin Franklin all shared a belief in extraterrestrial civilization (“Search” par.10). Due to newfound understandings of the size and complexity of the universe, the current knowledge of life and its ability to thrive in even the most extreme circumstances, and lack of a reasonably unquestionable skeptical view, the answer to “Are We Alone?” is undoubtedly “no.” The sheer size of the universe presents unlimited possibilities for extraterrestrial life. There are an estimated one hundred billion (100,000,000,000) galaxies in the universe (“By the Numbers”). The Milky Way galaxy, which houses the solar system that is home to Earth, is some 100,000 light years across (1 light year is equivalent to 5.9 trillion miles). It contains approximately four hundred billion (400,000,000,000) stars (Chyba par.18). Among the factors used to determine how suitable a star is for supporting habitable planets are energy, gravity, and life spans of these stars as relative to time necessary for the evolutionary process to take place (Brownsberger). There are seven main spectral classifications, including (listed from hottest and largest to coolest and smallest) types O, B, A, F, G, K, and M. Types O and B, which make up less than two percent of the four hundred billion stars in our galaxy, are the only classes believed to be incapable of supporting life (Zubrin 232). Type G stars, the same type 2006-06-06T15:26:08-04:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/The-Possibility-of-Other-Beings-in-Our-Universe-29084.aspx The Rain Forest Dweller the Kinkajou The kinkajou is a small honey-gold or brown animal that lives in the rain forest. In Mexico, it is called "Mico de Noche" because of the color of its fur. A few of the rain forests it lives in are in Brazil, Peru, Ecuador, Guatemala, Honduras, and much of Panama. The Kinkajou lives on the lower canopy an its stays in a tree almost all its life and very seldom, if ever, comes down. The kinkajou is sometimes called a Honey bear. Its fur is very soft and fluffy. It has a prehensile tail and is related to raccoons. They are very common in rain forest. It has a round head with small round ears and a cat-like face. The kinkajou also has a long stretchable tongue used for getting nectar. The tongue is about 5 inches long! The 2006-06-06T14:53:13-04:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/The-Rain-Forest-Dweller-the-Kinkajou-29071.aspx Broad Analysis of Igneous Rocks in Earth's Geology Out of the three different types of rocks, 2006-06-06T14:39:20-04:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/Broad-Analysis-of-Igneous-Rocks-in-Earth-s-Geology-29064.aspx The Effects and Dangers of Contracting Scarlet Fever Scarlet Fever is a contagious disease caused by the same bacteria that causes strep throat. This bacteria is called group A beta-hemolytic streptococcacus (Balentine and Kessler 1). This bacteria usually starts in the tonsils or pharynx. "Transmission is most commonly via airborne respiratory particles and can be spread from infected patients, as well as asymptotic carriers. Infection rate increases in overcrowded situations (eg, school or other institutional settings)." (Balentine and Kessler 3). It can be caught through close contact with someone who has this bacteria and has not taken antibiotics for at least 24 hours (PPP healthcare). If this bacteria does invade the body than many symptoms can result. It takes about 2-4 days after catching the disease for the symptoms to start appearing (PPP healthcare). Symptoms start with a sore throat, fever, and sometimes vomiting. 24hours later a rash made up of small red bumps starts behind the ears. This is where the name Scarlet Fever came from. The rash is the wors in places where he skin folds like elbow creases. The rash spreads but avoids the face. However the face appears flushed. After about 4 to 5 days the rash clears but is then followed a few days later by skin peeling where the rash was the worse (PPP healthcare). The tongue takes on a strange look. It is called "strawberry tongue". The tongue is coated with white everywhere except the small bumps that stick out according to the Western Journal of Medicine. Scarlet Fever is most often caught by young children between the ages 2-8 ((Balentine and Kessler 3). There is a 10-15% chance of a child between those ages strep throat turning in to Scarlet Fever. In the 1800's especially there were many deadly outbreaks of scarlet fever (The Western Journal of Medicine). Now days, however, there are very few deaths in America because of antibiotics. In other less developed countries they still have many deaths from the disease. Scarlet fever can be cured if antibiotics to kill the bacteria are given. The same type of antibiotics as strep throat are given because they share the same bacteria. The exact type of antibiotics given will depend on the doctor. The ones that can be given are called Penicillin VK, Penicillin G 2006-06-02T15:44:12-04:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/The-Effects-and-Dangers-of-Contracting-Scarlet-Fever-29030.aspx Laboratory Write up on Photosythesis in Biology When you and me eat, we find our food. When plants eat, they make theirown food and energy. They make their food and energy through a process called photosynthesis. Through photosynthesis oxygen is also produced. Photosynthesis is "a process in which 2006-06-01T19:08:39-04:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/Laboratory-Write-up-on-Photosythesis-in-Biology-28986.aspx Black Panthers in the Global Ecosystem The Black Panther is one of the most aggressive and feared animals of the world. The reason for this is because they are ten times stronger than any human is. They are capable of killing animals up to twelve hundred pounds then dragging it thirty feet into a tree before eating it. They can drag this animal while it is still live so one can imagine just how strong a black panther is. Black panthers can jump as high as eighteen feet straight up in the air and thirty feet in a single leap. They can also run at a speed at forty five miles an hour. Stalking their prey is extremely easy with these abilities because they can most likely run faster than the animal they are stalking and they can pounce on it. Not only do panthers chase their prey down but they can also leap or drop from the treetops onto their prey. Black panthers can be up to forty-eight inches long with a tail at twenty for inches long. They weigh anywhere from ninety to one hundred and fifty pounds. Black panthers are mainly solitary animals except during the times of breeding. When a mother is ready to give birth she can have anywhere from one to six cubs. The Black Panther does not come from other black panthers that mate with each other. The way that black panthers came to existence was that they were born along with regular panthers. The black coloring in their coat is known as melanistic. It is not that they do not have spots like the others its just that their coat is darker. In fact you can see the spots of the Black Panther especially when being in bright sunlight. Black panthers live far east in China, Southern Africa, south of the Sahara, and in parts of North Africa. These habitats are areas with humid forests. They have a life span of twelve years in the wild and twenty years in captivity. The hunting times of the Black Panther are early in the morning and during the night because they are nocturnal animals. They hunt on the ground as well as in the trees. The animals that they eat consist of 2006-06-01T01:55:49-04:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/Black-Panthers-in-the-Global-Ecosystem-28962.aspx Laboratory Analysis on Strength of Aluminum and Steel Summary: Aluminum and steel were tested over three different temperature readings. One of each sample was put into an oven at about 245°F, a bath of ice water and finally in dry ice at about -30°F. After the metal sample’s temperature was changed by exposure to each external stimulus, we proceeded to break each sample. The Impact Test Machine was used to break the steel sample. The CIM-24 was used to break the aluminum sample. Procedure: The pendulum was raised up to the top position just prior to doing the test. After the sample was exposed to the different stimulus for about 15 minutes, the samples were placed into the machine. 2006-05-31T23:44:01-04:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/Laboratory-Analysis-on-Strength-of-Aluminum-and-Steel-28948.aspx Truths about Global Warming and its Dangerous Effects Today What happens when too much carbon dioxide gets omitted into the earth's atmosphere? The condition global warming occurs. Global warming is the rising of temperatures due to chemicals called "greenhouse gases" such as carbon dioxide, nitrous oxide and methane. The atmospheric phenomenon of allowing the sun's radiant energy to pass through and then trapping the earth's re-irradiated energy is known "greenhouse effect". (Fisher 19) A natural greenhouse effect helps to keep the earth's average temperature at a comfortable 59 degrees fahrenheit. Every year our climate is continually changing and becoming warmer. Most of the human activities are causing some greenhouse gases, such as carbon dioxide to build up in the atmosphere. Human activities is the leading contributor to the build up of greenhouse gases. Human activities such as when people burn more fossil fuels for energy, they add more carbon dioxide to the atmosphere. When the trees at the forest are cut down to make way for agriculture. Nitrous oxide had increase too where they use fertilizers. Such activities we use to perform is increasing year to year, many of them doubling and tripling. It is a case of the amount of gases the earth produces naturally versus the amount of gases produced manually by us. Other human activities such as smoke from factory chimneys and exhaust from cars contain carbon dioxide that increases the greenhouse gases in the atmosphere. But unfortunately due of producing more harmful greenhouses gases being placed into the earth's atmosphere, instead of temperature being constant, it's rising. One of these is El Nino event of 1997-1998, the strongest event of El Nino of the century. The earth's rising of temperature will cause danger that are harmful to all human beings. With the increased warming of the earth that could lead to catastrophic events that could endanger living things on our planet. One event is major drought all around the world. In 1999, the US experienced one of the most major droughts ever recorded, Maryland, New Jersey, Rhode Island, and Delaware faced their driest growing season on record. (PIRG Global Warming Organization) With the warming of the earth, the water on the ground would quickly evaporate causing the rivers and lakes to quickly dry up. 2006-05-31T23:41:10-04:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/Truths-about-Global-Warming-and-its-Dangerous-Effects-Today-28947.aspx Benefits of Holistic Medicine in Contemporary Society Millions of people around the world are living with pain that could be prevented with the use of alternative therapies. As a result many of these people use harmful or ineffective drugs and surgeries in an attempt to cure their ailments. With a steady schedule of massage therapy, acupuncture, and healthy foods, people can lead a healthy and invigorating life without drugs or surgery. During the time of the ancient Roman gladiators, massage therapy was used to treat everything from headaches to sports injures on them. Today massage therapy is widely recognized as a sensible alternative to traditional medicine, in that it relieves pain and soreness otherwise helped by taking pills or other medicines. Massage can help everyone, including premature infants according to USA Weekend, "premature infants who get regular massages in the hospital gain more weight and leave the hospital sooner then unmassaged babies"(McNichol,22). I firmly believe that massage therapy is one of the best preventative measures that a person can take to avoid most medical problems involved with aging, physical exertion, and the stress of everyday life. Some doctors agree by saying, "If you have a massage every week, you will have 2/3 less illness" (H. Gruenn, M.D.). There are many different types of massage therapy including relaxing Swedish massage for relieving stress, sports massage for treating sports related injuries, and therapeutic massage to name a few. Relaxing Swedish massage is one of the most effective ways to deal with that invisible killer, stress. By applying smooth gentle stokes or other non-invasive massage techniques, the Swedish massage practitioner can relieve the client of the every day stresses of life that can be fatal if not dealt with. In sports massage, the use of more advanced massage techniques can relieve athletes of lactic acid and other wastes that accumulate in the muscles due to exertion. Other therapeutic massage techniques such as Neuromuscular, Myofascal, and Lymphatic drainage can aid in the recovery of injured clients. Another form of alternative therapy is the ancient Chinese healing art of acupuncture. Acupuncture was first experimented within the First Imperial Medical College of China during the Sui Dynasty in 589 AD. "In Chinese medicine, and therefore in acupuncture, health is determined by a persons ability to maintain a balanced and harmonious internal environment."(Mills pg. 8). This theory of internal harmony is expressed through the principles of Ying and Yang and it’s five separate phases: wood, fire, earth, metal, 2006-05-31T18:41:38-04:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/Benefits-of-Holistic-Medicine-in-Contemporary-Society-28930.aspx History of Salvia Divinorm and it's Use by Maztec Indians Salvia divinorum is used by the Mazatec Indians living in remote regions of Oaxaca, where it first came to the awareness of western researchers in the first half of this century. Little is known regarding the plant's use before this period, although there is some indication that it may have been used by the Aztecs in earlier times. The first description of this plant in western literature was made by Swedish anthropologist Jean Basset Johnson in 19391. Johnson. who was investigating psilocybe mushroom use amongst the Mazatecs, also noted their use of Salvia divinorum in healing ceremonies. Salvia divinorum is a very rare plant, being found in only a few ravine locations in the Sierra Mazateca mountains. The plant is easily propagated by cuttings, and during the past few decades it has made its way into numerous botanical gardens and private collections around the world. Virtually all of the Salvia divinorum in circulation has been vegetatively propagated from two parent clones of this species. The first specimen was collected by R. Gordon Wasson in 1962. A second, so called "palatable" strain was collected by Bret Blosser in 1991. The "palatable" variety is actually still quite bitter, although less so than the Wasson clone. There are a few other strains being maintained, some of which were grown from seed, but these are not in general circulation. Cuttings of Salvia divinorum placed in a jar of water will begin rooting within two to three weeks. When the roots have reached about 1", the cuttings may he transferred to pots. Salvia divinorum likes humidity and moisture, moderate but indirect sunlight and warm temperatures. In most parts of the United States it will grow best in a greenhouse and appreciates frequent misting. Too much sunlight will turn the leaves a pale green. If the leaves curl up and dry at the edges, it is a sign that the temperature is too warm for the amount of humidity they are receiving. The plants should be kept from freezing at all times, although they may grow back after a light frost that does not freeze the roots. Salvia divinorum grows into a vine-like bush with branches frequently reaching 7 to 10 feet in height before bending over under their own weight, often rooting where they fall. The plant has jagged- edged leaves that reach 4" to 6" 2006-05-31T18:28:49-04:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/History-of-Salvia-Divinorm-and-it-s-Use-by-Maztec-Indians-28925.aspx Lead; The Toxic Metal and its Harmful Effects to Society The Greeks were the first to mine lead ore in their search for silver which they used for coins. They also discovered a use for lead in making wine; and as a result, they unwittingly exposed humans to a toxic metal. The Romans followed suit by using lead in many infrastructures, in wine-making, and for food storage. Their use of lead causes speculation that lead poisoning may have contributed to the fall of the Roman Empire. Major contamination of lead was brought on by the increased use of the heavy metal during the Spanish conquests. And, although Benjamin Franklin detected symptoms of lead poisoning, lead was still used long after the Industrial Revolution. Lead is commonly found in the modern environment in air, soil, food, drinking water, and house paint. Lead is a heavy metal that affects human health because the body cannot break it down. Ingesting or inhaling lead particles found in the air and the environment causes lead poisoning. The lead remains in the body and disturbs the enzyme system and the formation of hemoglobin. Hemoglobin carries oxygen through the bloodstream to organs and tissues. Although nearly all Major sources of the toxic heavy metal include leaded paint, leaded gasoline, recycled oil, ceramics, contaminated soils, and smelters. Dietary sources of lead include contamination of agricultural crops, lead in food containers, contaminated drinking water, and unexpected sources such as lead shot in game birds. Let’s take a closer look at some of these sources. Lead in drinking water. Lead gets into the drinking water because of corrosion in pipes or from certain properties of the water. The lead in drinking water most likely results from lead that leaches in from pipes. Through the 1920s, lead was used in household pipes. Newer homes now have copper pipes. However, up until 1988 lead solder was legally still being used. Many cities over 100 years old still have lead in the pipes that run between the main and individual homes. Water treatment plants deliver drinking water from a cast iron pipe to the mains. The cast iron pipe does not contain lead. In addition, faucets often have brass/lead valves. Even faucets labeled as “lead free” are permitted to contain up to 2006-05-31T17:44:31-04:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/Lead-The-Toxic-Metal-and-its-Harmful-Effects-to-Society-28914.aspx Harmful Effects of Acid Rain in our Environment Acid rain is a common term for pollution. It is created when sulfur dioxide in smoke from coal—and oil-burning factories and nitrogen oxide from automobile emission mix with water vapor in the air. This chemical response produces sleet, rain, or hail consisting of sulfuric and nitric acids. Such pollutants may be suspended in a fog, or the pollutants may be in a dry form. Sometimes it is as acidic as vinegar in densely settled industrial regions. Acid precipitation corrupts plant and animal life, damages crops, and endangers marine life. In the next 20 years, tree harvests are expected to drop 15 percent. It contaminates drinking water and endangers human health. Data supports the idea that acid rain is responsible for asthma, 2006-05-31T17:39:35-04:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/The-Harmful-Effects-of-Acid-Rain-in-our-Environment-28913.aspx Galileo Galilei was born in Pisa, Italy on February 18, 1564. Galileo was most famously known for his discovery that two objects, dropped from the same height, fall at the same speed, once they hit terminal velocity, regardless of their weight. What 2006-05-23T19:12:59-04:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/Galileo-Galilei--28872.aspx Cross 2006-05-10T04:27:18-04:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/Cultural-Evidence-for-Fundamental-Features-of-Extraversion-28829.aspx Einstein Brain Markedly different from norm The article that I have read is about how Albert Einstein gray matter in his brain has differences then the average persons. They are not sure though if it has any links between his great intelligence though. Dr. Dahlia W. Zaidel of UCLA was the researcher on this project. She started out by investigating to see if the brain of a genius might show special features. She then examined two slides made from Einstein brain after his death in 1955. The slides contained samples of his hippocampus. She then compared Einstein brain with tissue from ten individuals of ordinary intelligence from the ages of 22 to 84 qt 2006-05-07T06:19:17-04:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/Brief-Summary-of-Article-on-the-Size-of-Einstein-s-Brain-28814.aspx Is Depth Perception Inherited or Learned? In 1960, Eleanor Gibson and Richard Walk conducted an experiment to see whether depth perception is an inborn or a learned skill in humans. They conducted their experiment with a table that had a thick glass surface on half of the table and a solid base on the other half. This created an illusion of a small cliff without the dangers of actually falling. In this experiment, infants ranging from the age of 6 to 14 months were placed on the solid side of the table. The infants’ mothers were placed on the other side of table and were there to coax the infants to the other side. Of the 30 infants tested, 27 of them crossed the glass surface when called while only 3 refused. Gibson and Walk conducted the same experiment on newborn chickens and goats with astonishing results. When chickens and goats were placed on the solid side, not a single one of them made an error to cross the “cliff.” The same test was conducted on baby rats whose results fared far worse than the results of the chickens and goats. The rats fared worse because they are nocturnal animals who rely on other senses other than vision to direct them. From this experiment, Gibson and Walk concluded that depth perception was inborn to all animals and humans by the time they achieve independent movement. This is in the case of chickens and goats at birth and for humans at around 6 months of age. The results of Gibson and Walk’s experiment are very questionable because their control group did not consist of any socially dependant animals. Infants are socially dependent of their mother for survival and nurturing throughout their childhood. Gibson and Walk should have conducted their control experiment on socially dependant animals such as elephants or cheetahs instead of animals that do not rely heavily on their caretaker. In 1985, Sorce, Emde, Campos, and Klinnert conducted the same visual cliff experiment with human infants and their mothers. This time, the mother was instructed to maintain an expression of fear or happiness on the other side of the “cliff.” When the mother expressed a happy face, the babies checked the cliff and crossed. When the mother showed an expression of fear, the babies were very reluctant to cross. When the cliff was covered, the babies crossed the table without looking 2006-05-03T04:19:29-04:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/Is-Depth-Perception-Inherited-or-Learned-28779.aspx Foreword: There is no culture in the history of mankind that did not ever use some kind (kinds) of drugs. Despite the well-known consequences of drug addiction, millions of people constantly consume different legal and illegal drugs. Affecting people's mind and changing their behavior, drugs become one of the most threatening factors of social risk, resulting in increasing rates of mortality, aggressive and criminal behavior, and dissolution of social ties. This paper is devoted to comparison of social science outcome characteristics for two of the most commonly used drugs in the groups of legal and illegal drugs--alcohol in the first and marijuana in the second. It is argued that hardly any of two can be seen preferable over the other, and both have negative impact on the society through changing the behavior of individuals consuming them. General discussion: Social problems of drug abuse or, more correctly, substance abuse (Timmons & Hamilton), can be divided into two groups. The first consists of problems resulting from the phenomenon of drug addiction, which are similar for any kind of drugs that caused this addiction. The second has to do with particular patterns of changed behavior and medical problems affecting someone's social position, characteristic for different kinds of drugs both immediately after intoxication and in long-term perspective. The symbolic interactionism theory does not depend on the drug but how people interpret the drug. Physicians may view a drug as a way to help people with an illness. Police usually see a drug (including alcohol) as a menace to society. Alcohol is usually accepted as a social interaction in the United States , as well as other countries. Functionalism study drugs, not on if they are legal or illegal, but on the functions and dysfunctions it has in society. They also identify a latent function that is associated with making a drug legal or illegal. "To make a drug illegal is to strengthen the agencies that have been established to control them." The moral entrepreneur has a lot of power and money to make drugs legal or illegal, whatever is in their best interest. Conflict theorist emphasize how drugs are used as a political tool. They decide whether a drug is criminalized or not. The conflict theorists used the laws against the Chinese immigrants in the 1800's. Continuous use of a certain drug results in the need to consume higher doses in order to achieve 2006-04-19T00:25:24-04:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/Alcohol-vs-Marijuana--28724.aspx Creutzfeldt-Jakob disease (CJD)—a fatal neurodegenerative illness, is one form of transmissible spongiform encephalopathies (TSE) affecting humans. The suspected causal agent of these diseases is the prion—a proteinaceous infectious particle. Designated as PrPSC, this infectious protein is unique in that it does not contain nucleic acid, which is different from a virus, yet has the capability of replication and being transmitted to other hosts. This capability of transmission poses a major problem in that the detection of the disease caused by this prion while the individual is in the incubation phase is not currently possible. Hence the disease may be accidentally transmitted to another individual through medical procedures—as seen in the case study presented. Throughout the 20th century, various case studies evolved and were compiled to form a sketchy descriptive pattern for Creutzfeldt-Jakob disease. However, as time progressed, new forms of CJD emerged—usually as an epidemic, presenting similar yet distinct prodromal and clinical patterns. Accumulation of data has led to a finer delineation of symptomology and sub-type classification of the disease. Yet a test to definitively show that the individual has the disease during incubation is not currently available. With different methods of transmission and completion of the incubation periods, various epidemics have erupted. Those points in time have been reflected within the literature, e.g. iatrogenic CJD through growth hormone (HgH). Current known forms of CJD are sub-typed as sporadic (spontaneous), familial (genetic), new variant and iatrogenic (acquired by accidental medical introduction). Documentation of the transmission of Creutzfeldt-Jakob disease through blood products and other similar tissues is very limited. Currently, there are no cases found in the literature reflecting the onset of the disease via immune gamma globulin (IgG) treatment. One major reason for this may be due to the fact that even if the disease is transmitted, the incubation period may span beyond an individual’s lifespan. Therefore, the individual will die incubating the disease, never entering the clinical phase. Each of the different categories of the disease presents various clinical and neuropathological symptoms and patterns at onset and throughout the course of the disease. The prion strain, codon 129 and method of infectivity (exposure) are contributing factors in the incubation period and clinical presentation of Creutzfeldt-Jakob disease. Prion strains present various protein sizes which are currently described as type I-IV. Each type is associated with a specific subtype of the disease, e.g. type I and II are associated with sporadic 2006-04-16T04:29:11-04:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/Creutzfeldt-Jakob-Disease-Identification-and-Treatment-28718.aspx (Insert Name) (Insert Class) (Insert Date Due) Astrology, Our World, Our Adventure… Astrology, and the wonders of the solar system… Astrology is not just about the stars; it’s about the stars, constellations, the nine planets, meteors and asteroids, the sun, moons, and the constellations. The solar system is very complex, yet it has many extraordinary objects. There are four different types of stars: Protostars, Bright Stars, Red Giants, and White Dwarfs. Protostars are stars that are just in the verge of being born. They are glowing clouds of interstellar dust and gas. Causing the protostar to collapse, gravity pulls on every atom moving them towards the center. Over a period of twenty million years the star begins to form, and in 10 million years after the pocket of gas formed, a star is born. The second types of stars, Bright Stars, are formed when the new star has completed about 35 million years of its life cycle. A star’s life cycle is a lot like a human’s, except a star’s years are in millions. When a star is about 10 million years old, it is in the same stage as a regular human-for instance in 10 million years a star is in the same stage as a human that is about twenty. The birth and death of stars are also called Stellar Evolution. A Bright star occurs when nuclear fusion doubles the star in size. The third types of stars, Red Giants, are made because the outward flow of the star’s core energy stops. Gravity then steps in, squeezing the star making it decrease in size. The core’s heat increases and it starts releasing small amounts of energy, the energy holds a large amount of hydrogen gas. The star then begins to grow larger, but it does not get brighter. As a result of the sudden and quick temperature-drop, the star’s color changes from blue-white to a red. In groups called Globular Clusters (groups of up to one million stars that move through space), are where most of the Red Giants have been found. In the fourth types of stars, White Dwarfs, the star begins cooling off; and as a result of that, the outer gas layer spreads out. The star’s temperature drops again, making the gas layer spread out even more. Eventually, the outer layer spreads out so far, it separates from the star. Then, a Planetary Nebula (cloud 2006-04-15T22:27:43-04:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/Astrology,-Our-World,-Our-Adventure…-28712.aspx Asthma is a disorder that affects 20% of Australians in their childhood. It causes airways to narrow making it difficult to breathe. Symptoms may include loss of breathe in cold weather, wheezing and whistling. It may occur periodically in sudden sharp attacks. When an attack occurs - The muscles around the wind pipe tighten shrinking the airways. The wind pipe lining then swells (picture) and a mucus called phlegm develops causing the cough to intensify and slightly more painful. What are the Causes and Triggers for asthma ? Attacks of Asthma occur due to a blockage in the bronchial tubes. This blockage results from a spasm that narrows the windpipe causing breathing difficulty for the sufferer. Asthma Triggers are things that make Asthma worse. Usual triggers are - Respiratory infections eg. Colds, flu, sore throats and bronchitis Allergic reactions sometimes cause Asthma eg. Pollen, foods, dust, animal fur or some seed. Air irritants (similar to Allergic reactions) eg. Cigarette smoke, gases or dust. Excessive/strenuous exercise can cause an Asthma attack. Emotional Stress can also trigger an Asthma attack. Symptoms of Asthma Symptoms include wheezing from the chest or a slight whistling is heard when inhaling. It's even louder when exhaling. Tightness of the chest, lung and lung area are closely associated with Asthma. Treatment for asthma There is no cure for Asthma but there are steps that doctors take to help relieve the symptoms of Asthma. As a first step doctors try to remove or get the patient to avoid Asthma triggers such as "animal dander" (eg. Fur or hairs). These are very likely to trigger an Asthma attack. Places where animals dwell are advised to be kept clear of for a sufferer. Since it is impossible to remove or avoid all triggers there are medications that can be taken. Such as - - Anti - Inflammatory Drugs : these reduce swelling of the windpipe and it's lining. Oral Steroids - prednisone and prednisolone quickly reduce inflammation during an attack. Inhaled medicines - such as cromoyln sodium and inhaled corticosteroids keep inflammation from flaring up. - Bronchodilators : relax the muscles which have tightened around the windpipe. Adrenergic bronchodilators ("Beta 2 agonists") provide temporary relief but do not treat inflammation. These are available as an Inhaler or a tablet form. Unfortunately the tablets are slower and have a few side affects. Theophylline is available in a liquid, capsule or tablet 2006-04-15T22:21:50-04:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/Symptoms-of-Asthma-Essay-28711.aspx Osteoarthritis is a degenerative arthritis, a condition in which joint cartilage degenerates or breaks down. New tissue, which grows at the ends of bones, now has no cartilage cap to control it. Instead, this new bone forms into strange lips and spurs that grind and grate and get in the way of movement of the joint. Osteoarthritis is common in older people after years of wear-and-tear that thin the cartilage and the bones. Osteoarthritis can also result from diseases in which there is softening of the bone, like Paget's disease in which the long bones of the body curve like a bow, or osteoporosis with its bowing of the shoulder called "dowager's hump," or other bone degeneration. Other forms of arthritis can also cause a secondary osteoarthritis. Osteoarthritis is not an inevitable problem of aging. Those who don't suffer from it may have their heredity and possibly the strength of their immune systems to thank. Medical science is not quite sure of all the factors that come into play in deciding who gets osteoarthritis and who doesn't. Rheumatoid arthritis is an inflammatory arthritis. It is second only to osteoarthritis in the number of its victims. It affects primarily the small joints in the hands and feet and the synovium, causing crippling deformities. This is an arthritis that usually starts in middle age or earlier. Estimates of the incidence of rheumatoid arthritis run as high as one person in every hundred, and females are two to three times as likely to suffer from it. It seems to start more in the winter and after some siege of sickness, but it is not considered an infective arthritis. Nobody knows what causes rheumatoid arthritis. There may be some hereditary trait, and there seems to be some connection to viral infections like German measles and serum hepatitis, the liver disease brought on by an injection of one kind or another. Because of this, scientists theorize that rheumatoid arthritis may be an autoimmune disease, one in which the body acts as though it were allergic to itself. The immune system gets mixed up and attacks normal joint tissue instead of the stuff it is supposed to attack. Polyarteritis Nodosa is also an inflammatory arthritis, fortunately it is a rare form of arthritis. It can lead to complications that are dangerous to life. It affects four times as many males as females, mostly young adults. There 2006-04-15T05:31:22-04:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/Osteoarthritis-Disease-Summary-28709.aspx Aquaculture: Cultivating the Sea Aquaculture is a great benefit to the population. Protein filled fish aren’t consumed by humans half as much as beef and chicken(fish 7kg, beef 31kg and 29kg 2006-04-15T05:29:52-04:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/Aquaculture-Cultivating-the-Sea-28708.aspx Applications of Silicon Silicon is one of man’s most useful elements. In the form of sand and clay it is used to make concrete and brick; it is a useful refractory material for high-temperature work, and in the form of silicates it is used in making enamels, pottery, etc. Silica, as sand, is a principal ingredient of glass, one of the most inexpensive of materials with excellent mechanical, optical, thermal and electrical properties. Hyperpure silicon can be doped with boron, gallium, phosphorus, or arsenic to produce silicon for use in transistors, solar cells, rectifiers, and other solid-state devices, which are used extensively in the electronics and space-age industries. Though silicon was originally discovered in 1810 and thought to be a compound silicon was discovered as an element in 1823 by Jons Berzelius. In 1824 Berzelius prepared amorphous silicon by the same general method and purified the product by removing the fluosilicates by repeated washings. Deville in 1854 first prepared crystalline silicon, the second allotropic form of the element. Davy in1800 thought silica to be a compound and not an element; later in 1811, Gay Lussac and Thenard probably prepared impure amorphous silicon by heating potassium with silicon tetrafluoride. Silicon is a metalloid at room temperature with an atomic number of 14, 14 electrons, 14 neutrons, and an average atomic mass of 28.0855. In its pure form,silicon melts at 2,570 degrees, and boils at 4,271 degrees Fahrenheit. This element belongs to the metalloid family, the 14th family on the periodic table of elements. This element is a solid metalloid at room temperature and turns to liquid at 2,570 degrees. Silicon is prepared as a brown amorphous powder or as gray-black crystals. Crystalline silicon has a metallic luster and grayish color. It is hard, non-magnetic, and most acids do not effect it, but it does dissolve in hydrofluoric acid, forming the gas, silicon tetrafluoride, SiF 4. At ordinary temperatures silicon is impervious to air, but at high temperatures it reacts with oxygen, forming a layer of silica that does not react further. At high temperatures it also reacts with nitrogen and chlorine to form silicon nitride and silicon chloride, respectively. Elemental silicon transmits more than 95% of all wavelengths of infrared, from 1.3 to 6.y micro-m. Silicon is present in the soil and makes up about 25.7% of the earth’s crust. Silicon also promotes firmness and strength in human tissues. It is 2006-04-15T05:07:39-04:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/Applications-of-Silicon--28707.aspx Anthrax (Bacillus Anthracis) Anthrax (Bacillus anthracis) is an acute infectious disease caused by the spore-forming bacterium. The most common victims of anthrax are warm-blooded animals, but it can also infect humans. Anthrax spores can be produced in a powdery form for biological warfare. When inhaled by humans, these particles cause respiratory failure and death within a week. Because anthrax is considered to be a potential agent for use in biological warfare, the Department of Defense (DOD), in 1998, announced it would begin a systematic vaccination of all U.S. military personnel. (DOD, 1998) Anthrax infection occurs in three forms: cutaneous (skin), inhalation, and gastrointestinal. B. anthracis spores can survive in the soil for many years and handling animal products from infected animals or inhaling anthrax spores from contaminated animal products can cause humans to become infected. Anthrax can also be spread by eating undercooked meat from infected animals. Anthrax is diagnosed by isolating B. anthracis from the blood, skin lesions, or respiratory secretions or by measuring specific antibodies in the blood of suspected cases. (Dire, 2001) Demographics Anthrax is most common in the agricultural regions where it occurs in animals, such as South and Central America, Southern and Eastern Europe, Asia, Africa, the Caribbean, and the Middle East. When anthrax affects humans, it is usually because of occupational exposure to infected animals or their products. Workers who are exposed to dead animals and animal products from other countries where anthrax is more common may become infected with B. anthracis. Anthrax in animals rarely occurs in the United States. Most reports of animal infection are received from Texas, Louisiana, Mississippi, Oklahoma and South Dakota. Symptoms of disease vary depending on how the disease was contracted, but symptoms usually occur within seven days. (Dire, 2001) Types of Anthrax Cutaneous: Most anthrax infections occur when the bacterium enters a cut or abrasion on the skin, such as when handling contaminated wool, hides, leather or hair products (especially goat hair) of infected animals. Skin infection begins as a raised itchy bump that resembles an insect bite but within 1-2 days develops into a vesicle and then a painless ulcer, usually 1-3 cm in diameter, with a black necrotic area in the center. Lymph glands in the adjacent area may swell. About 20% of untreated cases of cutaneous anthrax will result in death. Deaths are rare with appropriate antimicrobial therapy. Inhalation: Initial symptoms may resemble a common 2006-04-15T05:02:12-04:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/Anthrax-Bacillus-Anthracis-28706.aspx Ancient Astronomy Astronomy has been a source for myriad ideas influencing every subject. The stars have existed since the dawn of man. People have looked to the universe to determine physical location, gain spiritual direction and to track time. Many early scientists used astronomy to make careers for themselves and print their names in all the history books of time. Since the beginning of time, the stars and all of the heavens have been used not only as a tool to aid in basic living but also to reveal new and undiscovered things about the time and world people lived in. The times leading up to the 17th Century were filled with many discoveries not only in astronomy but also in mathematics and science. These discoveries lead to many uses from the learned knowledge of these newfound discoveries. The view of the universe at the time of the 17th Century was referred to as the Ptolemaic system. They also believed that all things around the earth were perfect and unchanging. Another popular theory at the time was the Copernican system. This is where the sun is the center, rather than the sun. One of the main scientists during the 17th Century was Galileo. He believed in the Copernican system. When Galileo pointed his telescope to the sky, he made many discoveries that confirmed the Copernican system. One thing he found was that the moon was not a perfect sphere as thought of in the Ptolemaic system; it had craters and mountains not visible to the human eye. Another discovery Galileo made was that Jupiter had moons going around it. This conflicted with the Ptolemaic system. It proved that the earth was not the only planet with moons going around it. Galileo also found that Venus had phases just like the Moon; this meant that it had to be orbiting the sun. He also discovered that the sun had spots on it that could be used to see how the earth orbits around it. These discoveries all contradicted the Ptolemaic system and confirmed the Copernican system. In 1610, Galileo started to publish his findings on the Copernican system| In early explorations of the Earth, humans had only their five senses to lead them. Traveling through the forest or venturing out at sea would have been impossible if people had not realized that the stars stay relatively constant in position above them. Following 2006-04-15T04:52:02-04:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/Ancient-Astronomy--28704.aspx Beyond Orgasmatron by: Keesling, Barbara “...We’re walking around with a complete health care system inside our own body.” Keesling does a pretty good job of emphasizing the this idea throughout the entire article. I must admit that from personal experience I do indeed agree with Keesling in that sex is great for the mind and body, as well as the fact that it could even be used as therapy for menstrual problems. She also makes a point of stating that “...sex also creates an emotional and physical bond that is essential...”. I agree, because it is also my experience and belief that although sex is not the entire relationship, it surely makes up about 80% of it, and if there is an inability to be open about one’s sexual life with thier partner, then one will never be able to attain a health tight bond with their other half. In this article, Keesling also states that orgasms differ between both individuals of the same sex or of opposing genders. For instance, she believes that once each individual has gained a ful and thorough understanding of their own particular “physical and psychological intensity” they will each be able to reach untamable levels of excitement that they would have never before thought possible. or example, “when males reach orgasm they quickly ejaculate, ” when females reach orgasm some realize it and some just do not. Studies have shown that women could experience up to three different types of orgasm at a time but they each involve the stimulation of the clitoris which intern make the PC muscles spas out (concluded by Masters and Johnson). Keesling, if very prompt to establish that the female orgasm is controversial, but needless to say, so is that of the male orgasm. She also goes on to say, that after extensive studies in sex laboratories, it was also discovered that like males, females also ejaculate but it is often too little to be acknowledged. This idea was initially published in The G Spot by Alice Ladas, Hohn Perry and Beverly Whipple. The male orgasm, for years, has been some what of a discrepancy because for a long time, Keesling says that the average man was believed to be incapable of obtaining multiple orgasms. Believe it or not, these ideas are past on through generations and the mind is so powerful, that even if they are capable, if 2006-04-15T04:46:15-04:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/Beyond-Orgasmatron--28701.aspx ALZHEIMER’S DISEASE Alzheimer’s disease is relentlessly destroying the brains and lives of our nation’s older adults, robbing them of memory, the ability to reason, and affecting their emotions and behavior. Alzheimer’s disease is a degenerative disorder of the brain. The longer we live the greater the risk: one out of every two Americans aged 85 and older and one out of every 10 aged 65 and older are afflicted with the disease. It affects two groups of people: those with the disease and the loved ones who care for them. By the year 2050, an estimated 14 million Americans will be in its grip. (Medina xi, 2) Alzheimer’s disease (AD) is a progressive disease of the brain, which is characterized by a gradual loss of memory and other mental functions. Alzheimer’s is the most common form of dementia -- a general term referring to loss of memory and the ability to think, reason, function, and behave appropriately. (Medina 4) The word dementia is derived from two Latin words, which mean away and mind, respectively. (Goldmann 2) It’s different from the mild forgetfulness normally observed in older people. Over the course of the disease, people with AD no longer recognize themselves or much about the world around them. (Medina 4) Alzheimer’s is marked by abnormal clumps, called senile plaques, and irregular knots, called neurofibrillary tangles, of brain cells. The plaque is an accumulation of an abnormal protein, amyloid. One theory regarding the cause of Alzheimer’s disease suggests that this plaque forms because the processes that normally operate to clear away this protein have become defective. Neurofibillary tangles are skeins of another abnormal protein, but the tangle is found inside the nerve cells. The reason why the tangles develop is not known, but the normal processing of protein by the cell seems to be disrupted. These tangles choke the nerve cells and prevent them for working properly. For reasons not well understood, these plaques and tangles take over healthy brain tissue, which devastates the areas of the brain associated with intellectual function. (Goldmann 6) There are a number of behaviors which may signal that a person might be in the beginning stages of Alzheimer’s disease. Here is a list of warning signs: (1) difficulty with familiar tasks, (2) slipping job performance, (3) language difficulties, (4) confusion of place and time, (5) lack of judgment, (6) problems in abstract thinking, (7) misplacing objects, 2006-04-15T04:44:44-04:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/Alzheimer-s-Disease-28700.aspx Aluminum, symbol Al, the most abundant metallic element in the earth\'s crust. The atomic number of aluminum is 13; the element is in group 13 (IIIa) of the periodic table. Hans Christian Orstead, Danish chemist, first isolated aluminum in 1825, using a chemical process involving potassium amalgam. Between 1827 and 1845, Friedrich Wöhler, a German chemist, improved Oersted\'s process by using metallic potassium. He was the first to measure the specific gravity of aluminum and show its lightness. In 1854 Henri Sainte-Claire Deville, in France, obtained the metal by reducing aluminum chloride with sodium. Aided by the financial backing of Napoleon III, Deville established a large-scale experimental plant and displayed pure aluminum at the Paris Exposition of 1855. Aluminum is a lightweight, silvery metal. The atomic weight of aluminum is 26.9815; the element melts at 660° C (1220° F), boils at 2467° C (4473° F), and has a specific gravity of 2.7. Aluminum is a strongly electropositive metal and extremely reactive. In contact with air, aluminum rapidly becomes covered with a tough, transparent layer of aluminum oxide that resists further corrosive action. For this reason, materials made of aluminum do not tarnish or rust. The metal reduces many other metallic compounds to their base metals. For example, when thermite (a mixture of powdered iron oxide and aluminum) is heated, the aluminum rapidly removes the oxygen from the iron; the heat of the reaction is sufficient to melt the iron. This phenomenon is used in the thermite process for welding iron . The oxide of aluminum is amphoteric—showing both acidic and basic properties. The most important compounds include the oxide, hydroxide, sulfate, and mixed sulfate compounds. Anhydrous aluminum chloride is important in the oil and synthetic-chemical industries. Many gemstones—ruby and sapphire, for example—consist mainly of crystalline aluminum oxide. Aluminum is the most abundant metallic constituent in the crust of the earth; only the nonmetals oxygen and silicon are more abundant. Aluminum is never found as a free metal; commonly as aluminum silicate or as a silicate of aluminum mixed with other metals such as sodium, potassium, iron, calcium, and magnesium. These silicates are not useful ores, for it is chemically difficult, and therefore an expensive process, to extract aluminum from them. bauxite an impure hydrated aluminum oxide, is the commercial source of aluminum and its compounds. In 1886 Charles Martin Hall in the United States and Paul L. T. Héroult in 2006-04-15T04:42:47-04:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/Aluminum-Essay--28699.aspx Alternative Medicine Throughout recorded history, people of various cultures have relied on what Western medical practitioners today call alternative medicine. The term alternative medicine covers a broad range of healing philosophies, approaches, and therapies. It generally describes those treatments and health care practices that are outside mainstream Western health care. People use these treatments and therapies in a variety of ways. Alternative therapies used alone are often referred to as alternative; when used in combination with other alternative therapies, or in addition to conventional therapies they are referred to as complementary. Some therapies are far outside the realm of accepted Western medical theory and practice, but some, like chiropractic treatments, are now established in mainstream medicine. Worldwide, only an estimated ten to thirty percent of human health care is delivered by conventional, biomedically oriented practitioners ("Fields of Practice"). The remaining seventy to ninety percent ranges from self-care according to folk principles, to care given in an organized health care system based on alternative therapies ("Fields of Practice"). Many cultures have folk medicine traditions that include the use of plants and plant products. In ancient cultures, people methodically collected information on herbs and developed well-defined herbal pharmacopoeias. Indeed, well into the twentieth century much of the pharmacology of scientific medicine was derived from the herbal lore of native peoples. Many drugs commonly used today are of herbal origin: one-quarter of the prescription drugs dispensed by community pharmacies in the United States contain at least one active ingredient derived from plant material ("Fields of Practice"). Twenty years ago, few physicians would have advised patients to take folic acid to prevent birth defects, vitamin E to promote a healthy heart, or vitamin C to bolster their immune systems. Yet today, doctor and patient alike know of the lifesaving benefits of these vitamins. Twenty years ago, acupuncture, guided imagery, and therapeutic touch were considered outright quackery. Now, however, in clinics and hospitals around the country, non-traditional therapies are gaining wider acceptance as testimonials and studies report success using them to treat such chronic maladies as back pain and arthritis. The number of people availing themselves of these alternative therapies is staggering. In 1991 about twenty-one million Americans made four hundred and twenty-five million visits to practitioners of these types of alternative medicine; more than the estimated three hundred and eighty-eight million visits made to general practitioners that year (Apostolides). The U.S. Department of Education 2006-04-15T04:39:55-04:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/Alternative-Medicine-Good-Read-28698.aspx COMPLIMENTARY and 2006-04-15T04:26:05-04:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/Complimentary-and-Aletrnative-Medicine-28697.aspx Colon Cancer I. Introduction A. What is Colon Cancer? B. Another name for Colon Cancer? II. Body A. General Information 1. Risk Factor for Colon Cancer a. age b. Diet c. family medical history 2. Screening for Colon Cancer a. Method i. Sigmoidoscopy or Colonoscopy ii. Blood stool test 3. Symptoms of Colon Cancer a. Changes in Bowel movements b. vomiting c. Rectal Bleeding d. back pain 4. Prognosis a. The amount of damage to DNA in tumor cell may affect b. The pattern of movement of cancer cell into the intestinal wall may have an effect on outcome. 5. Treatment a. Exercise b. Intake of vegetables c. Medications d. Surgery e. CT scans III. Conclusion A. Risk Factor B. Screening C. Prevention References 1. Chanita Hughes Halber, PhD; Henry Lyuch, MD;…James &Archives. “Archives of Internal Medicine”. Vol.164 No 17.27 September 27, 2004. “Colon Cancer Screening practice following…” <http://archinte.ama_assn.org/cgi/content/abstract/164/17/1881? 2006-04-03T15:34:01-04:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/Outline-on-Colon-Cancer-28654.aspx Cancer: Colon Cancer Human Physiology Colon cancer is considered as a pathophsiology disease. Cancer itself is an danger word to be heard by anyone and with colon attached to cancer, it could not sound any good. Any cancer is named according to the kind of organ tissue from which it develops million people, world wide, get different type of cancer every year. Colon cancer also known as colorectal cancer, is formed in the lining of the large intestine and rectum. The name “colorectal” is formed by colon and rectum. Colon plays an great rule in our digestive system. The colon is known to be responsible for absorbing water from what we eat, and in addition, for collecting food waste until we are able to digest it from the body. In the abdomen colon is shape of an upside-down “U”. In orders to treat a such an disease, one must learn the unique experience with symptom, diagnosis, different stages of colon cancer and the right treatment for an different stages that colon cancer is occurring. How one can define an such a disease as colon cancer? Nearly every disease has symptoms, and some symptoms may occur until the last stages of the disease. Symptoms of colon cancer include rectal bleeding, dark stools called melena, bowel movements, gas pains, back pain, and discharge from the rectum, As the tumor in the colon grows, it block which leads to later infections or bleeding in the abdominal cavity. As the tumor spreads, it can causes other types of problems, such as liver pains, loss of appetite, or other cancer of the organs. The diagnosed of colon cancer can be in many different ways. However, not many are getting tested for the disease until it is the screening for blood in stool is permitted, for people over the age of 50, even if they have no risk factors. Patient who are diagnosed with colon cancer can be tested by having a colonoscopy. Colonoscopy is a test in which doctors can look into the entire colon and collect tissue through the scope. Another test is endoscope where a small 2006-04-03T15:32:13-04:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/Colon-Cancer-Research-Paper-28653.aspx Cholera, Scientific Overview Alternative names Return to top Polio; Infantile paralysis Definition Return to top Poliomyelitis is a disorder caused by a viral infection (poliovirus) that can affect the whole body, including muscles and nerves. Severe cases may cause permanent paralysis or death. Causes, incidence, and risk factors Return to top Poliomyelitis is a communicable disease caused by infection with the poliovirus. Transmission of the virus occurs by direct person-to-person contact, by contact with infected secretions from the nose or mouth, or by contact with infected feces. The virus enters through the mouth and nose, multiplies in the throat and intestinal tract, and then is absorbed and spread through the blood and lymph system. Incubation (the time from being infected with the virus to developing symtoms of disease) ranges from 5 to 35 days (average 7 to 14 days). Risks include: • lack of immunization against polio • travel to an area that has experienced a polio outbreak • pregnancy; very old or very young age • trauma to the mouth/nose/throat, such as recent tonsillectomy or dental surgery • unusual stress or physical exertion after an exposure to poliovirus (emotional and physical stress can weaken the immune system) Polio occurs worldwide. However, no cases of polio have been reported in the United States in recent years. (The last case of non-vaccine related polio acquired in the United States was in 1979.) There have been very few cases in the Western hemisphere. It once affected mostly infants and children, but now is mostly seen in people over 15 years old. It is more common in the summer and fall. Adults and young girls are more likely to be infected, but infection in young boys is more likely to result in paralysis. Between 1840 and the 1950s, polio was a worldwide epidemic. Since the development of polio vaccines, the incidence is much reduced. Outbreaks still occur, usually in non-immunized groups. Symptoms Return to top There are three basic patterns of polio infection: subclinical infections, nonparalytic, and paralytic. Approximately 95% of these are subclinical infections, which may go unnoticed. Clinical poliomyelitis affects the central nervous system (brain and spinal cord) and is divided into nonparalytic and paralytic forms. It may occur after recovery from a subclinical infection. SUBCLINICAL INFECTION • no symptoms, or symptoms lasting 72 hours or less • slight fever • headache • general discomfort or uneasiness (malaise) • sore throat • red throat • vomiting NONPARALYTIC POLIOMYELITIS • symptoms last 1 to 2 2006-03-28T09:41:15-04:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/Cholera,-Scientific-Overview-28622.aspx 0. Introduction and table of contents The following is an organized presentation on the creation vs. evolution controversy. This is the fourth revision of a set of essays which I had originally submitted in note 840 of the now-archived Christian_V5 conference, with first revisions submitted in note 24 of the Christian_V6 conference and note 35 of the Biology conference, and second and third revisions submitted in note 25 and 640 of the now-archived Christian_V7 conference as of this writing, respectively. (These are employee-interest forums at my place of employment.) It is my hope that this will provide a logical and coherent framework for defending the fact of special creation and the abrupt appearance of life on earth against the popular dogma of evolution. "Always be prepared to give an answer to everyone who asks you to give the reason for the hope that you have." (1 Pet 3:15) Table of contents: 0. This introduction and table of contents 1. An abstract of the presentations to follow 2. A defense of Creation 3. "Chance" is not a cause 4. Life from non-life: Spontaneous Biogenesis? 5. Random genetic mutations 6. Natural Selection 7. Genetics and Micro-evolution 8. What about Taxonomy? 9. Transitional forms 10. The fossil record of life forms 11. Fossilization 12. Stratified layers of rock containing fossils 13. Uniformitarianism vs. Catastrophism 14. Radioisotope dating methods 15. Dating methods that suggest a young earth 16. The "Ape-men" 17. Science 18. Faith 19. Some objections to the design/chance arguments 20. Extra-terrestrial intelligence 21. Resource list 22. Primary source references As a preface to this document, I want to point out that it is a shame that we have to continue to refute the same arguments that evolutionists keep bringing up over and over again in their attempts to argue against the fact of creation, which fact has been well established since the day the earth was created ex nihilo several thousand years ago. Nevertheless, the neo-Darwinian dogma of the spontaneous auto-organization of random chemicals into complex biopolymers, by chance forming complex self-replicating automatic machines that then evolve into more and more complex self-replicating automatic machines through genetic transcriptional errors and the injection of random noise, filtered into highly coded information and structures by predators, the climate, and other mindless agents working together to produce an ecosystem capable of sustaining and improving all these countless life forms for billions of years has managed 2006-03-19T10:18:06-04:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/Evolution-vs_-Creation-28591.aspx Scientists continue to debate the history of man. It is generally agreed upon by the scientific community, however, that humans evolved from lesser beings, and this essay will function to provide evidence to support this claim. Several points will be outlined, including the general physical changes that occurred between several key species on the phylogeny of man, and a discussion of dating methods used to pinpoint the age of the fossils. This essay will begin with a brief discussion of dating techniques. In the study of hominid evolution, two main methods of dating are used: carbon-14 and potassium-argon dating. Carbon-14 dating involves the decay of radioactive C-14, which has a half life of 5770 years. This makes this method useful for dating of recent fossils, with good accuracy, up to 50,000 years back. After 5770 years, half of the carbon-14 in a fossil decays to nitrogen-14. Since the ratio of carbon-12 to carbon-14 in a living organism remains the same as in the environment around them because the organism constantly eats and replenishes it, if it were to die, the ratio would change greatly after many years. It is the difference between this ratio now and the time is died that allows a date for it to be established. Potassium-argon dating, another dating method, is possible due to volcanic ash and rocks found near many fossil sites. Rocks and ash created in this manner contain potassium-40, but no argon. As time passes, the potassium-40 decays into argon-40. In the laboratory, the sample is reheated, and since argon-40 is a gas, it is released. The ratio of argon-40 released to potassium-40 still present allows for a date to be assigned to objects near the sample. However, due to potassium's high half-life (1.3 billion years), it is only useful as a dating technique for finds older than 500,000 years old. Also, it is only useful where volcanic activity existed. Both these methods have error margins, ranging from a few thousand years in carbon-14 dating to tens of thousands of years, or more, for potassium-argon dating. However, thanks to scientific breakthroughs, these two processes can be used with reasonable security in establishing a time for fossils. Humans have existed on the Earth for approximately 3.4 million years. At least, that’s from when the oldest human ancestors have been found. The oldest known human is the fossil "Lucy," an 2006-03-19T10:16:35-04:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/Becoming-of-Mankind-28590.aspx Investigating Osmosis In Potato Cells Apparatus: The apparatus used in this experiment were: 1) 5 beakers, 2) 3 large potatoes (same type), 3) 15 pieces of potato without skin (roughly the same size), 4) 10 pins, 5) 50ml of distilled water, 6) 50ml salt solution 0.50, 7) 50ml salt solution 1.00, 8) 50ml salt solution 1.50, 9) 50ml salt solution 2.00 10) Scales, 11) Knife, 12) chopping board, 13) cork borer, Prediction & Theory: When the potato pieces are put in to the water there are more water molecules in the water then there is in the potato cells; therefore the water molecules move by osmosis into the potato cells through the membrane. This means that the mass of the potato piece will increase and the potato will feel harder. When the potato pieces are put in to the salt water there are more water molecules in the potato cells then in the salt water; therefore the water molecules by osmosis into the water from the potato. This means that the mass of the potato piece will decrease, and it will feel really soft. The stronger the concentration of the salt solution the more it will decrease in weight. Fair Testing: The things needed to be kept the same during this experiment to make it a fair test are: 1) The amount of each concentration must be 50ml. 2) There must be 3 pieces of potato in each concentration. 3) The same potato must be kept the same. 4) They all have to be left for the same amount of time. 5) They all have to be washed to get rid of the dead cells. Method: Making sure that there is a chopping board down cut with a cork borer 15 pieces of potato, but make sure that there isn't any holes and that you cut of the dead skin and that all the pieces are roughly the same size. In 5 pieces of potato put a pin at the top end, in another 5 pieces of potato put a pin in the middle, and leave the last 5 without out. This is done so that each piece is easier to identify when weighing. Weigh each piece of potato and make a note wether is has a pin in and what concentration it's going in to. Fill 5 beakers with the 5 solutions (see apparatus), and then put 3 pieces of potato one with the pin in 2006-02-16T03:25:59-05:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/Investigating-Osmosis-In-Potato-Cells-28497.aspx The Biological Importance Of Water";"The Biological importance of Water Generally, the main biological importance of water is that life cannot exist without it. In fact on a percentage basis, the majority of any organism is comprised of water. Additionally, it is believed that life first originated in the bodies of water on the earth. The importance of water is seen in such third world countries as Kenya. Where the inhabitants are forced to drink water so dirty and contaminated that they know it might kill them. However they still drink it because it’s essential for life. The solvent properties of water are essential for living organisms to survive. The solubility of the substances needed by the organism depends on the ability of water to interact with them, and the polarity of water plays a critical role. Water is an excellent solvent for ionic compounds such as sodium chloride. This is because cations like sodium ions become surrounded by a shell of water molecules each attracted to the positive charge by the slight negative charge on the water-oxygen atoms. Anions are hydrated through the attraction of the slight positive charge of water-hydrogen atoms to their negative charge. Substances, inparticular polar substances, which dissociate in water, are known as hydrophilic. Covalent compounds are harder for water to act as the solvent. Some molecules have strong intramolecular forces, which prevent their solution in water, but have charged surfaces, which attract a covering of water molecules. This covering ensures that the molecules remain dispersed throughout the water, rather than forming large aggregates, which could settle out. The dispersed particles and liquid around them collectively form a colloid. Such substances are sugar and alcohols. This is important because such molecules provide an osmotic effect, which helps to draw water into the blood vessels of living organisms. The fact that water is a very effective solvent allows all of the substances essential for the functioning of cells and organisms (glucose, amino acids, vitamins, fats, respiratory gases) are transported around in solution in the blood. This means that water acts as a transport medium for the polar solutes. It carries things needed by cells to cells and products from cells to other cells and waste products to be excreted. In mammals this happens in the blood and in plants it happens in the xylem and phloem. Similarly all metabolic reactions, catalysed by enzymes occur in solution. Chemicals can only react with each other 2006-02-12T21:40:52-05:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/The-Biological-Importance-Of-Water-28482.aspx Crude Oil Petroleum also known as crude oil, naturally occurring oily is a bituminous liquid composed of organic chemicals. Petroleum means rock oil, from the Greek petros (rock) and oleum (oil). It occurs in the earth in liquid, gaseous or solid forms. The term is usually restricted to the liquid form, commonly called crude oil but as a technical term it also includes natural gas and the viscous or solid form known as bitumen. Petroleum is a complex mixture of organic liquids consisting of hydrocarbons (compounds composed mainly of hydrogen and carbon with some nitrogen, sulphur and oxygen). Petroleum is formed under the earth’s surface by the decomposition of marine organisms. The remains of tiny organisms that live in the sea, that are carried down to the sea in rivers and of plants that grow on the ocean bottom are enmeshed with the fine sands and silts and settle to the bottom in quiet sea basins. Such deposits that are rich in organic materials become the source rocks for the generation of crude oil. The process began millions of years ago and still goes on today. Trapped in fine-grained sediments, the remains are cooked by the heat of the earth to produce oil and gas. Once the petroleum forms, it flows upwards in the earth’s crust because it has a lower density than the constituents of the earth’s crust. When petroleum is trapped, a reservoir of petroleum is formed. Exploration is probably one of the most important steps of producing oil. In order to find oil underground geologists, geophysicists and exploration engineers attempt to search for it so that petroleum-producing companies can drill for it. They must search for a sedimentary basin in which shales rich in organic material have been buried for a sufficient long time for petroleum to form. The petroleum must also have had an opportunity to migrate into porous traps that are capable of holding large amounts of fluid. The occurrence of crude oil in the earth’s crust is limited both by these conditions, which must be met simultaneously, and by the time of span of tens of millions to a hundred millions years required for the oil’s formation. These people have many tools at their disposal such as Jack Ups, Semi-submersibles and Drill ships to assist in identifying potential areas for drilling. Exploration mostly involves luck, with one out of ten drilling becoming commercial successes. When crude oil is 2006-02-12T21:39:19-05:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/Crude-Oil--28481.aspx Ribosomes What's most important? · Ribosomes are small dot-like structures in cells. · Ribosomes are often associated closely with endoplasmic reticulum(ER), forming rough ER. · Ribosomes are the site of protein synthesis in cells. Structure Ribosomes are made up of proteins and ribonucleic acid(RNA). These molecules are arranged into two subunits called the large and small subunits. These subunits are attached to each other and together form the entire ribosome. When viewed through a light microscope the ribosomes appear as dots, they are very small and the subunits can not be seen. Function The only function of ribosomes is to build proteins. The plan for the protein in the form of mRNA passes through a groove in the ribosome. The ribosome "reads" the plan and assembles the proper sequence of amino acids to build the protein. There are two kinds of ribosomes, those attached to the endoplasmic reticulum and those floating in the cell cytoplasm. Attached ribosomes make proteins that are used in the ER or transported within the ER. Free ribosomes make proteins that are used in the cytoplasm. The details of how ribosomes make proteins are presented in the "Protein Synthesis" section of your biology book. This is a complicated process beyond the scope of this document. Details Ribosomes are made in the nucleus of the cell. Ribosomes are about 60% rRNA by weight. A ribosome can make the average protein in about one minute. Ribosomes often line up in clusters called polyribosomes, these are connected by the mRNA and all make the same protein. In this way the cell can make many copies of a protein very fast. The cell or plasma membrane was once thought to be a simple barrier that kept the contents of the cell, the cytoplasm, contained. It serves as a gateway which helps to control materials going in and out of the cell. With more research, it turns out the cell membrane is very important in a wide range of cell activities including functions related to cancer and AIDS. Structurally, the membrane is a lipid bilayer. What this means is that, under the electron microscope two separate layers can be seen. The layers are composed of a two part molecule called a phospholipid. The lipids (fatty acids) are "water fearing" (hydrophobic) molecules. Just try to mix oil and water to see what that means. The phosphate end is water loving (hydrophilic). The membrane forms 2006-01-31T04:00:23-05:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/6-Orgenels-Project-28464.aspx The Nitrogen Cycle The nitrogen cycle is a complex biological cycle involving the recycling of usable nitrogen. If this cycle ceased to occur, all forms of life on the planet would die. 2006-01-29T05:41:03-05:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/The-Nitrogen-Cycle--28459.aspx Cro-Magnon report A cro-magnon is a early type of modern man named after the cro-magnon cave near Les Eyzies in the Dordogne,France, where four of the skeletons were discovered in 1868.Cro-magnons species grew in southern Europe during the last glacial age. The cro-magnons wore clothes and decorated their bodies with jewlery and ornaments of shell and bone. They were also skilled in carving and sculpturing with bone. IIn 1868 a fossil skull was discovered in the rock shelter of cro-magnon in southwestern France that can't be distinguished from a modern human skull.The tools that cro-magnons made were different from the tools made by neandertals and are connsidered to be more deep and advanced.A number of caverns in the Dordogne valley , Spain, Germany, and central Europe. Cro-magnon man was anatomically identical to modern humans, but differed significantly from Neandertals who disapeared in the fossil about 10,000 years after the appearance of Aurignacian and other paleothic populations. The abrupt disappearance of neanderthal populations and the assoicated mousterian technologies, the sudden appearance of modern Homo sapiens and the associated upper paleolithic technologies, and the absence of transitional anatomical or technologicalforms have led most researchers to conclude that Neanderthalswere driven to extinction through competition with cro magnons or related populations. The Homo sapiens were present during the end of the Ice Age, and were very adapted to living in this cold environment .They were short in stature averaging about 5'5" and had short arms and legs .This body shape helped to conserve heat. They also had an amazing projection in their nasal cavity thought to have provided more surface area for mucus to warm the cold frigid air before entering their bodies . Their brain was larger than modern humans, but it was longer and not as rounded . The Upper Paleolithic Period In the Upper Paleolithic period Neanderthal man disappears and is replaced by a variety of Homo sapiens such as Cro-Magnons . This, saw an astonishing number of human cultures, such as the Aurignacian, Gravettian, Perigordian, Solutrean, and Magdalenian, rise and develop in the Old World. The beginnings of communal hunting and extensive fishing are found here, as is the shelters, were built, sewn clothing was worn, and sculpture and painting originated. Tools were of great variety, including flint and obsidian blades and projectile points. It is probable that the people of the Aurignacian culture migrated to Europe after developing their distinctive culture elsewhere, perhaps in 2006-01-22T02:45:25-05:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/Homo-Sapien-Development--28449.aspx Smallpox Why has the threat of smallpox recently come up in the media? With the occurrences of anthrax in the United States the subject of biological warfare has been ignited. Adding to the threat of smallpox, secretary of Health and Human Services Tommy Tompson proposed a contract to congress that would equip the defense department with three million vaccines to the smallpox virus. In this contract four large pharmaceutical companies would receive 500 million dollars to have these vaccines prepared before the end of 2002. With such high nation defense representatives moving for such actions the possibility of biological warfare utilizing smallpox seems to be closer than ever. What is smallpox and what does it do? Smallpox is a virulent infection that was considered to be eliminated form the world in 1977. Smallpox’s were highly contagious and were deadly for one and three victims. Upon exposure symptoms include high fever, fatigue, and head and back aches. Rashes then breakout on the face, legs, and arms. Red lesions then arise becoming pus-filled in the fallowing week. Smallpox is highly contagious within the first week of exposure and can be transmitted through Silvia conduction and face-to-face contact. Where as anthrax cannot be transmitted form person to person, smallpox can which presents a great possibility of an epidemic if introduced into the American population. Smallpox is believed to be the longest lived human pathogen with a history dating back 2000 years. The Spaniards brought smallpox to the states in the 1700’s were it then killed off ninety percent of the American Indians with in 100 years. Smallpox as a new threat? To date no cure has been found for smallpox and the use of smallpox vaccinations as a pre smallpox treatment was discontinued almost 25 years ago. Without a cure to the possible outbreak smallpox is a great threat if not controlled to a certain extent. If smallpox were to enter the U.S. it would be vital to use aggressive containment in stopping it from spreading further and quick response to ensure safety form an outbreak. Within the last twenty years the United States and the Soviet Union were the only countries allowed by the International Biological Study Center to study smallpox and control sample infections. Due to the fall of the Soviet Union it is believed that some of these warfare-based smallpox have fallen 2006-01-07T07:32:25-05:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/Smallpox--28412.aspx Benecol Case Study In this case analysis I will address issues facing the Raisio group’s potential threats and opportunities. I will also include suggestive actions I believe to be the best for the firm. Raisio’s new product Benecol margarine is a functional food product which helps lower the LDL-cholesterol value of humans by approximately fifteen percent. This health argument is the main feature of the product. Raiso was under pressure from competitors, and needed to penetrate the market quickly. Introducing Benecol as a food would be a lengthy process. This led to the introduction of Benecol as a dietary supplement. The FDA was a threat to Raisio, stating the product was a food and not a dietary supplement. The U.S Food and Drug Administration regulate their name: food and drugs. They do not, however, deal with dietary supplements. Raisio cleverly devised a marketing plan around the FDA, by calling it a dietary supplement. It looks and tastes like margarine; but it is not food, it is a supplement. The FDA obviously disagrees with this form of thinking. The new margarine is controversial, not because of health concerns but because of the way it is being marketed. I believe the reason for the delay of Benecol is based on poor marketing decisions and strategy. To succeed, this product would have required a major change in the behavior of consumers. Benecol, a product to lower cholesterol, required eating a large quantity of margarine to benefit from the active ingredient. This was a behavioral change that should not have been expected realistically from US consumers trying to lower high cholesterol. These are the same consumers who have been conditioned to lower their consumption of margarine. The science behind the benefit of Benecol’s active ingredient had been proven in Finland, which had a higher usage of margarine compared to the US. The marketers of Benecol not only missed this essential flaw, but also they priced the product at an expensive level, which ignored the typical US consumer practice of choosing margarine based on price. These marketing mistakes led to a delay in what could have been a very lucrative market. In my opinion the Raisio group needs to focus on the food additive path. They also need to establish approval 2006-01-06T06:47:02-05:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/Benecol-Case-Study--28404.aspx Ritalin Ritalin is a drug that many of us have probably heard of. It is a drug prescribed to students with ADHD. Is a drug whose use is very beneficial for our children, or is it a drug that should be cautiously prescribed and saved for only the worse ADHD? I feel that people should use more caution in the prescription of Ritalin. The term ADHD stands for Attention Deficit Hyperactive Disorder. Its characteristics are people whose minds are often wondering, focusing on many different things at once. ADHD affects children as well as adults, but is far more common in boys than girls. The impairment ADHD has been increasingly diagnosed in resent years. It seems that everyone knows a person with the impairment. I feel that a lot of these diagnosis are simply because everyone has heard of the impairment. It is as if many people have suddenly decided what years ago was just a rowdy kid is now a kid with a neurological impairment. ADHD has now become the number one psychiatric disorder among Americas children. Experts believe 2 million children have the disorder. The drug Ritalin is a drug that calm the agitated by stimulating the brain. It helps students and adults to keep his/her concentration and keep the brain on task. It is often used as a quick fix in the attempt to control ADHD. In schools across America Ritalin is being taken more and more often to allow students with ADHD to focus on class and to help them keep their hyperactivity under control. To diagnose ADHD a student must be examined by a physician. In the past ten years the times Ritalin has been prescribed to students is up five fold. Many times Ritalin is suggested by a schoolteacher or counselor who causes the doctor to be pressured into prescribing it. This is not good. A drug as strong as Ritalin should not be prescribed simply because the doctor feels pressure to prescribe it because it is the “in” drug. Today 1.3 million children take a drug that is considered a Schedule II controlled substance, in the same class as cocaine and methamphetamine. The Drug Enforcement Agency would like for the drug to be prescribed less and maybe even have the restrictions increased. But the parents groups, the ones who should be the most cautious about give their children drugs of any kind, would like 2006-01-03T07:16:46-05:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/Ritalin--28390.aspx Cancere Treatments - Taming the Tyrant One of the deadliest, un-curable, and common disease, which our nation is plagued with, is cancer. Cancer accounts for one out of four deaths in the United States (Elliot). There are two fields of information concerning this disease, the traditional medical routine of radiation and chemotherapy; and there is also the alternative use of shark cartilage. Due to the unsuccessful results of medical treatments alone, I believe that alternative forms of treatment will become more popular and accepted in the medical world. Upon this acceptance the combination of alternative and medical treatments will over come the cancerous tyrant. This paper is going to take you through the diagnosis, treatment, investigations, and healing of a fictitious character, Amy and her husband Adam. Amy has gone to her family doctor for an annual checkup, the doctor suspects cancer, so blood work is taken. The results announce that she in fact is in the thirty-three percentile of woman who the American Cancer Society states will be diagnosed with cancer. Amy’s doctor informs her of the treatment, which she will undergo; surgery followed by radiation and chemotherapy. No other option is given, so Amy consents. In preparing for this battle against cancer, Amy and her husband begin to read about the therapy she will undergo. She found that the article “Whatever it Takes” reported the following, “ David Rosenthal, an MD and president of the American Cancer Society, reported that overall cancer mortality rates had decreased an average of 0.5% each year since 1991…(Elliot)” This was a little encouraging to Amy. She thought, “ I guess medical technology has found a way to begin increasing the mortality rate of cancer patients”. While Amy was at the library obtaining information concerning her treatment, she noticed books in a section entitled “ Alternative Medicine”. She did not approach the section because she had not really heard much about these types of treatments and, quite frankly, they frightened her. She perceived them to be barbaric and untraditional. The first step to Amy’s fight against cancer was removing the cancerous tumor with surgery. Once the tumor was removed she began her first treatment of radiation. The University of Pennsylvania Cancer Center’s website OncoLink, describes radiation as “a type of high energy that comes from special machines (i.e. X-ray machines) or radioactive sources. When used at high 2006-01-03T07:10:57-05:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/Cancere-Treatments-Taming-the-Tyrant-28389.aspx How have adaptation experiments contributed to the understanding of visual perception? Perception involves the input of basic information from a retinal image. Retinal images can be ambiguous in terms of size and orientation of lines, blood vessels infront of the retina, eye tremors and the blind spot can affect perceptual responses. One retinal pattern can lead to different interpretations and distorted images from inadequate sensory data, but perception of something as a recognisable object remains stable despite variations in the retinal image, such as light, or position of the object. Perception is a process of construction, a stable, veridical or true representation of the world which needs to be constructed. The retinal image can be ambiguous due to different sizes, slants or distances, but still leads to a particular interpretation of the object. Eye movements are not a series of fixations, clips of static images, but smooth movements resulting in a continually moving image. Shadows of blood vessels over receptor cells in the retina can lead to distortions in the retinal image, but the eye takes information from the environment to the brain for a perception to be constructed. People do not see ‘snapshots’ of the world, the eye and optic nerve does not send pictures to the brain, it transmits information regarding the patterns of light that hit the retina. The visual pathway involves the retina, which includes photoreceptors, rods and cones. Rods are sensitive to dark and light, cones are responsive to colour. Both form a layer at the back of the retina. Retinal ganglion cells (RGC) form another layer infront of the photoreceptors, RGC axons leave the eye and form the optic nerve. Adaptation occurs in the retina to adjust the sensitivity of receptors and vary the light intensity. Sensitivity is mainly adjusted by adaptation to match the light intensity at that moment. There is also light adaptation, going from a dark to bright environment, a quick process, and dark adaptation going from a bright to dark environment which takes longer. Items can be recognised by a key or sign stimulus of the object such as angels or features that don’t vary even if the image changes. Barlow (1972) suggested that single cells in the visual pathway act as feature detectors, cells are tuned to respond when particular features are present. Barlow also proposed that cells and neurons are arranged in a hierarchy with 2006-01-02T04:01:11-05:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/How-Adaption-Experiments-Contribute-to-Visual-Perception-28378.aspx Euthanasia After talks with her husband, sons, minister, and local doctors; Janet Adkins decided she didn¹t want to undergo the sustained mental deterioration that Alzheimer¹s Disease caused (Uhlman 111). She began to realize she had the disease when she started forgetting songs and failed to recognize notes as she played the piano (Filene 188). ³She read in Newsweek about Dr. Jack Kevorkian and his ŒMercitron¹ machine, then saw him on the ŒDonahue¹ Television show² (Filene 188). With her husband¹s consent but objections by sons and doctors, she telephoned him to arrange to kill herself (Filene 188). She still had a life expectancy of at least ten years with the illness, but she wished to die. She wanted to die before the disease robbed her of her competence (Larson 229). Kevorkian later killed Adkins and faced the consequences boldly (Hendin, ³Suicide in America² 247). The background, process, and effects of Dr. Kevorkian¹s questionable first patient, Janet Adkins, have a very detailed story in them. Janet Adkins led a very productive life up to and even after she had been diagnosed with Alzheimer¹s, but she couldn¹t handle losing control of her brain (Filene 188). She was 54 years old and lived in a wealthy Oregon suburb with her stock broker husband, Ron. She was also the mother of three sons, taught English and piano, went hang gliding, trekked in Nepal, climbed Mount Hood, and generally behaved with a lot of energy (Gutmann 20). She and her husband were longtime Hemlock society members, which advocates Euthanasia in some cases (Betzold 22). ³Doctors at a Portland hospital told her that eventually she would be dependent on her husband for feeding and bathing² (Gutmann 21). She did not want to take her own life in case she messed it up, and her own doctors wouldn¹t help her (Hendin , ³Seduced by Death² 132). Though she was still able to carry on clear conversations and demolish her son at tennis; her husband explained that if she was going to go, she¹d probably want to go to soon rather than to late (Gutmann 21). After hearing about Kevorkian, Ron Adkins contacted him to employ his services (Wolfson 56). Her husband complained to Dr. Kevorkian that he had to 2006-01-01T21:12:36-05:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/Euthanasia--28365.aspx Diabetes Treatment Introduction Type 1 Diabetes mellitus, formerly known as insulin-dependent diabetes mellitus is a disease that is defied as a metabolism disorder. It affects about 5-10% of the diabetic population estimating to about 4.9 people worldwide. In this type of diabetes, the onset of elevated blood sugar levels usually begin abruptly in a fairly dramatic way before the age of 30 and about half of all the cases appear during childhood. The cause of diabetes type 1 is an autoimmune destruction in which the immune system produces antibodies that attack the pancreatic £]-cells. Insulin in the body that serves to suppress glucose production in the liver and its release from storage depots into the bloodstream. Without insulin, glucose in the blood remains virtually useless and the bodies cells are deprived of fuel, despite an increase in blood sugar levels (Alterman, 2000). The only possible type of treatment of Type 1 diabetes up until recently is taking daily insulin injections while constantly monitoring one¡¦s blood sugar level. The only permanent cure available for it is cell replacement therapy (Assady et. al., 2000). However, the lack of suitable donors opposed a major problem in accomplishing it. It wasn¡¦t until after the discovery of methods to isolate and grow human embryonic stem cells in 1998 by Professor James A. Thomson from the Univ. of Wisconsin that a feasible method came into view. Embryonic stem cells are derived from the inner cells mass of one of the earliest stages in the development of the embryo, the stage when it is a blastocyst. Blastocysts have the potential to self-replicate and is pluripotent (can give rise to cells derived to form all three germ layers), thus being able to differentiate into insulin producing pancreatic cells. Since type 1 diabetes is an autoimmune disease, the use of stem cells to restore those destroyed cells would be reasonable. The embryonic stem cells of working pancreatic islets cells are extracted from a rodent (due to controversial issues dealing with the use of human embryonic stem cells) and cultured on mediums until they differentiate. They are then implanted into a person or another rodent with diabetes so that they would function in-vivo to process the glucose like an actual pancreatic islet cell would. Two Different Approaches to Stem Cell Differentiation In order to successfully differentiate stem cells to replicate normal insulin 2006-01-01T00:39:04-05:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/Diabetes-Treatment--28347.aspx Lead Poisoning Lead poisoning is one of the most common environmental child health problems in the United States and is caused by too much lead in the body. Lead is especially harmful to children younger than 6, but anyone who eats, drinks or breathes something which has too much lead can get lead poisoning. Large amounts of lead in a child's blood can cause brain damage, mental retardation, behavior problems, anemia, liver and kidney damage, hearing loss, hyperactivity, developmental delays, other physical and mental problems, and in extreme cases, death. Where does lead come from? Lead in paint- About 75 percent of houses and apartments built before 1978 in the United States contain lead paint. Houses built before 1960 may contain old lead paint with concentrations up to 50 percent lead by weight. Lead in dust- Window sills and window wells often have high levels of lead dust. In addition to lead dust from paint, lead dust also comes from soil and airborne emissions, such as incinerators, smelters and other industries. Many children are poisoned by lead dust brought home by their parents from the workplace- millions of people are exposed to lead in their jobs. Lead in soil- Outside, in public playgrounds and in their own yards, the dirt where children play may contain high lead levels. Decades of peeling exterior building paint, air emissions from leaded car exhaust and pollution from smelters and other industries are significant sources. The highest levels of lead in soil usually are found close to foundations of homes painted with exterior leaded paint. Lead in water- The Environmental Protection Agency estimates drinking water from old lead pipes and service lines in city systems and from home plumbing. Even after lead pipes were banned, leaded solder was legal for use on drinking water lines until the 1980s and is still for sale in hardware stores. Faucets and plumbing fittings may legally contain up to 8 percent lead. The greatest risk is to infants using formula mixed with contaminated water. Other lead sources- Lead can leach into food or beverages stored in imported ceramics or pottery and leaded crystal and china. Certain hobbies use products with lead in them (fishing sinkers, stained glass, ceramics.) Why is there concern about low lead levels in children? Even small amounts of lead can harm a child's brain, kidneys and stomach. Lead poisoning can slow 2005-12-31T06:18:42-05:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/Informative-Essay-on-Lead-Poisoning-28340.aspx ADD [Hyperactivity Disorder] Many people remembered that Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder was once called hyperkinesis or minimal brain dysfunction. This disorder is one of the most common mental disorders among children. Seen through a child eyes with ADHD is like a fast-moving kaleidoscope, where sounds, images and thoughts are constantly turning. Every person has experienced some of these symptoms once in their life. Just not everyday all day like a person with ADHD. This does not only affect the person with the disorder but the people around them. Whether it is your mom and dad, teacher, friends, or siblings. They need to understand that ADHD is a real disability that effects all aspects of a person’s life. “Additionally, there are now brain studies that show that when someone with ADHD is told to “just try harder” and does, the result can be anxiety and a brain that actually starts to shut down it’s primary executive functions (Booth).” For a while now scientists have come up with many different theories about ADHD. Some theories have ended up short and some have opened up new and exciting doors of investigation. One theory was that anyone with ADHD has had some minor head injuries or undetectable damage to the brain. For a long time this disorder was called “minimal brain damage” or “minimal brain dysfunction.” But as researchers found out that only certain types of head injuries can explain some cases of attention disorder. In knowing that the theory was excluded. Because children with ADHD often struggle in their schoolwork, peer relations, and ability to follow rules at home and at school, it is reasonable to hypothesize that their feelings of capability suffer as a result. Thus, the self-image of children with ADHD were lower than those of other children with regards to their feelings about their behavior, their ability to get along with others, and their ability to succeed in school. The parents need to pay attention to the feelings that a child with ADHD has about him or herself. In many instances, particularly when parents are struggling to manage their child's difficult behavior, it can be easy to lose sight of the effects that ADHD can have on some children's self-esteem. When one considers how much negative feedback a child with ADHD may contend with on 2005-12-30T19:16:18-05:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/ADD-Hyperactivity-Disorder-28325.aspx Cancer Oral Presentation Good afternoon residents of Balle Cara – ladies and gentlemen, I’d like you all now to take a moment, clear your minds of any distracting thoughts and see if you can picture this scenario as I describe it. Consider this – You wake up one fine summer’s morning, as you would usually do. Today however, you’re feeling ever so mildly ill. Almost immediately you realise that cause of this, you’re red with sunburn. For most of the previous day you spent enjoying yourself in the sun and did not make much of an effort to protect yourself with sun cream or a hat. So you’re are suffering from a mild sun sickness. So you decide to have a shower to freshen yourself up for the day ahead. The cool water pouring all over in the shower allows you to detect something else out of the ordinary. There’s a funny, sore feeling emitting from the far side of your left arm. So you decide to inspect the case of this ache. It’s one of your moles. A previously tiny little thing that you’ve had since you were a child. However it has gone through some significant changes since you last inspected it. It’s gone from the small well rounded little thing to a giant, crooked shaped horrible black thing, something that looks like this (show ref.1) really hot and bumpy to touch. You don’t realise it yet, but your once friendly little mole has turned into a fully-grown melanoma, a horrible type of skin cancer. One big enough to cause you some serious harm and even eventually kill you if it’s not removed immediately. (pause) Ok that’s enough pretending for now. Your probably thinking, this could never happen to me, I don’t have many moles, and the ones I do have are well under control. Well I’m here to tell you today, ladies and gentlemen that even though you might think that was a pretty extreme scenario, something similar to that is very much a reality for many thousands of Australians today, and countless others around the world. Now melanoma isn’t the only type of cancer that can seriously harm you, all cancers can, cancers like Lymphoma, stomach cancer, cancer of the pancreas, cancer of the immune system and of course there’s the very common lung cancer. Now thousands upon thousands of people die per year in Australia alone from one sort of cancer or another and 2005-12-30T05:06:34-05:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/Cancer-Oral-Presentation-28307.aspx Mescaline and Peyote Mescaline comes from the Mexican peyote cactus, which is small, sporeless cactus that grows in the deserts of Mexico and the American Southwest. Whenever the crown is sliced and dried, it forms a hard brownish disc that’s known as a button. The buttons are chewed for its hallucegenic properties. The Indians first chewed them in the sixteenth century for religious and spiritual purposes, but when Spaniards reached the New World they outlawed peyotism which they thought had something to do with witchcraft or cannibalism. But peyote was still being used, like in Mexico during the Civil War. It spreaded north on a far scale. Even though eleven states wanted to ban religious use of peyote, federal courts affirmed the right to sacramental use by Native Americans. Then in 1990 they affirmed the right of ritual peyote use. Peyote users feel that the drug improves their ability to experience the truth, but when the effects wear off by time it doesn’t seem as mind-boggling. Peyote is believed to give special powers of insight and healing, plus it is believed to make you see the future. Mescaline is one of fifty psychoactive ingredients in peyote. It was first isolated from peyote in 1896 and was named after Mescalero Apaches. It was used as a widely experimental treatment for disorders such as alcoholism or psychosis. Mescaline makes your food temperature rise, increases your heart rate and dilates your pupils. Mescaline also effects your concentration too, and you don’t fully recover until about twelve hours. Neither mescaline nor peyote is addicting. It does produce a tolerance though. As both peyote and mescaline have grown users have always faces two dangers which are sudden panic attacks and feelings of intense fear or losing control of your self. It was one of the earliest psychedelic drugs to become popular in the twentieth century. The effect’s are very similar to LSD, but has less change in thoughts and mood. It’s also said to leave ones self intact. Like LSD it’s supposed to give colorful intense visual effects and complicates geometrical nature, but when mind disassociates with reality the only way to treat sometimes is by talking. That is similar to what happens people have bad trips with LSD. The only way to make one feel better 2005-12-29T07:34:37-05:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/Mescaline-and-Peyote--28298.aspx Are Organic Foods Better For You? Organic farming began in the late 1940’s in the United States, and in recent years it has seen a dramatic increase in popularity (Rubin 1). The sales of organic foods have been increasing by about 20 percent a year over the past decade (Marcus 1). That is over ten times the rate of their conventional counterparts (Harris 1). There are 10 million consumers of organic food in the United States, yet organic food represents only one percent of the nation’s food supply. This year organic food sales are expected to rise to six billion dollars (Rubin 1). So what are organic foods? Organic foods are those which are grown without hormones, pesticides, or synthetic fertilizers. Also, the soil in which organic foods are grown must be “clean” for three years (Howe 4). Nearly 70 percent of the American public believes that the organic label on food products means they are safer to eat and better for the environment according to a survey by the National Center for Public Policy (Cummins 1). Organic farming does have its advantages. It conserves water and soil resources, recycles animal waste, releases fewer chemicals, improves soil fertility, promotes diversity of crops, and protects farm workers, livestock, and wildlife from potentially harmful pesticides (Rubin 4). But are organic foods safer than conventional foods? Not only can organic foods be contaminated with bacteria and pesticides, but also they are more expensive than conventional foods, yet do not offer a better nutritional value or significantly better taste. Sir John Krebs, a zoologist appointed to head the Food Standards Agency in the United Kingdom said that “people who bought organic food thinking it was safer or more nutritious were wasting their money” (Jones 1). Critics of organic farming claim that it is dangerous, environmentally damaging and, above all, incapable of feeding an overpopulated world because crop yields are lower than in conventional agriculture (Jones 2). If you are looking for health benefits from organic foods, save your money. Organic foods are not necessarily safer than conventional foods. Eileen White, owner of a health food store that sells organic products, says, “I can’t guarantee that organic foods are safer than regular foods, but that is just a risk that some consumers are willing to take.” ABC’s “20-20” reported finding higher concentrations of 2005-12-28T05:32:23-05:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/Are-Organic-Foods-Better-For-You-28291.aspx Murder Mystery - Using Forensics A decent amount of murderers always leave behind clues for the FBI to allow them to figure out who was the culprit in the crime. One really big clue is DNA or blood on the crime scene. In our chemistry mystery, our murderer slips some sodium solfide into a mixed drink, then finishes him with a pistol, but the evidence remains on the scene and it is blood. Blood is something that every living Human Being has. Human red blood cells may contain one or both or neither of 2 antigens, named A or B. Your blood therefore is one of four types: A, B, AB or O, which means it contains neither A or B antigen. Blood type AB is the most rare therefore finding that type at a crime scene narrows down the possibilities. The opposite of that is finding type O bloods, for it is the most common and would have a wide variety of suspects. There is also a thing that is called genetic markers. Genetic Markers function the same for every human being. There are so many genetic markers that finding 3 or 4 same markers in a human being is enough to pick him out of 1 million people. So if they have the same blood type and 3 or 4 genetic markers, it is pretty clear to have them as a top prospect. But once the blood is outside the body, the enzymes deteriorate. By the time that a bloodstain dries, some of the genetic markers are already gone. Since everyone blood type is kept on record, they can just look you up on a computer to see if you are a suspect or not. Another tactic to catch the criminal and plays a big part is called blood splattering. By observing the size, shape, distribution, location, angle of impact, and the surface it was found on, can tell you a whole a lot about the crime. This also means that if a blood splatter was found on someone it means that they were at the scene when the crime happened. Blood splattering can also tell how many times that a victim was hit, it sometimes can leave a cast off stain, which is just like when the blood on the knife, flies off during 2005-12-27T01:46:08-05:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/Murder-Mystery-Using-Forensics-28267.aspx The Evolution of Man In the video series In Search Of Human Origins, Don Johanson the anthropologist who discovered the oldest human fossil "Lucy" leads us from Lucy's origins as one of our earliest ancestors through the stages of evolution to the present time. Johanson considered Lucy to be "the missing link between ape and human". He discovered her in the Great Rift Valley of Africa and explains that the reason anthropologists search for clues to our origins here is because the ancient layers of the earth have been exposed here. This enables anthropologists to find fossils millions of years old that have been exposed by erosion. Three million years ago the Great Rift was nothing like it is today; it was green, moist and densely forested with rivers and lakes which attracted various types of animals. Here Australopithecus lived in an environment very well suited to the development of new species. The discovery of Lucy led anthropologists to discover new information about the species of Australopithecus. Lucy was tiny standing only 3 ½ feet tall. We learned that Lucy had a brain roughly 1/3 the size of ours. Because Lucy and those of her species had the unique ability to lock their knees, they were able to walk upright and on only two limbs, thus allowing them to travel great distances, manipulate objects and carry food with their hands. Due to their brain being roughly the size of a chimpanzee Lucy and her people had a severe lack of fine motor skills which limited their ability to interact fully with the environment around them. When Lucy was discovered it was learned that she had overly large molars that were chipped and pitted from crushing nuts leading anthropologists to believe that she and her species were still strictly vegetarians at this time. Approximately two million years ago evidence of a more advanced species Homo habilis emerged. This species appears to have had a bigger brain and thus the ability to make more efficient use of resources in the environment. It was thought that this species had undergone a major behavioral change enabling it to develop stone tools. Although Homo habilis was small at roughly 90 pounds, the development of tools enabled him to 2005-12-27T01:33:15-05:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/In-Search-Of-Human-Origins-The-Missing-Links-28265.aspx Acid Rain Pollution Acid rain pollution comes in various forms. Whether it’s toxic waste, CFC’s, or sewage, they are all hazardous to the earth. These can deplete the earth and it’s inhabitants of resources, causing a harmful change. A product of pollution is acid rain. We shall see that acidification is harmful to all forms of life. Acid rain is any form of precipitation that is polluted by sulphur dioxide (SO2), and nitrogen oxides (NOX). This acid precipitation can be in the form of rain, snow, sleet, fog, or cloud vapors. The acidity of substances dissolved in water are measured by their pH levels. Normal precipitation pH levels fall between 5.0-5.6.2 When levels fall below these numbers, then the precipitation is said to be acidic. There are two ways in which acid deposition can form. The first way occurs when nitrogen oxides and sulphur dioxide land on the Earth’s surface, and interact with frost or dew. The second way takes place due to the oxidation of nitrogen oxides or sulphur dioxide gases that are released into the air.3 Since it may take up to several days for the gases to be altered into their acid counter-parts, the pollutants can travel miles away from their original source. Emissions of (SO2) are responsible for the majority of the acid deposition, which falls to Earth. When we burn coal, we are releasing (SO2), into the air, since coal is slight made up of sulphur. Volcanic eruptions can add a great deal of sulphur into the atmosphere. Everyday organic decay adds sulphur into the air as well. (SO2) can hit the Earth’s surface in dry forms or wet forms, by undergoing the following reactions: (SO2 + H20 *** H2SO3) (SO2 + ½O2 *** SO3 + H2SO4)2. Human activity is the major cause for nitrogen oxides’ presence in our atmosphere, such as forest fires and the combustion of oil, coal, and gas. The other causes are due to nature. Lightning, volcanic action, and bacteria in soil are just to name a few. The following chemical reactions show how acids of nitrogen form: (NO2 + ½O2 *** NO2) (2NO2 + H2O *** HNO2 + HNO3) (NO2 + OH *** HNO3)2. Acid rain can affect plant life directly when the surface of leaves and needles come into contact with acid vapor or fog. This causes a reduction in the tree’s ability to withstand the cold. A direct result 2005-12-26T03:43:51-05:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/Acid-Rain-Pollution-28260.aspx Alternative Energy Resources Alternative Energy resources are becoming a much bigger deal as the level of fossil fuels remaining on earth slowly depreciates. Another issue is pollution. Eventually we won’t be able to use gas and oil in our cars they will run solely on something like solar energy. Things like Hydroelectric power have been around for many many years, just not with such magnitude or demand. There are four main kinds of alternative energy sources, they are: Solar Energy Solar energy is used to do various things. For instance, heat, light, and cooling are all very common uses for solar electricity. The solar rays are converted by solar cells that turn the light directly into electricity. This is a very good idea and in no way really pollutes the earth. On the contrary, what would we do on a cloudy day? We would have to just go without electricity. Some larger businesses have their own solar cell so that they can save money on energy they would normally have to purchase. Wind Energy Wind energy is yet another for of alternative energy that has proven that if it can be harnessed, controlled, and used to suit our needs it can be a prominent source of energy. Three Huge blades are mounted on a rotor. These blades are spun by the wind and the rotors convert that into electricity. The rotor and blade is held high in the air by a large pole. This pole has all the equipment in it to transport the energy to the ground where it is then transported to the powerplant. After this all that is left to do is send it to the customers. The main catch in this plan is: What if the wind isn’t blowing? If the wind isn’t blowing then we would have no energy. Of course we could always store it up, but that would be more hassle than it was really worth. Geothermal Energy Geothermal Energy is a method which is less used than the previous two. It involves pumping heat and warm water up from the ground and is able to convert it into energy. This can be used nearly everywhere because the first ten feet of ground almost all around the world is able to maintain a pretty constant temperature. This is great for the 2005-12-25T03:11:12-05:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/Alternative-Energy-Resources-28240.aspx Ecology: The Study of Plans, Animals, and the Environment Ecology is the scientific study of the interrelationships of plants, animals, and the environment. In recent years, the word has sometimes been misused as a synonym for environment. The principles of ecology are useful in many aspects of the related fields of conservation, wildlife management, forestry, agriculture, and pollution control. The word ecology (Greek, oikos, "house," and logos, "study of") is generally believed to have been coined by Ernst HAECKEL, who used and defined it in 1869. The historical roots of ecology lie not only in natural history, but in physiology, oceanography, and evolution as well. It has occasionally been called scientific natural history (a phrase originated by Charles ELTON) because of its origin and its heavy reliance on measurement and mathematics. Ecology is variously divided into terrestrial ecology, fresh-water ecology (limnology), and marine ecology, or into population ecology, community ecology, and ecosystem ecology. ECOLOGICAL CLASSIFICATION OF ORGANISMS Ecologists commonly classify organisms according to their function in the environment. Autotrophs ("self-nourishers," also called producers), which are mainly green plants, manufacture their own food from carbon dioxide, water, minerals, and sunlight, whereas heterotrophs--a wide assortment of organisms--lack the metabolic machinery to synthesize their own food and must obtain it from other sources. Some heterotrophs--the herbivores--eat plants, and some--the carnivores, or predators--eat animals. Some, called omnivores, eat both plants and animals; others eat only dead plants and animals. Some, called scavengers, eat large dead organisms. Some smaller heterotrophs, such as bacteria and fungi, feed on dead organisms; they are called decomposers. Parasites eat living organisms, but, unlike predators, do not devour them at one time. Parasites include forms such as ticks and fleas, which live on their hosts, and others, such as tapeworms, roundworms, and bacteria, which live within their hosts. COMMUNITIES Organisms live together in assemblages called communities. Some communities are very small, such as those composed of invertebrates and decomposers living within a rotting log. Others may be as large as an entire forest. The most extensive communities, called BIOMES, occupy wide geographic areas. The major biomes are arctic TUNDRAS, northern coniferous FORESTS, deciduous forests, GRASSLANDS, DESERTS, and tropical JUNGLES AND RAIN FORESTS. CHAPPARALS (shrubby forests) and coniferous rain forests are sometimes also considered biomes. The distinctive appearance of each biome is generally determined by the predominance of characteristic plant species, but the animals that are characteristically associated with it also contribute to its distinctiveness. Communities are 2005-12-22T11:20:53-05:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/Ecology-The-Study-of-Plans,-Animals,-and-the-Environment-28204.aspx Breast Cancer Treatment In the United States women each year develop breast cancer. Although these statistics are alarming, there are a number of treatment options available for those that are diagnosed with breast cancer. The best way to treat any disease is to prevent it. Since little is known about breast cancer, there are no established rules for prevention. women age twenty and older perform monthly breast self-exams, and it also suggests clinical examinations every three years. Mammography is also a wonderful tool for detecting tumors; however, there is conflicting data on when and how often women should have mammograms. It is known that mammography is the best way to determine if a palpable lump is actually cancerous or not. Treatment methods for breast cancer can be lumped in two major categories local or systemic. Local treatments are used to destroy or control the cancer cells in a specific area of the body. Surgery and radiation therapy are considered local treatments. Systemic treatments are used to destroy or control cancer cells anywhere in the body. Chemotherapy and hormonal therapy are considered systemic treatments. Surgery is the most common treatment for breast cancer. Although there are many different types of breast cancer surgery, they all fit into a few basic categories. An operation that aims to remove most or the entire breast is called a mastectomy. If at all possible, doctors shy away from mastectomies due to the side effects, which include loss of strength in the closest arm, swelling of the arm, and limitation of shoulder movement. If a mastectomy must be performed, the physician will often suggest post surgical reconstruction of the breast. Another type of breast cancer surgery is called breast-sparing surgery. This category would include lumpectomies and segmental mastectomies. In this situation, doctors remove only the tumor and make an attempt at sparing the rest of the breast tissue. These procedures are often followed by radiation therapy to destroy any cancer cells that may remain in the area. In most cases, the surgeon also removes lymph nodes under the arm to help determine whether cancer cells have entered the lymphatic system. However, radiation therapy is another common treatment for breast cancer. Radiation involves the use of high-energy x-rays to damage cancer cells and retard further growth. The radiation may come from a radioactive source outside the 2005-12-04T01:40:07-05:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/Breast-Cancer-Treatment--28158.aspx Prosthetics Prosthetics first began as wooden and leather cups and simple crutches. This eventually developed into a peg which freed the hands for everyday functions. A peg leg held cloth rags to allow a wide range of motion. Since the birth of the great civilization Rome came a development in medicine and helped in the scientific field of Prosthetics. During the Second Punic War (218 to 210B.C.) Pliny the elder wrote about Marcus Sergius a general who had major injuries and had a right arm amputation. An iron hand was made and attached to hold his shield in place during the battle. During the Dark Ages their was little 2005-11-23T21:02:48-05:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/Essay-on-Prosthetics-28120.aspx The Forest Resources of Canada The topic that we have been assigned is chapter twenty-three, The Forest Resources of Canada. This extensive chapter covers the many facts of Canadian forests, the types of trees and areas, the necessity of this industry and the methods of harvesting trees. This topic also includes, the different types of mills, the many threats to the forests, changes in the industry and three very controversial topics. The dangers and value of the forests are unknown to many, but are subjects of significant importance. Forests cover forty-two percent of Canada’s total area, which is 4 187 820 squared kilometres. Canada, along with Brazil and Russia, has more forests than any other country in the world. Canada’s forests consist mainly of two types of trees: coniferous and deciduous. Sixty-three percent of the forests contain coniferous trees, which are trees with cones and needles such as the pine and spruce. Deciduous trees lose their leaves each year and are mainly poplar and white birch. They cover twenty-two percent of Canada’s trees. The rest of the forests are made up of a variety of different species, which covers fifteen percent. There are two areas of trees: commercial and non-commercial. Commercial forests are found in warm, wet areas where trees commonly grow rapidly. These areas are close to methods of transportation and are easily accessible by roads. They contain trees that are usually harvested unlike non-commercial forests. Commercial forests have been divided up into five forest regions, which are: boreal, taiga, west coast, montane and mixed. Non-commercial forests are unlikely to be cut down because they are unreachable since they are located in the northern parts of Canada. They often grow slowly and do not achieve their maximum growth because of low temperatures and low precipitation levels. To harvest them would be impractical, for the costs of travelling to remote areas would be expensive and a profit would not be earned for the trees may not be mature. The forest industry is greatly relied on, by many Canadians. Approximately one in every sixteen jobs depend on it and it provides three hundred and sixty thousand direct jobs. If these forests were to ever vanish many Canadians 2005-11-05T22:34:47-04:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/The-Forest-Resources-of-Canada-28090.aspx Creation and Evolution are two major beliefs that people follow as a guideline. The two philosophies have different effects on our lives and the make up who we are and what we do. I will compare these two philosophies and show that they are totally opposite of each other and cannot go hand in hand. Creation is a belief followed by many people and the Holy Bible serves as a guideline and a set of instructions to show how the earth was formed and to guide us through life. Science backs up this Holy Book it is a very reliable source of the history of the world. Evolution cannot be clearly explained unless it is defined into two categories. Macro Evolution is one part of evolution, based on assumptions and beliefs. It is unscientific and has not been empirically proven. Macro Evolution states that life came from non-living materials and is slowly evolving from different kinds of species to better and stronger forms of life. Micro Evolution (adapting) is observable and has been scientifically proven many times, stating that different species adapt to their environment, but stay within their own species. The concept of Micro Evolution is totally unrelated with Macro Evolution and should not be tied in with evolution at all because people get confused in the two terms. When Evolution is mentioned throughout the paper, it is being referred to as Macro Evolution not Micro Evolution. There are many questions in life that man has always longed to find the answers to and the questions are: Who am I, why am I here, how did everything get here, and where will I go when I die? Well if you believe in evolution then you came from non-living material that all came together from the big bang. There is no purpose to life, you have no one to answer to, so if it feels good than do it and when you die then you will be recycled into a plant. We supposedly came here by chance through millions of years of evolving from a rock. In Creation, an all-powerful creator created you, life is a stepping-stone to get to heaven; there are consequences to what you do, rules to follow and someone to answer to. There is an afterlife for all people either heaven or hell, so lead a good life and 2005-10-27T23:31:35-04:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/Evolution-vs_-Creation-28071.aspx Investigation On The Enzyme Trypsin An Investigation determining a factor affecting the rate of digestion of gelatin by the protease trypsin. Introduction An enzyme is a biological catalyst, which speeds up reactions. An example of this in the human body is trypsin (a protease produced in the pancreas and used in the stomach), which catalyses the digestion of gelatine, a protein. For this investigation, a photographic film will be the source of the gelatine. I will be able to identify when the gelatine is digested, when the photographic film turns from a dark brown colour, to being transparent. All enzymes are proteins, which are specific to the molecule that they break down. This is known as the ‘lock and key’ theory, where the active site only allows a specific substrate to be broken down, eventually resulting in easier absorption (larger surface area). Enzymes are made up of a long chain of amino acids, which form together in such a way as to leave a specific pocket, into which a substrate (as long as it fits perfectly into the pocket) can fit into it like a key in a lock (hence the ‘lock and key’ theory). The reaction then takes place, and the product of the substrate is then released. The enzyme, not changed by the reaction, can then perform the same “operation” on countless other substrates. Because the enzyme can be re-used, only a small amount is needed. Despite this enzymes can make cell reactions go many million times faster than they would normally. Since enzymes are biological catalysts, by definition, they are not used up or changed in the reaction that they catalyse. Even though they cannot be used up, when subjected to a high temperature (50°C and above), enzymes can become denatured and the active site damaged or destroyed. After denaturisation, the enzyme becomes useless as no more substrates can become further digested by them. Since there was ample trypsin for our use, and because trypsin begins to denature by 50°C (the temperature of the water bath I was using), I used a fresh batch of trypsin for each experiment I performed. Before I started, it was important for me to decide what factor I was going to set as my independent variable and what I was going to setting as my dependant variable. There were several possibilities. Since speeding up the reaction was obviously one option, I 2005-09-21T03:59:52-04:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/Investigation-On-The-Enzyme-Trypsin-28016.aspx The fans of ‘Harry Potter’ may find it easier to relate to the concepts of teleportation than most of the other people. In the Harry Potter terminology, teleportation is likened to the ‘port key’ medium of travel. For that matter even movie buffs, who have watched ‘Matrix’ will be able to relate to teleportation. Teleportation is the name given by science fiction writers to the feat of making an object or person disintegrate in one place while a perfect replica appears somewhere else. Till late the exact theoretical process of teleportation was not known. Of late however theories are beginning to surface based on extensive research. The general idea seems to be that the original object is scanned in such a way as to extract all the information from it, then this information is transmitted to the receiving location and used to construct the replica, not necessarily from the actual material of the original, but perhaps from atoms of the same kinds, arranged in exactly the same pattern as the original. The only hitch is that in the experiments demonstrated so far the original copy has to be destroyed. In science fiction stories like in ‘Matrix’ and the likes of it, there is generally a complex plot created by allowing both the original and the replicated copy to exist and then they are made to meet each other thus creating confusion onscreen. Thankfully science has so far proved that such a thing is not really possible. For that matter even human teleportation is a distant dream. What has been achieved so far is the transportation of single atoms. In 1993 an international group of six scientists, including IBM Fellow Charles H. Bennett, confirmed the intuitions of the majority of science fiction writers by showing that perfect teleportation is indeed possible in principle, but only if the original is destroyed. Until recently, teleportation was not taken seriously by scientists, because it was thought to violate the uncertainty principle of quantum mechanics, which forbids any measuring or scanning process from extracting all the information in an atom or other object. According to the uncertainty principle, the more accurately an object is scanned, the more it is disturbed by the scanning process, until one reaches a point where the object's original state has been completely disrupted, still without having extracted enough information to make a perfect replica. But the six scientists found a way to make an 2005-09-20T06:25:41-04:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/The-Concept-of-Teleportation-28011.aspx Stephen King, one of the most noted authors of today’s times shot to fame with his classic novel titled ‘Carrie’, a book, which illustrates the life of a teenaged girl who happens to have mastered telekinetic powers. Well keeping in mind his style of writing it ended up being a horror story but in reality telekinesis, also called psycho-kinesis, is far from a fanciful horror story. Telekinesis or Psychokinesis (PK) refers to moving objects from one place to another without using physical contact. It also means re-shaping of objects using the mind's energies, such as bending a spoon, or key, by just holding it and focusing. Psychokinesis comes from the Greek words psyche meaning life or soul and kineisis meaning to move. Physical energy is created by electromagnetic impulses while universal life force energy, or psychic energy, is called ‘Chi’. In telekinesis one taps into ‘Chi’ energy and then combines it with physical energy. Everyone has the potential to be able to be telekinetic. There are different things that can have a sort of psychotropic affect on the brain. This simply means that certain stimuli affect the mental activity and behavior perception of people. Even stress and abuse can cause one to cultivate certain psychokinetic abilities. These should not be confused with the symptoms of mental illnesses. The brain is the hardware that is utilized by the ‘mind’. Our brain is capable of generating a neural network that when "pushed" can actual step up an energy ready to be utilized beyond our 5 senses. Neurons do communicate with each other. There are all sorts of low-level subatomic and atomic dialogues going on all the time. Even at a cellular level there is communication going on. This is called ‘Cellular Communication’. In essence, what is done here is that the scientists scrape some cells from the inside of several participants’ mouths and place them in petre-dishes. They then connect these cells to a lie-detector type of device. The subjects are then taken into another room several feet away from "their" cells. As the participants are introduced to different stimuli, they naturally react. But what is really amazing is that so do their cells in the other room! These abilities are absolutely natural and every human being possesses it though in the dormant stage. Telekinesis is not a ‘freak’ happening or a mutant manifestation unnatural to human development. It is primarily a mind-brain-consciousness related phenomenon, 2005-09-20T06:21:35-04:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/The-Presence-of-Telekinesis-28010.aspx Science has an overwhelming way of trying to find a reason for anything and everything that occurs on, under and over the surface of the earth. If a thing cannot be explained by science then it is either dubbed as superstition or coincidence. One such mystery churned out after years of inhabiting this earth is the Bermuda triangle. For years, it has baffled scientists worldwide and evaded any logical explanation for its existence other than perhaps as a symbol of Nature’s superiority over mankind. In the past 100 years over 1000 lives have been claimed by the Bermuda triangle. This barely results in about 10 lives per year. It is not the ‘number’ of lives lost that is astounding but ‘how’ these lives were lost. The term ‘Bermuda Triangle’ was first coined by Mr. Vincent H. Gaddis in his article, which featured in the magazine ‘Argosy: Magazine of Masterpiece fiction’ in 1964. The advent of the legends, shrouding the ‘Bermuda Triangle’, date back to the times of Christopher Columbus. In fact much about him is known through his journals itself, thus leaving no roam for doubt as to the validity of his findings. Columbus first ran into problems in the Sargasso sea, where his crew members spotted sea weed and land birds even when land was no where in sight. To add to his troubles his compass refused to respond properly and the following day he spotted a large meteor falling from the sky. His crewmembers even saw what they termed as ‘dancing lights’ in the horizon. This turned out to be just the beginning. Since that day over 100 ships and planes have disappeared while traversing this region. Some of the notable instances date back to 1945 when 5 Navy avengers disappeared (Flight 19). A more recent one is in 1972 when a German freighter Anita weighing around 20,000 tons disappeared with its crew of 32 people. The latest instance occurred in 1997 when passengers simply disappeared from a German yacht without a trace. Other legends claim that the triangle houses the famous lost city of Atlantis. Though no proof has ever been found there are claims by people that they have felt the ‘powers of the city’. Yet another myth encircling this triangle is that it is an ‘alien’ base. Several books suggested that the disappearances were due to an intelligent, technologically advanced race living in space or under 2005-09-20T06:17:02-04:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/Superstitions-and-the-Bermuda-Triangle-28009.aspx Klinefelter And Turner Syndrome In 1942, Dr. Harry Klinefelter and his coworkers at the Massachusetts General Hospital in Boston published a report about nine men who had enlarged breasts, sparse facial and body hair, small testes, and an inability to produce sperm. By the late 1950s, researchers discovered that men with Klinefelter syndrome, as this group of symptoms came to be called, had an extra sex chromosome, XXY instead of the usual male arrangement, XY. In the early 1970s, researchers around the world sought to identify males having the extra chromosome by screening large numbers of newborn babies. One of the largest of these studies, sponsored by the National Institute of Child Health and Human Development (NICHD), checked the chromosomes of more than 40,000 infants. Based on these studies, the XXY chromosome arrangement appears to be one of the most common genetic abnormalities known, occurring as frequently as 1 in 500 to 1 in 1,000 male births. Although the syndrome's cause, an extra sex chromosome, is widespread, the syndrome itself-the set of symptoms and characteristics that may result from having the extra chromosome-is uncommon. Many men live out their lives without ever even suspecting that they have an additional chromosome. No one knows what puts a couple at risk for conceiving an XXY child. Advanced maternal age increases the risk for the XXY chromosome count, but only slightly. Furthermore, recent studies conducted by NICHD grantee Terry Hassold, a geneticist at Case Western Reserve University in Cleveland, OH, show that half the time, the extra chromosome comes from the father. Dr. Hassold explained that cells destined to become sperm or eggs undergo a process known as meiosis. In this process, the 46 chromosomes in the cell separate, ultimately producing two new cells having 23 chromosomes each. Before meiosis is completed, however, chromosomes pair with their corresponding chromosomes and exchange bits of genetic material. In women, X-chromosomes pair; in men, the X and Y chromosome pair. After the exchange, the chromosomes separate, and meiosis continues. In some cases, the Xs or the X chromosome and Y chromosome fail to pair and fail to exchange genetic material. Occasionally, this results in their moving independently to the same cell, producing either an egg with two Xs, or a sperm having both an X and a Y chromosome. When a sperm having both an X and an Y chromosome fertilizes an egg having a single X 2005-09-14T01:00:50-04:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/Klinefelter-And-Turner-Syndrome-27980.aspx Lorazepam Lorazepam is in the class of drugs called benzpdiazepines. Lorazepam is a sedative anxiolytic medication. It is noted for the management of anxiety disorders and for the short-term relief of the symptoms of anxiety or anxiety associated with depressive symptoms. Like most other benzodiazepines, patients using lorazepam can develop a tolerance to it. In other words, patients will have to use more and more in order to get the desired effect of the medication. As a tolerance to lorazepam builds, a sort of dependence is created. All patients who will begin using lorazepam as a drug therapy should be informed by their doctor of its dependence producing effect. It would also be wise for the patient to never increase their dosage without consulting their doctor, or to abruptly discontinue the medication. Since the habit-forming potential is very high, there is an increase chance in forming withdrawal symptoms. Some examples of withdrawal symptoms are convulsions, tremors, abdominal and muscle cramps, vomiting and, sweating. Generally milder symptoms such as insomnia have been reported following the abrupt discontinuance. Lorazepam is mainly prescribed for the relief of anxiety disorders. It can also be used to relieve the symptoms of pre-surgery anxiety. Anxiety and tension associated with the stresses of everyday life usually don’t require a treatment with an anxiolytic. Lorazepam can be a very dangerous medication when used with alcohol, opiates, or other prescription medications. Overdose symptoms can range from slight drowsiness all of the way to a coma. In mild cases, symptoms include drowsiness, mental confusion, and lethargy. In more serious cases some symptoms are hypotension, hyptonia, hypnotic states, coma, or very rarely death. Patients should always inform their doctor of any medications that they are on or will soon be taking. Patients should be strongly advised not to use this medication with other CNS depressants. Peak serum concentrations of free lorazepam after oral administration are reached in 1 to 6 hours. Lorazepam is 85% bound to plasma proteins. Lorazepam is rapidly conjugated to an inactive glucuronide. The serum half-life of lorazepam is approximately 12 to 15 hours while the half-life of the conjugate is 16 to 20 hours. Ninety-five percent of the drug was excreted within 120 hours, 88% in the 2005-09-14T00:23:41-04:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/Lorazepam-Drug-Used-for-Anxiety-Disorders-27969.aspx Electron Orbitals The periodic table is simply the organization and classification of different elements. By the end of the 1700’s, scientists had identified about 30 elements. In less than 100 years, the number of known element doubled because of new means of recognizing them. In the early 1800’s, Dobereiner observed that there were elements that could be classified into groups of 3, or triads. These triads were significant because these classifications of similar elements represented the very beginning of the periodic table. The triads related atomic mass (in amu) to density. In 1865 a chemist named Newlands presented another way of classifying elements. In his time 62 elements were know. Newlands organized the elements in order of increasing atomic mass, and noticed that the properties of the first element were the similar to the eighth, the second to the ninth, and so on. He named this the law of octaves, as there are 8 notes in the musical scale. (octave to octave) The man most famous in relation to the periodic table, Dmitri Mendeleev, along with Lothar Meyer published tables almost identical of those to Newlands. Mendeleev organized the elements in such a way as to make it easier for his students to understand. He eventually made the first actual periodic table of elements. This table had elements with similar properties in the same column. Mendeleev’s table was so well designed and so accurate, that he was able to predict elements that had yet to be discovered with much precision. In 1913, Mosely discovered the concept of the atomic number. Even though Mendeleev’s table was arranged by atomic mass, and now the periodic table is arranged by atomic number, why is Mendeleev’s table valued so highly? The first table is so important because the general rule is that as the atomic mass increases, so does the atomic number. Even though Mendeleev was organizing the elements the “wrong way”, his table is still incredibly similar to the present one. The periodic law is the basis for the periodic table. The periodic law states the following: When elements are arranged in order of increasing atomic number, their physical and chemical properties show a periodic pattern. The modern periodic table has one hundred and nine squares, each representing a unique element. Above the abbreviation of the element 2005-09-14T00:09:27-04:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/Electron-Orbitals--27965.aspx In the past decade there has been alot of worrying about what will happen if the worlds oil supply becomes totally depleted. The main reason people worry about this is because now-a-days almost all automobiles use oil-based gasoline. In the next few decades scientist speculate that all the worlds oil will be mined and profited this means all combustion engines will be unable to function. This is why automobile companies such as Ford, Mercedez-Benz, Chrysler, Toyota, BMW, and many other manufacturers have started to work on new more environmentally friendly cars such as Battery, NGV, and Hydrogen-Powered vehicles. These vehicles have engines that require different fuels and have an adverse effect on the environment. The Battery-Powered Engine is a whole lot better than a normal combustion engine for a lot of reasons. Electric motors are connected to the wheels so when the car is coasting or resting it consumes absolutely no energy. A different way is the battery-powered engine converts 90 percent of storage cell energy into useable driving force, while the everyday combustion engine converts only 25 percent of a liter of fuel into driving force. But, the best reason to buy a battery-powered car is instead of having to stop and go to a gas station when ever your low on fuel you can easily and conveniently re-power at your own residence. Natural Gas vehicles are conservatively fueled automobiles that are converted to run on only one natural gas. This means the carbuertator/mixer fuel control equipment used on many early vehicles is giving way to new available electronic management system this cuts down on harmful emissions caused by mixed chemicals in exhaust. The hybrid-electric engine combines the internal combustion engine of a regular car and the battery and motor of an electric car. This engine is made more so like the battery powered car, but the battery is charged by an onboard generator, that is powered by the normal combustion engine, This cuts the fuel usage in half. Which also lowers the amount of fuel needed for automobiles and pollution that exhaust permits such as unburned Hydrocarbons, Nitrogen Oxide, Carbon Dioxide, and Carbon Monoxide. With these three engines, the amount of gasoline needed will dramatically decrease. The only problem now Is convincing people to buy the cars because they are not already a 2005-09-11T02:39:57-04:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/Environmentally-Friendly-Engines-27952.aspx Animal Behavior Report Table of Contents Page 3: Aim and Hypothesis Page 4: Materials and Method Page 6: Critique of Data Page 7: Analysis of Data Page 8: Explanation in Terms of Theory Page 9: Conclusion Aim Animal behaviors develop as a result of the interaction between genetic and environmental influences. The purpose of this experiment is to imprint a chicken so it will think of you as its parent. Imprinting is the learning process observed in young birds and mammals, is the identification of an animal with another animal. Normally, it is a relationship between members of the same species, but it can occur, for example between a bird and a human, between members of different species. Imprinting can take place only during a particular period of the animal’s development – a specific time span, with chickens its hours after they hatch. Hypothesis Imprinting takes place during the early stages of development. By imprinting a baby chicken for two weeks, the chicken will see me as its ‘parent,’ and therefore respond to my movements. I will imprint the response to tapping and clucking. The chicken will follow my movements and as it becomes more accustomed to me, it will move quicker and without hesitation. Materials • Fish tank • News paper • Tea-towel • 2 small containers • lamp • chicken food/water • A3 paper and A4 paper • Shoe box Methods The Imprinting Process A. Initial Contact 1. Gently cup your hands around the animal and place it on a bench approximately 50cm in front of you. 2. Slowly release your hold on the animal ad gently withdraw your hands and draw them to your body. At the same time make soft clucking-type sounds. B. Reinforce Communication Bond 3. Repeat steps 1 and 2 until the animal keeps following your hands, 4. Cup the animal in your hands and hold it for approximately 10 to 15 seconds. 5. Keep repeating steps 1 to 3 for 15 to 20 minutes. 6. Place the animal back in the shoe box container and allow it to feed for approximately one hour 7. Repeat steps 1 to 3 for 15 to 20 minutes C. Final Imprinting of Animal 8. Gently place the animal on the floor. 9. Slowly and quietly move away from the animal and at the same time make soft clucking-type sounds. 10. Pick up the animal and gently cup it in your hands. 11. Repeat steps 8 2005-09-07T03:27:49-04:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/Animal-Behaviour-Report--27942.aspx Sodium Sodium is an element found in the forest in its natural form. The atomic has and atomic number is 11 so it means it has 11 protons and 11 electrons. The Elements can be used in many formulas to make a compound. Its atomic number is 22.989770.The elements boiling point is 883 degrees Celsius. The melting point is 98 degrees Celsius. 2005-09-07T02:34:29-04:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/Sodium--27937.aspx DOWN SYNDROME Down syndrome, also known as mongolism, is where a person is born with an extra chromosome on the 21st pair, which equals 47 chromosomes. The average person only has 46 chromosomes with 23 pairs. These extra chromosomes trigger a tremendous chain reaction. The extra chromosome, like all other chromosomes, contains genes. These genes produce enzymes, which make metabolites that have nowhere to go, this is where we get the problem. Extra metabolites containing calcium clog up the tissues and blood vessels. They aggregate into larger quantities, causing calcification of the soft tissues, which is always a serious problem. This prevents growth, assimilation of nutrients, and prevents proper elimination of waste products. Now we have reached the end of the chain reaction which all started with one extra chromosome. The chances of a woman giving birth to a baby with Down syndrome increases with age. A woman that is 25 years old has a 1 - 1,250 chance of having a child with Down syndrome. If you are 35 years of age the chances of have a child with this terrible disease increases to 1 - 378 children born and there is a 1- 30 chance of having a baby with this disease if you are at least 45 years old. An estimated 1 in 600 to 800 infants is born with Down syndrome. This is because a woman’s eggs age, this means there is a greater inclination for the chromosomes to divide improperly. There are many complications that come with Down syndrome. Children with Down syndrome have a distinct facial appearance. They usually have a small head, flat face, and upward slanting eyes. Infants born with Down syndrome may be of average size, but typically they grow slowly and remain small. The mortality rate is higher for children with this disease than with other children. Almost half of the children with Down syndrome have congenital heart defects. They also may be at increased risk for development of a variety of problems, including gastrointestinal blockage, respiratory infections, thyroid problems, hearing loss, poor vision, heart problems, or leukemia. Many children with Down syndrome are happy, loving, and easygoing. However, some children develop behavior problems, such as anger, resistance to conformity and unwillingness to obey. One in three people with Down syndrome past 2005-09-05T20:33:04-04:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/Down-Syndrome-aka-Mongolism-27897.aspx Cellular Transport Osmosis is the flow of water through a semi permeable membrane that blocks the transport of salts or other solutes through it. It is also defined as the net movement of water from an area of high concentration to a region of low concentration. Osmosis is a fundamental effect in all biological systems. When two water volumes are separated by a semi permeable membrane water will flow from the side of low solute concentration to the side of high solute concentration. If external pressure is applied on the area of high concentration then reverse osmosis may occur. The movement of solute molecules within a solvent is determined by the solvent molecules that surround it. Collisions of solute molecules determine movement. For example, in a u-tube, the two vessels are separated by a semi permeable membrane. The system will stabilize when the osmotic pressure is balanced. The solute molecules generate pressure on all solution boundaries, including the membrane. Osmosis is significant is plant and animal cells. In a plant cell, the water moves to the vacuole. In a hyperosmotic solution, that is, there is a lower concentration of water, if water permeates out of an animal cell, the cell becomes crenated or shriveled. In an isosmotic solution (equal concentrations) water enters and leaves the cell sufficiently, allowing the call to function properly. In a hypoosmotic solution (higher water concentration) the cell becomes lysed as too much water enters the call. When a plant cell is in a hyperosmotic solution, water leaves the cell and it becomes plasmolyzed. In an isosmotic solution, the flow of water in and out of the plant call is flaccid. In a hypoosmotic solution, the large amount of water that enters the cell causes to become turgid. Osmosis is a significant inn the functioning of cells. Another essential type of cellular transport is facilitated diffusion. Defined as the net movement of molecules, ions and atoms from a region of high concentration to low. All particles are constantly in motion, henceforth diffusion involves the movement of particles. Diffusion results from the random motion and/or collisions of particles. It is the act measured of particles as a result of a concentration gradient, where concentration is the number of particles per unit volume and concentration gradiet is a difference in concentration of a substance across a space. Diffusion will continue until the particles become uniformly distributed in the 2005-09-05T20:31:55-04:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/Cellular-Transport--27896.aspx The Development Of Calculus Calculus, being a difficult subject, therefore requires much more than the intuition and genius of one man. It took the work and ideas of many great men to establish the advanced concepts now known as calculus. Of the many mathematicians involved in the discovery of calculus, Gottfried Wilhelm von Liebniz and Sir Isaac Newton were the most important. Together, they established the basic principles of calculus, and, with the help of other mathematicians, it was refined using the concept of the limit. The developemtn of calculus can be thought of as being in three periods; Anticipation, Development, and Rigorization. During the Anticipation, various mathematicians provided the stepping stones to build the concepts of calculus. During the Development, Newton and Liebniz developed the main concepts and prinicples used today. In the Rigorization, various mathematicians used the concept of the limit to give concrete meaning to the principles developed my Leibniz and Newton. The Anticipation of calculus started way back in the time of ancient Greece, when, at around 450BC, the philosopher Zeno of Elea made this conjecture: If a body moves from A to B then before it reaches B it passes through the mid-point, say B1 of AB. Now to move to B1 it must first reach the mid-point B2 of AB1. Continue this argument to see that A must move through an infinite number of distances and so cannot move. The philosophers Leocippus of Miletus, Democritus of Abdera, and Antiphon the Sophist all made contributions to the Greek method of exhaustion which was put on a scientific basis by Eudoxus of Cnidus at about 370 BC. The method of exhaustion is named so because one must think of the areas measured as if they are expanding so that they account for more and more of the required area. Archimedies, however, made the most important Greek contributions to calculus. His first important contribution was his proof that the area of a segment of a parabola is 4/3 the area of a triangle with the same base and vertex and 2/3 of the area of the circumscribed parallelogram. He constructed an infinite sequence of triangles starting with one of area A and adding further triangles continuously between the existing ones and the parabola to get areas: A, A + A/4 , A + A/4 + A/16 , A + A/4 + A/16 + A/64 , ... 2005-09-05T20:21:27-04:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/The-Development-Of-Calculus-27890.aspx Solar Energy Introduction Our world has been in existence for billions of years and throughout all those years we have used the sun for basic energy needs. So why not be able to harness that energy and use it to power things like our homes or our cars? Many scientist have been developing alternate forms of energy called “Green Energy.” Green power is the solution to creating a cleaner, sustainable energy system. Renewable energy--power from the sun, wind, plants, and moving water--is a natural way to meet our energy needs and protect the environment. Here are some forms of green energy: • Wind energy converts the power available in moving air into electricity. Wind power does not produce air emissions, generate solid waste, or use water. • Biomass is energy from trees and plants. This includes crops that are grown specifically for energy production and organic wastes, such as wood residues from paper mills and methane from landfills. Using biomass to generate electricity reduces global warming emissions if new plants are grown to replace those that are harvested. • Geothermal energy uses heat from inside the earth to make clean power. • Solar power captures the heat and light of the sun to generate electricity. Solar energy does not produce air emissions, generate solid waste, or use water. • Hydroelectric power captures the energy in falling water. It does not produce emissions or solid waste, but can have a relatively low or high impact on the environment, depending on the site-specific factors such as maintenance of water flow and water quality, fish impacts, and other land use issues. For the most part the cost has been a limiting factor. Whether it be the cost of the technology, or just the cost of replacing our fossil fuels and nuclear power plants it will be expensive none the less. There are many downfalls to nuclear and fossil fuel energy that solar energy can replace: • about two-thirds of the annual US emissions of sulfur dioxide, the main cause of acid rain and of very small soot particles. These fine particles are believed to be responsible for the largest share of the 50,000-100,000 deaths caused by air pollution in the United States each year. • about 30 percent of the nitrogen oxides, which combine with organic compounds in sunlight to form smog, and which stress forest ecosystems. High smog levels can trigger heart and respiratory problems and 2005-09-05T20:16:55-04:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/Solar-Energy--27888.aspx Discovery of Polyurethane Originally two German chemists named Wurtz, in 1848, and Hentschel, in 1884 made the first Isocyanates, one of the building blocks of Polyurethane. Originally polyurethane was developed for military use by Otto Bayer, in the late 1930's, and was the first to make polyurethane commercially available. Molecular Structure Polyurethane is a polymer that consists of repeating units [__ROOCNH__R'__]n. 'R' can represent a different alkyl group, which is obtained by removing a hydrogen atom from a hydrocarbon. Polyurethane's are mostly thermoset plastics meaning the resins cross-link and cannot be melted and remolded. Some polyurethane's are Linear Aliphatic Polyurethane which are thermoplastics. This means the resins are linear and do not cross-link, subsequently they can be reprocessed. Thermoplastic polyurethane is not only linear but has highly crystalline structures. It is because of this that it forms an abrasion resistant material. The diagram above shows the molecular structure of complex polyurethane. Complex polyurethane is considered this because it is made from an isocyanate base. This type of urethane is created through the reaction between an isocyanate and a polyol (Alcohol). Types There are many different types of polyurethane’s to include the following: rigid foams, flexible foams, adhesives, sealants, coatings, cast elastomers, and spandex fibers. All polyurethane’s have one thing in common: they contain urethane linkages formed by the chemical reaction between the isocyanate and the polyol. These various forms make polyurethane a very versatile plastic in liquid and solid form. Applications Rigid foams or hard foams are used as insulation for buildings, water heaters, refrigeration, and floatation devices. Flexible foams or soft, open-celled polyurethane foams are used as cushion padding under carpets, furniture cushioning, mattresses, and packaging material. Adhesives and sealants are used where high strength, moisture resistance and durability is needed such as construction, automotive and marine applications. Mainly in the automotive field you will see polyurethane as the paint or clear coat on your car, and the glue used to assemble items in your vehicle, and the soft cushions that make up your seat backs and bottoms you sit on. Some foams are also used as the soft cushioning on your dashboard, headliner, steering wheel, and gearshift handles. Most urethanes used in the automotive field are paints and coatings, as well as, foam rubbers. Thermoplastic elastomers 2005-09-03T05:43:08-04:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/Discovery-of-Polyurethane-27871.aspx Basics Of Natural Selection Natural selection, or “survival of the fittest”, is an evolutionary shift in a species. It occurs when member or members of a species possess specific genetic traits (natural or a mutation) that are beneficial to their survival in a particular environment. Those that survive because of that trait are obviously the only left to reproduce and the trait carries over to their offspring, and becomes common to that species. This theory was observed by Darwin, and presented in his book “Origin of Species” published in 1859. The Darwin came upon this theory 20 years previous to the publication of his book during his travels on the Beagle. One stop on his journey was the Galapagos Islands. Darwin identified 13 species of finches in the Galapagos Islands. This puzzled him because he knew of only one species of this bird on the mainland of South America, 600 miles to the east, where they had all supposedly originated. He observed that the Galapagos species differed from each other in beak shape. He also noted that the beak varieties were associated with diets based on different foods. He concluded that when the original South American finches reached the islands, they dispersed to different environments where they had to adapt to different conditions. Over many generations, they changed anatomically in ways that allowed them to get enough food and survive to reproduce. His theory has also been tested in the laboratory. Controlled studies on male guppies have demonstrated natural selection at work. Those who had larger tails and had brighter coloration, more often females chose them as mates. Unfortunately, those same characteristics made them more vulnerable to predators. When the guppies were placed in a predator free environment, in just a few generations, the male guppies evolved brighter coloration and larger tails. When predators were reintroduced into the environment, the males went back the other way. They evolved smaller tails and less brilliant colors. One more example of natural selection was discovered in peppered moths living near industrialized English cities. They have varieties that vary in wing and body coloration from light to dark. During the 19th century, sooty smoke from coal burning furnaces killed the lichen on trees and darkened the bark. 2005-09-02T21:27:00-04:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/Basics-Of-Natural-Selection-27866.aspx Weak Bones - Osteoporosis Osteoporosis is a disease that gradually weakens bones, so they become more and more fragile and likely to break (Osteoporosis 2). The disease causes brittleness in the spine, wrists, and hips. Bones become weak because of bone loss. Bone loss is when you are losing some of the material that makes up your bones, which causes a loss of bone density and thickness. Bone density is what makes your bones strong and less likely to break. If not prevented or left untreated, osteoporosis can lead to bone breaks. Broken bones can lead to pain, height loss, deformed backbone, and difficulty moving around. The curve in the backbone, also called “dowager’s hump,” can lead to permanent disability (Osteoporosis 2). There are several factors that can increase your chances of developing osteoporosis. One factor is having a thin or small boned frame. In woman, having menopause before the age of 45 increases their chances. Also advanced age, low calcium diet, and having an inactive lifestyle will all increase your chances of developing osteoporosis. Even cigarette smoking and excessive use of alcohol can increase your risk of the disease. Women are at a higher risk than men in getting osteoporosis. “The decrease in estrogen production that occurs during menopause, in conjunction with generally lighter, thinner bones, are the primary reasons that osteoporosis affects more woman that men” (Stand 7). Eighty percent of women are at risk of getting osteoporosis. Most women do not talk to their physicians about the disease. “A woman’s risk of developing a hip fracture is equal to her combined risk of developing breast, uterine, and ovarian cancer” (Stand 10). There are many ways you can help reduce your chances of osteoporosis. In your home you can minimize the clutter throughout your home. Also, you need to remove all loose wires or cords. Handrails should be installed and remain secure on all staircases. At night, you should use nightlights in the bathroom, kitchen, and stairways. In the kitchen and bathroom, nonskid rugs should be placed to avoid slips and falls (Living). Finally, when driving, seat belts and seats should be adjusted properly. Osteoporosis is a 2005-08-31T21:50:34-04:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/Osteoporosis-Weak-Bones-27846.aspx Changes In Medicine A) In source A we are looking at a private picture from a 14th century manuscript. First of all we notice that this is a wealthy man being treated because you had to pay for treatment, hospitals were scarce and uncleanly, so he would have been treated in his home. The treatment by two lat sisters (nuns of study); the invalid could have had lay brothers (monks of study) Source A shows the nuns were sought after. The picture describes the types of medical instruments and practises used by women. Firstly the two lay sisters who are treating him are clean, with their hair tied back with one sister holding a sterilised basin. I can tell this as the artist has over exaggerated the basin’s shininess. One sister can read as she has a book of remedies. She must have seen the man and diagnosed his illness, showing her knowledge of symptoms. The sister must also have knowledge of herbs and drugs. In the picture it looks to me as there is one sister with doctrine knowledge, (the one reading), and one with nursing knowledge (the one with the bowl). This shows women had experience of both medical sides in the 14th century. There is not much written about the role of women in that period, but we do know that women were important in local areas. There is also some evidence of a woman doctor in the Middle Ages known as Trotula of Salerno. Not only did Trotula study, she taught medicine in the Salerno University and wrote a book called ‘Diseases of women’. Trotula was not alone. There was a women named Calenda Constanza who was noted in 1423 for lecturing in medicine. This was good, but women doctors tended to come from very eastern European cities where the Renaissance started, like Venice and Rome. Very few women were allowed to study doctrine in England and France. Many women could not read so this was a problem. In the 2005-08-29T04:35:15-04:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/Changes-In-Medicine-27818.aspx Heart Cell Regeneration Italian and American Researchers demonstrated last year that heart muscle cells multiply after a heart attck, and now they have evidence that primitive cells travel to the new heart in a transplant patient and grow new muscle and blood vessels. The evidence comes from male transplant patients that received hearts from women; when male cells were discovered in the donated female hearts. This is the first evidence in humans that human hearts can regenerate. The regeneration is possible through stem cell-like primitive cells, which are master cells that can transform themselves into many types of tissue. The findings can possibly be used in the future to help patients with weak hearts recover. The findings in this article will affect most men and women over 50 years old. This is when there is the greatest risk of heart disease. With the findings in the article, the risk of heart disease could be lowered, and the survival chance of a person that already has heart disease will be much higher. In the future, I may be affected by the findings in this article. The number of people with heart disease has been rising, and it is the leading cause of death in America. With the findings in the article, the chance of dying from heart disease could be lowered drastically, and my generation might not have to worry about heart disease. ";"96";"229";"1013026543";"29913";"13" "monarch1176";"Human Rights";"Human rights are universal, indivisible and interdependent. Human rights are what make us human. When we speak of the right to life, or development, or to dissent and diversity, we are speaking of tolerance. Tolerance will ensure all freedoms. Without it, we can be certain of none. The raging ethnic cleansing in Kosovo is an example of intolerance. The Serbians will not tolerate the Albanians at any cost. They are forcing them from their homes, turning the streets into killing fields. This civil war seems unstoppable because of the intolerance of one race against another. No respect for individual rights, basic human rights. Another example is right in our own back yard. I am speaking of hate crimes which plague our society. They are no different today than centuries ago when slavery was allowed. One race against another. One religion against another, it is all the same. Hate is the opposite of tolerance. We can only live together through an expression of tolerance of the differences each of us 2005-08-29T02:14:05-04:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/Heart-Cell-Regeneration--27808.aspx Importance of membranes in molecular transport and in ATP synthesis The way in which a membrane is assembled decides what is allowed in and out of a cell and how it advances through the cell membrane. Certain molecules can simply pass through the cell membrane through diffusion. Diffusion is a type of passive transport meaning no energy is used for the substance to enter or leave the cell. Another way for molecules to enter the cell is through facilitated diffusion. When a molecule is simply to large to diffuse through the cell membrane it can enter the cell through a Transport Protein. Facilitated diffusion is also a form of passive transport. When a molecule is to large to diffuse through the cell membrane it may enter the cell through the process of active transport. Active transport requires that a phosphate group such as ATP assist a Transport Protein. Exocytosis is another method for larger cells to penetrate the cell membrane and enter the cell. An object or objects are enclosed within a transport vesicle and then fuse to the plasma membrane thus releasing its contents. Endocytosis is just the opposite of exocytosis. In endocytosis the plasma membrane caves in and closes off the molecules inside itself and then pinches itself away from the plasma membrane and into the cell. Three types of endocytosis are phagocytosis where the cell consumes the molecule, pinocytosis where the cell drinks the molecules, and receptor-mediated endocytosis where the membrane forms a pit and pinches closed with the needed molecules inside. The stomata are microscopic pores bordered by guard cells in the epidermis of leaves that allows carbon dioxide to be exchanged between the environment and the interior and oxygen to exit out of the leaf and plant. The carbon dioxide then goes to the Tylakoids, flattened membrane sacs inside the chloroplast they are used to change light energy to chemical energy. The membrane that is most involved in the synthesis of ATP in photosynthesis is the thylakoid membrane. Inside the thylakoid membrane are both of the photosystems and both the electron transport chains and ATP synthase. Starting in photosystem II excited electrons from water travel along the first E.T.C., a four-protein electron transport chain, allowing H+ ions to travel from one side of the membrane to the other. 2005-08-28T06:33:21-04:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/Importance-of-Membranes-in-Molecular-Transport,-ATP-Systems-27800.aspx Coastal Erosion Geology Research Report The topic that I chose to do my geology extra credit paper on is coastal erosion. There are many different types of coastal erosion and are all very important. There has been a lot of research done on coastal erosion and all have been very helpful in understanding it clearly. The first attempts to stop coastal erosion were to build sea defenses, and this has been going on for many decades now. Researchers first thought the attempts were successful, but after several years it was understood that the power of the sea was too powerful for any kind of human defense. Huge costs were involved, but the only thing that produced was protection. Many methods around the British Isles have taken place in the last fifty years only to occur in many different failures. It is very rare to find a coastline with a decrease in the rate of erosion after many years after defenses have been put into place. The fact that the erosion process actually speeds up in the different places that these defenses have been set up comes from different research. Coastal erosion is the natural process of erosion, transportation, and deposition. Interfering with these natural processes could be the blame for the rise in erosion on the coasts of some areas. One way that has been helpful in the management of coastal erosion is the building of groins. Groins have been built out to sea in many areas of the British coastline. The reason for doing this is to trap material and thus slow down the rate of longshore drift. The downside to these groins is that they have been blamed for the rise in erosion rates further down the coast. People are complaining that the erosion occurs more rapidly after these groins have been made. One of the only ways to stop this is to just start building more groins. There is a coastline in Humberside where erosion is taking place about two meters per year. There is a strong action of longshore drift taking place along this coastline. Over many many years, this has caused a spit to form on the southern tip of Holderness, which is called the Spurn Head spit. The spit is over four kilometers long and 100 meters wide. 2005-08-28T06:30:47-04:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/Coastal-Erosion-Geology-Research-Report-27798.aspx Nitrogen was isolated by the British physician Daniel Rutherford in 1772 and recognized as an elemental gas by the French chemist Antoine Laurent Lavoisier about 1776. Properties Nitrogen is a colorless, odorless, tasteless, nontoxic gas. It can be condensed into a colorless liquid, which can in turn be compressed into a colorless, crystalline solid. Nitrogen exists in two natural forms of isotopes, and four radioactive isotopes have been artificially prepared. Nitrogen melts at -210.01° C (-346.02° F), boils at -195.79° C (-320.42° F), and has a density of 1.251 g/liter at 0° C (32° F). The atomic weight of nitrogen is 14.007. Nitrogen is obtained from the atmosphere by passing air over heated copper or iron. The oxygen is removed from the air, leaving nitrogen mixed with some inert gases. Pure nitrogen is obtained by partial evaporation of liquid air because liquid nitrogen has a lower boiling point than liquid oxygen, the nitrogen evaporates off first and can be collected. Nitrogen composes about four-fifths (78.03 percent) by volume of the atmosphere. Nitrogen is inert and serves as a diluent for oxygen in burning and respiration processes. It is an important element in plant nutrition certain bacteria in the soil convert nitrogen from the atmosphere into a form, such as nitrate, that can be absorbed by plants, a process called nitrogen fixation. Nitrogen in the form of protein is an important component of animal tissue. The element occurs in the combined state in minerals, of which saltpeter (KNO3) and Chile saltpeter (NaNO3) are highly important products. Nitrogen combines with other elements only at very high temperatures or pressures. It is converted to an active form by passing through an electric discharge at low pressure. The nitrogen produced is very active, combining with alkali metals to form azides with the vapor of zinc, mercury cadmium, and arsenic to form nitrides and with many hydrocarbons to form nitriles. Activated nitrogen returns to ordinary nitrogen in about one minute.In the combined state nitrogen takes has many reactions it forms so many compounds that a systematic scheme of compounds containing nitrogen in place of oxygen was created by the American chemist Edward Franklin. In compounds nitrogen exists in all the combination capacity states between -3 and +5. Ammonia, and hydroxylamine represent compounds in which the combination capacity of nitrogen is -3, -2, and -1, individually. Oxides of nitrogen represent nitrogen in all the positive combination capacity states. Uses Most of 2005-08-26T10:52:46-04:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/Properties-and-History-of-Chemical-Element-Nitrogen-27792.aspx Tourette's Syndrome Tourette's Syndrome is a disorder in motor skills, movements, and behavior. It is caused by a genetic disturbance that affects the central nervous system. There is a chemical imbalance in the brain. It is just one of many movement or “tic” disorders. It was discovered by Gilles de la Tourette's, which is where the name comes from. When a person has tourette's syndrome, their muscles twitch and they uncontrollably shout out noises or in some cases, obscene words. They just come out. It is found more often in boys, usually between the ages of 2 and 16, and will last for the remainder of their lives It is found more often in Jews and rarely found in blacks. If the person concentrates, they can control their tics for awhile, but then later the tics will erupt violently and they will come all at once. For example, a lawyer with tourette's syndrome may show no tics while he is in court, but when he get home or back to the office, he’ll have a many more tics that are more severe than normal. These involuntary motor tics are very rapid, and sometimes, very different and interesting movements. Facial tics usually begin the attacks in about 80% of the people with the disorder. Vocal tics, like barks, grunts, hisses, and offensive words, only show up in the other 20%. Other tics include the muscles in the face, head, and shoulders, like sniffing, shrugging, blinking, and scowling. When tourette's syndrome is found in girls, behavioral problems are found more often than muscle and facial tics. One of the most common ones is obsessive-compulsive behavior. These symptoms will seem better sometimes, and worse other times. They go back and forth. These symptoms sometimes get worse with age, but many times, the symptoms just fade away as the patient gets older. There are different classifications of tourette’s syndrome. The most common of course is the facial and vocal tics that I’ve mentioned before. Blurting out dirty words is called coprolalia. It is the least common level of tourette’s syndrome, but it is the most well-known one. Echolalia is when the patient repeats what someone else said. Palilalia is repeating words or phrases, and then there is also obsessive-compulsive behavior. All of 2005-08-25T06:43:47-04:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/Tourette-s-Syndrome-27781.aspx Nuclear Medicine & The Use Of Radioactive Tracers Nuclear medicine is a medical specialty that uses safe, painless, and cost-effective techniques both to image the body and treat disease. It is a way to gather medical information that may otherwise be unavailable, require surgery, or need more expensive diagnostic tests. Nuclear medicine uses very small amounts of radioactive materials or radiopharmaceuticals to diagnose and treat disease. The radiopharmaceuticals used in nuclear medicine emit gamma rays that can be detected externally by special types of cameras. These cameras work in conjunction with computers used to form images that provide data and information about the area of body being imaged. By performing measurements of radiation intensity, Pierre and Marie Curie were able to eliminate non-active fractions and in this way invented the method of radioactive tracers. The discovery of isotopy by Frederic Soddy and Kasimir Fajans 2005-08-25T06:36:37-04:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/Nuclear-Medicine-amp-The-Use-Of-Radioactive-Tracers-27777.aspx The Scientific Revolution: The Medieval World View A world-view is a composite of several interpretive models through which the individual establishes his or her identity relative to everything else in the universe. In the broadest of terms, any world-view is made up of four component elements. In the first of these components, which can be designated the Theological element, man tries to define himself in relation to the transcendent. Questions are asked, such as Is there a God or gods? What is the nature of God? How am I to relate to that which is absolutely ultimate? In general, a person's transcendent presuppositions have a determinative impact upon all other aspects of their world-view. The second component is Psychological in nature, and asks such questions as Who am I, and what is my significance in the greater scheme of things. Does my individuality have meaning? Third would be the Sociological aspect. How is man to live with his fellows? How should human society be organized? Fourth, What is the nature of the universe? How did it begin and how will it end? What is the nature of my relationship with the material world? In the broadest sense, this may be designated the Cosmological aspect of a world view. A significant change took place in the European approach to truth and authority in the early years of the thirteenth century. This, in turn, led to a radical transformation in the then-prevalent world-view. The Avignon Crisis, and conflicts between the Church and various monarchs, encouraged members of the clergy to study the history of the Church in order to establish the authority of the Pope on a firm foundation. This led to a recovery of Roman Law and a renewed interest in the ancient Greek and Roman authors. While this was going on, the Muslims in Spain had transformed the city of Cordova into the intellectual capital of the Islamic world. Contact with these scholars revived the influence of Aristotle, and generated a great deal of controversy within the Church over the nature of truth itself. On the one hand, Aristotle had taught that 2005-08-25T06:29:45-04:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/The-Scientific-Revolution-The-Medieval-World-View-27772.aspx Photosynthesis - Changing Carbon Dioxide and Water to Sugars 6H2O + 6CO2 C6H12O6+ 6O2 Six molecules of water plus six molecules of carbon dioxide produce one molecule of sugar plus six molecules of oxygen Photosynthesis is the process that green plants and certain other organisms use to change carbon dioxide and water into glucose (sugar) using the suns energy. Photosynthesis provides the basic energy source for practically all living organisms. A very important byproduct of photosynthesis is oxygen, which we can’t live without. Photosynthesis occurs in green plants, seaweeds, algae, and certain bacteria. These organisms are major sugar factories, producing millions of new glucose molecules per second. Plants use the glucose, a carbohydrate, as a source of energy to grow leaves, flowers, fruits, and seeds. They also change glucose to cellulose, the structural material used in their cell walls. Most plants produce more glucose than they use so it gets stored in the form of starch and other carbohydrates in their roots, stems, and leaves. The plants can use the stored starch later to help them grow. Plants are the only photosynthetic organisms to have leaves (not all plants have leaves). A leaf is a major solar collector crammed full of photosynthetic cells. The water and carbon dioxide come into the cells of the leaf, and the products of photosynthesis, sugar and oxygen, leave the leaf. Water enters the root and is moved up to the leaves through cells known as xylem. Land plants can dry out fast so they have a special opening called a stomata, this lets gas in and out of the leaf. Carbon dioxide cannot pass through the protective waxy layer covering the leaf (cuticle), but it can enter the leaf through the stomata. Oxygen that is produced during photosynthesis can only pass out of the leaf through the opened stomata. Humans and other animals depend on glucose as an energy source, but they can’t make it on their own so they must rely on the glucose produced by plants. The oxygen that humans and animals breathe is the oxygen released during photosynthesis. Humans also depend on ancient products of photosynthesis, known as fossil fuels. Without fossil fuels we wouldn’t have natural gas, coal or petroleum. Fossil fuels are made up of 2005-08-21T08:11:55-04:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/Photosynthesis-Changing-Carbon-Dioxide-and-Water-to-Sugars-27761.aspx About Piranha's, Having a Piranha as a Pet Did you know that there are at least twenty-five different kinds of piranhas? Most have deep flat bodies, range in color from olive green to blue black, and have red orange bellies. The most dangerous of the species have large very sharp teeth, the upper and lower set which fit perfectly together. These remarkable fishes have other characteristics which enhance their biting ability. Their lower jaws are sturdy and they swing shut at an angle that gives maximum leverage. Their deep flat bodies which offer resistance when swung sideways through the water add to the leverage. Incredibly large muscles are attached to the jaws. The muscles are so sturdy that when you that when you look down a large specimens throat it barely looks like enough room to swallow. When the fish clamps down on a victim it grabs firmly and twists its body violently until a piece is torn loose. In a word, the piranha is the most efficient biting machine. Every body part seems to make a contribution to this function. Fishing for the piranha in the Guyanas upper Abary River can be very exciting but very dangerous. The author of Unusual Aquarium Fishes, Alan Mark Fletcher, was using special heavy shanked steel fish hooks and twice piranhas bit completely through the strong fish hooks. A man with a pair of pliers would have a hard time snipping through the heavy shanked hooks. This author has taken many daring risks such as having himself photographed holding a live piranha in the exact spot where it had just been caught. While in some places the piranha are extremely dangerous, in others its quite harmless most of the time. In the upper Amazon River, Indian children swim and play in the waters that teems with the fish. Yet in Guyanas Abary River one takes a great risk to place his hands in the water. Some species of the piranha family, called the Candiru, attach themselves by means of suction, for which their mouths are adapted. They fasten themselves on their victim and then painlessly cut the skin and gorge themselves in its blood. Any of the fish brought to the market at Manaos often show many wounds inflicted by the piranha. Below the first fall in the Maderia River, it is difficult to take a catfish which has 2005-08-18T09:32:25-04:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/Personal-Animal-Research-Paper-Piranha-27727.aspx Does HIV cause AIDS? The AIDS Controversy "Science is nothing but perception" ---Plato--- In the first part of my discussion on the HIV/AIDS controversy, I discussed some of the reasons some people were unwilling to believe that HIV causes AIDS. I did not focus on the scientific community nor did I explain how the science handles data that conflicts with accepted scientific theory. This essay will explore these themes. It will concentrate on the scientific establishment and how it formulates its theories and the HIV/AIDS controversy within that context. Specifically, it will examine how shifts in current theories happen and how this is relevant to the HIV/AIDS situation. WHAT IS THE HIV/AIDS CONTROVERSY? The HIV/AIDS controversy centers around the premise that in spite of the seemingly overwhelming evidence that HIV causes AIDS, there is an impressive audience of scientists who contend that HIV does not cause AIDS. The grounds these scientists give for refuting HIV's role in AIDS are quite persuasive. These grounds range from innocuous banter to claims that HIV is harmless. In order for a scientific revolution to take place, as will be discussed later, only empirical evidence is acceptable as grounds for change. To determine weather or not enough evidence exists to constitute a controversy, I had to research the role of the HIV virus. In my research I found one article that claims Gallo, the co-founder of the HIV virus, never proves that HIV isolation is possible let alone that it has a specific role in the AIDS virus. It states, "The data and arguments that have been presented by Gallo and his colleagues do not constitute proof of HIV isolation or an unambiguous role for HIV in the pathogenesis of AIDS." (Gallo Article, P. 11) The article further states, " while the HIV antibody tests are useful prognostic markers in the high risk groups, their use as diagnostic and epedemiological tools for HIV infection is questionable." (Gallo Article, P. 11) This is important, because if isolation of HIV is dubious, then all of the research efforts connected with and an AIDS treatment and cure are fruitless. Another important question to ask is if this information is correct, how will the scientific community handle it? Will the community choose to ignore the proof as trivial or will it find some way to explain it so that it can be incorporated into entrenched existing theories? THE SCIENTISTS BEHIND THE CONTROVERSY One 2005-08-18T09:29:34-04:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/Does-HIV-cause-AIDS-The-AIDS-Controversy-27725.aspx Understanding those Diagnosed with ADHD We are all created equal, albeit unique; and yet, some of us are different from "everybody else". Adults and children come in all shapes and sizes, with many different characteristics and traits, different abilities and inclinations. Some are smarter than others, some are quick, some are slow, some are left behind. At the age of 5 or 6 children begin their long journey in the world of education. They are taught how to read and write, how to AD/HD, subtract and multiply, some history, grammar, literature and geography and many other things. Children are required to sit still in class, be quiet and attentive, do all their homework, succeed. Most children go to first grade, not all of them graduate from high school. Some find school a reasonably easy task to tackle, some struggle and sweat throughout school, failing or barely making it. The failure of some children in school is sometimes the outcome of a learning disorder: a 'dysfunction in one or more neuropsychological systems that affect school performance.' (Pennington, 1991, p. xii). Pennington makes a distinction between "school problems" that are entirely due to emotional, motivational, or cultural factors and "learning disabilities"[1] that are a subset of learning disorders and include problems such as dyslexia, developmental language disorders and attention deficit disorder. Attention deficit disorder with or without hyperactivity (AD/HD)[2] is the centre of this discussion. AD/HD is an inherited developmental disorder characterised by impulsivity, inattention and often motor restlessness or hyperactivity (Mould, 1993). People with AD/HD have difficulties in staying on a task, following through, paying attention, sitting still, controlling impulses, dealing with frustrating situations and remembering details. They tend to procrastinate, fidget, get side-tracked, be late and be forgetful. Like blindness, deafness, Down's syndrome and other impairments, AD/HD has a physiological source, yet, it is often perceived as a psychological problem or as a character deficiency rather than a neurological disability. AD/HD cannot be "cured" but with the help of educational assistance, therapy, behaviour management and medication the individual can learn to cope with AD/HD and to overcome some of its disabling aspects. The limitations of people who have AD/HD are hard to perceive and understand. Their behaviour is often mistaken for stupidity, bad education or a character deficiency such as lack of motivation, laziness or malignancy. In recent years awareness of AD/HD has increased, but it is still not widely known or understood by 2005-08-16T09:14:57-04:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/Understanding-those-Diagnosed-with-ADHD-27701.aspx Medieval Astrology Astrology is an ancient practice many civilizations used. Throughout many years the people believed the stars and planets guided their life to where it would go. Boethius, the counsel of Rome, believed that the movements of the planets told the people of “earthly events.” Astrology originated with the Chaldean, in Babylon, Mesopotamia, 2005-08-16T08:55:28-04:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/Medieval-Astrology--27694.aspx Jay Gould’s essay "Natural selection and the human brain," an argument for evolution It has been over 100 years since English naturalist Charles Darwin first told the world his revolutionary concept about how livings things develop. Evolution through natural selection and adaptation was the basis of his argument as it remains to this day a debated subject by many. Across this nation, a "return" to "traditional" values has also brought the return of age old debated topics. One issue that truly separates Americans is the issue of creation versus evolution. Since the 19th century, this divisive topic has been debated in school boards and state capitols across America. In many instances religious fundamentalists won the day by having banned the instruction or even the mention of "ungodly" evolutionary thinking in schools. With today's social and political climate, this question is back with greater force than ever. This is why this subject is more important now than ever. In Jay Gould's book The Panda's Thumb, an overview of and an argument for Charles Darwin's evolutionary thinking is conducted with flowing thoughts and ideas. This essay titled "Natural Selection and the Human Brain: Darwin vs. Wallace" takes a look directly at two hard fought battles between evolutionists and creationists. Using sexual selection and the origins of human intellect as his proponents, Gould argues his opinion in the favor of evolutionary thought. In this essay titled "Natural Selection and The Human Brain: Darwin vs. Wallace," Gould tells about the contest between Darwin and another prominent scientist named Alfred Wallace over two important subjects. These topics, one being sexual selection and the other about the origins of the human brain and intellect were debated by men who generally held the same views on evolution. However on these two subjects, Wallace chose to differ as he described it as his "special heresy" (53). The first of these two areas of debate between the two men was the question of "sexual selection." Darwin theorized that there laid two types of sexual selection. First a competition between males for access to females and second the choice "exercised by females themselves" (51). In this, Darwin attributed racial differences among modern human beings to sexual selection "based upon different criteria of beauty that arose among various peoples" (51). Wallace, however, disputed the suggestion of female choice. He believed that animals were highly evolved and beautiful works of art, not allowing 2005-08-15T08:58:37-04:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/Jay-Gould-Natural-Selection-and-the-Human-Brain-27689.aspx Cricket deterrents lab experiment, science project Insects have been a nuisance to man since the beginning of time, up until the present. One of the plagues that struck Egypt was swarms of crickets, and locusts, which destroyed crops, and ate entire fields. Swarms of Crickets can cover up to 210 km. There have been cases of up to 100,000,000,000 insects in a swarm (one hundred billion). In these huge masses, they can completely destroy the land and everything on a farm. I chose to do this experiment because when I am at camp I am constantly woken up by the loud chirping of these annoying insects. There are three types of crickets: Mole Crickets, Field Crickets, and House Crickets. The Mole Cricket’s body is designed for digging subterranean tunnels. This Cricket’s body is well adapted to digging. The Mole Cricket usually lives in hot dry areas, and are extremely harmful to plants such as barley, and flax The Field Cricket has had a history in ancient China. This cricket’s beautiful song was held in particularly high esteem. These crickets were often kept in exquisitely ornamented cages made of sandalwood, ivory or jade. The Most common cricket is the house cricket. The house cricket’s body is more slender than that of the field cricket. It is also generally lighter in color. This crickets appears in abundance in central Europe, such as cellars, houses, bakeries, and so on. Procedure Problem: How do I make a cricket deterrent that is environmentally friendly? Hypothesis: If I use a deterrent that has a strong odor, then it will deter the crickets from that area. I started my experiment by first buying 60 crickets. The crickets were stored in bags until they were ready to be used. I purchased a clear plastic box with holes in the top for breathing. I made a divider out of cardboard and secured it in the center of the box, making four equal sections. One section was the control, and in the others I put a deterrent. Two tests were made that were thrown out because they were irrelevant. In the first case, the crickets were not deterred at all by any of the substances. The test was done outside, and the crickets seemed to simply move their position depending on the location 2005-08-15T08:55:56-04:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/Cricket-Deterrents-Lab-Experiment-Science-Project-27687.aspx Black Holes: Infinity and Beyond What are black holes? Black Hole Dynamics Research Essay If theories of their existence are true, black holes are the most powerful force in the known physical universe. Many people are familiar with the term black hole, but few people actually know anything about them. A black hole forms as a result of a massive star running out of fuel to burn (Chaisson, 193). Once the star is no longer exerting outward force by burning off gases, it begins to collapse under it's own intense, inward gravity (Chaisson, 193). It is like slowly letting the air out of a balloon. Once the star is compacted to a certain size, while it's mass, or weight, remains the same, it's gravity becomes so powerful that nothing can escape it (Hawking, 87). This critical size to weight ratio is known as the Schwarzchild Radius (Hawking, 87). Once a black hole is created in this way, an invisible area, or line around it exists. If any object crosses this line, it can no longer escape the gravitational force of the black hole (Hawking, 87). This line is called the event horizon (Hawking, 87). If black holes are proven to exist, beyond theoretical physics, then they would probably be a very common anomaly in this universe. In 1915, Albert Einstein put forth the first real proposition of such an anomaly in his "Theory of Relativity" (Bunn, Black Holes FAQ). In the 1930s, three physicists, doctors Volkoff, Snyder and Oppenheimer, were able to prove the validity of black holes mathematically. Since then, black holes have become a very important and integral part of science and the over all understanding of the universe. It has been proven, mathematically, that black holes have infinite, gravity based, escape velocities and an immense effect on light, time and even the very fabric of space. All bodies in space have gravity. According to Einstein's "Theory of Relativity", this is because bodies with a large mass, or weight, actually warp space (Chaisson, 77). For example, if a two dimensional sheet of cloth, stretched and suspended at four corners, represents space, and a bowling ball is placed in the center, the sheet will warp downward. If a golf ball is then set at the edge of the sheet and allowed to move freely it will be attracted toward the bowling ball, unless the golf ball is traveling at a speed great 2005-08-15T08:53:58-04:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/What-are-Black-Holes-Black-Hole-Dynamics-Research-Essay-27686.aspx How Solar Cells Generate Energy Solar cells today are mostly made of silicon, one of the most common elements on Earth. The crystalline silicon solar cell was one of the first types to be developed and it is still the most common type in use today. They do not pollute the atmosphere and they leave behind no harmful waste products. Photovoltaic cells work effectively even in cloudy weather and unlike solar heaters, are more efficient at low temperatures. They do their job silently and there are no moving parts to wear out. It is no wonder that one marvels on how such a device would function. To understand how a solar cell works, it is necessary to go back to some basic atomic concepts. In the simplest model of the atom, electrons orbit a central nucleus, composed of protons and neutrons. each electron carries one negative charge and each proton one positive charge. Neutrons carry no charge. Every atom has the same number of electrons as there are protons, so, on the whole, it is electrically neutral. The electrons have discrete kinetic energy levels, which increase with the orbital radius. When atoms bond together to form a solid, the electron energy levels merge into bands. In electrical conductors, these bands are continuous but in insulators and semiconductors there is an "energy gap", in which no electron orbits can exist, between the inner valence band and outer conduction band [Book 1]. Valence electrons help to bind together the atoms in a solid by orbiting 2 adjacent nucleii, while conduction electrons, being less closely bound to the nucleii, are free to move in response to an applied voltage or electric field. The fewer conduction electrons there are, the higher the electrical resistivity of the material. In semiconductors, the materials from which solar sells are made, the energy gap Eg is fairly small. Because of this, electrons in the valence band can easily be made to jump to the conduction band by the injection of energy, either in the form of heat or light [Book 4]. This explains why the high resistivity of semiconductors decreases as the temperature is raised or the material illuminated. The excitation of valence electrons to the conduction band is best accomplished when the semiconductor is in the crystalline state, i.e. when the atoms are arranged in a precise geometrical formation or "lattice". At room temperature and low illumination, pure or so-called "intrinsic" 2005-08-15T08:49:17-04:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/How-Solar-Cells-Work,-Photovoltaic-Cell-Energy-Generation-27682.aspx What are Polymers? How are they different from Monomers? Polymers are large molecules composed of smaller molecules called monomers. Monomers are produced and either grow together or are assembled to produce a single polymer. There are synthetic and natural polymers. Some examples of natural polymers would be wood, starches, fingernails, and hair. Synthetic polymers are usually referred to as plastics. Petroleum, is the primary monomer used to produce polymers. An English chemist named Alexander Parkes was the first scientist to produce the first synthetic polymer in 1862. John Wesley Hyatt, an American, was the first person to produce a useable polymer two years later. He named the product celluloid. The prime virtue of polymers is a high strength-to-weight ratio. Industrial-strength polymers surpass titanium in tensile strength. To add strength and improve flexibility, polymers are sometimes fortified with short-fiber additives, mostly fiberglass. This is known as a polymer composite. One particular polymer has three times the strength of tempered steel and is being used in bullet proof vests. Another composite will be used to fasten together the sections proposed space stations. Polymers have also been used in cars, including the Chevrolet Camaro and the Pontiac Fiero. New polymers are being created with more strength and flexibility by combing two chemically different polymers and producing a block copolymer. Combinations of block copolymers and composites and intended for use in booster rockets and in materials of Earth-orbiting installations. Most common polymers are usually solid, but a new class of polymers is being introduced in a liquid crystal state. Although these polymers still have the physical characteristics of liquid, they are structured more like solids. Many liquid crystals are transparent at one temperature and colored at another temperature. This makes them suitable for use in liquid crystal displays, such as in digital watches, hand-held calculators, and lap-top computers. A new liquid polymer, consisting of a mixture of iron and nickel, is being used to make metal links that can be used in paper, glass, and on electronic circuit boards. Despite the development and widespread use of polymers, scientific understanding is still sketchy. Polymer development has occurred through trial and error. Scientific shortcomings are becoming more apparent in the search for polymers that can meet the demands for high technology of today. The new study is on the microstructure of polymers while still in a liquid state. The purpose is to learn how the solid-state structure is developed. The 2005-08-15T08:32:31-04:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/Polymers-and-their-difference-from-monomers-27668.aspx What is Uranium and what are its uses? Research Paper on an Element Uranium is a silvery-white element possessing a very radioactive and oxidizing character. Uranium retains a density of 19.07 grams per cubic centimeter and a melting point of roughly 1,132 degrees centigrade. With a boiling point of approximately 3,818 degrees Celsius uranium is not an easy element to get to a melting or boiling point. The Periodic Table says that uranium has 92 protons and 146 neutrons thereby acquiring a atomic weight of 238 atomic mass units. Uranium burns readily in air at 150 to 175 degrees centigrade and at 1,000 degrees Celsius uranium combines with nitrogen to form a yellow nitride. Uranium is found in such ores as pitchblende and carnotite. In the crust of the Earth uranium is found at about 2 parts per million. In other words, for every half million tons of nature one digs up, they can expect to find one ton of uranium. To mine this element, miners will break up and mix pitchblende with sulfuric and nitric acids. This then breaks the uranium into uranyl sulfate and with the addition of heat, uranium is then precipitated as sodium diuranate and collected. Humans today use uranium to produce nuclear weapons and nuclear reactors. While producing electrical energy, power plants consume close to 40 million tons of coal per month, while the same output could be obtained by using only 15 pounds of uranium per month! Summary: *Uranium is a very heavy (dense) metal which can be used as an abundant source of concentrated energy. *It occurs in most rocks in concentrations of 2 to 4 parts per million and is as common in the earth's crust as tin, tungsten and molybdenum. It occurs in seawater, and could be recovered from the oceans if prices rose significantly. *It was discovered in 1789 by Martin Klaproth, a German chemist, in the mineral called pitchblende. It was named after the planet Uranus, which had been discovered eight years earlier. *Uranium was apparently formed in super novae about 6.6 billion years ago. While it is not common in the solar system, today its radioactive decay provides the main source of heat inside the earth, causing convection and continental drift. *The high density of uranium means that it also finds uses in the keels of yachts and as counterweights for aircraft control surfaces (rudders and elevators), as well as for radiation shielding. *Its melting point 2005-08-15T08:30:26-04:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/What-is-Uranium-and-what-are-its-uses-Research-Paper-27667.aspx AIDS In Africa AIDS in Africa is the single greatest threat to Africa’s efforts to reach its full potential. It has taken the lives of over 15 million Africans, has left over 34.3 million infected, and continues to be the leading cause of death in Africa. AIDS has impacted Africa’s 2005-08-15T00:46:57-04:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/AIDS-In-Africa--27646.aspx Glass The history of glass is an old, mysterious story. Natural glass has existed since the beginning of time. Obsidian is a natural black volcanic glass that was used by primitive people for tools, knives, arrowheads, and decoration. It is uncertain when and where man discovered combining enough heat with the right materials could make glass. Archeologists have dated the oldest man-made glass to about 7000 B.C. Glass’s natural properties are what create its sparkling brightness and often-translucent form. Glass’s history has many uncertainties. The New Book of Knowledge states that according to the Roman natural historian Pliny (A.D. 23-79) glass was discovered along the coast of Syria. According to this account, some seamen stumbled upon glass when cooking there dinner. Since they could not find big enough rocks to place their cooking pots on, they used blocks of niter, a form of soda. After their fires died down, they found that the niter had fused the sand underneath into a glassy substance (“Glass”). After this discovery the craft was born. Early glass articles consisted mainly of small beads and charms. Glass was considered as a gem, valued equally as a precious stone. Not until the discovery of the blowpipe was glass changed from a luxury product into something that lower class people could afford and enjoy (“Glass”). Glass is one of a few products that can be made from inexpensive raw materials. According to The New Book of Knowledge glass has a base of pure silica sand, which is composed of the mineral quartz, a compound of elements silicon and oxygen (“Glass”). In order to allow the sand (former) to melt more readily at a lower temperature of about 2600 degrees Fahrenheit, fluxing agents need to be added, like Soda ash, potash, and lithium carbonate. Fluxes however, make the glass chemically unstable, making it liable to dissolve in water or form unwanted crystals. Therefore stabilizers are also needed to make the glass uniform and keep its special structure intact. These include limestone, litharge, magnesia, barium carbonate, strontium carbonate, and zinc oxide (The Glassy State In-Brief Par 6-8). Other substances can be added to adapt glass for special purposes. Because of the iron present in all sand, glass naturally has a greenish cast. In order to decolorize the glass selenium (a non-metallic element somewhat like sulfur) needs to be added. This 2005-08-15T00:43:48-04:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/The-History-of-Glass-27644.aspx Environmental Report: Hurricanes and their Tendencies According to the National Hurricane Center, a hurricane releases heat energy at a rate of 50 trillion to 200 trillion watts, which is equivalent to the energy from exploding 10 megaton bombs every 20 minutes. With such strength, it is no wonder why these natural disasters have such large destructive impacts on the environment. Furthermore, hurricanes are of extreme importance to Florida, since they have historically overwhelmed the state, especially in 1992 with Hurricane Andrew. Since it is certain that hurricanes will hit Florida and equally certain that biological populations (including people) will exist in Florida, there is a need for researching methods to coexist with these monstrous storms. First, to be able to create solutions to hurricane damage, experts must understand the physical manner in which hurricanes actually cause damage. Roger Pielke, in his hurricane book, The Hurricane, identifies four impacts of a hurricane: storm surge, extreme winds, tornadoes, and rainfall. These impacts are not completely separate from each other; they interact, but are different in scope. Storm surge refers to the rapid rise of sea level as a storm approaches a coastline. This is the biggest impact of a hurricane and accounts for 90% of hurricane deaths (Pielke 1990). Storm surges are caused by three factors. First, the overlying atmosphere pressure drops. Second, strong onshore winds cause a piling up of water at the coast. Third, the decreasing sea depth as the ocean approaches the coast causes the surge to get steeper. A storm surge of 15 feet corresponds to a level 5 hurricane, and a surge greater than 5 feet can cause major damage and loss of life. Since surges reduce as they move inland, surges are mostly destructive to beaches. Extreme winds, which carry a lot of kinetic energy, can cause significant structural damage and even endanger life with dangerous wreckage. The damage of winds is relative to the kinetic flow, which is exponential. For example, a wind of 50 ms-1 is four times greater than winds of 25 ms-1. In addition, winds are not restricted to the coasts; extreme winds appear and are destructive far inland. Tornadoes are connected with extreme winds. Although hurricane induced tornadoes are not as strong as the “normal” ones that appear in the Midwest, they still cause a lot of damage and are dangerous to life. Tornadoes are mysterious, but there are theories on their 2005-08-14T01:15:11-04:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/Environmental-Report-Hurricanes-and-their-Tendencies-27624.aspx Discussion of Acid Rain: How does it occur? "Acid rain" is a broad term used to describe several ways that acids fall out of the atmosphere. A more precise term is acid deposition, which has two parts: wet and dry. Wet deposition refers to acidic rain, fog, and snow. As this acidic water flows over and through the ground, it affects a variety of plants and animals. The strength of the effects depend on many factors, including how acidic the water is, the chemistry and buffering capacity of the soils involved, and the types of fish, trees, and other living things that rely on the water. Dry deposition refers to acidic gases and particles. About half of the acidity in the atmosphere falls back to earth through dry deposition. The wind blows these acidic particles and gases onto buildings, cars, homes, and trees. Dry deposited gases and particles can also be washed from trees and other surfaces by rainstorms. When that happens, the runoff water adds those acids to the acid rain, making the combination more acidic than the falling rain alone. Prevailing winds blow the compounds that cause both wet and dry acid deposition across state and national borders, and sometimes over hundreds of miles. Scientists discovered, and have confirmed, that sulfur dioxide (SO2) and nitrogen oxides (NOx) are the primary causes of acid rain. In the US, About 2/3 of all SO2 and 1/4 of all NOx comes from electric power generation that relies on burning fossil fuels like coal. Acid rain occurs when these gases react in the atmosphere with water, oxygen, and other chemicals to form various acidic compounds. Sunlight increases the rate of most of these reactions. The result is a mild solution of sulfuric acid and nitric acid. How Do We Measure Acid Rain? Acid rain is measured using a scale called "pH." The lower a substance's pH, the more acidic it is. See the pH page for more information. Pure water has a pH of 7.0. Normal rain is slightly acidic because carbon dioxide dissolves into it, so it has a pH of about 5.5. As of the year 2000, the most acidic rain falling in the US has a pH of about 4.3. Acid rain's pH, and the chemicals that cause acid rain, are monitored by two networks, both supported by EPA. The National Atmospheric Deposition Program measures wet deposition, and its Web site features maps of rainfall 2005-08-13T05:49:11-04:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/Essay-on-Acid-Rain-27604.aspx Crohn's Disease What is Crohn’s Disease? Crohn’s disease is a chronic inflammatory disease of the intestines. It primarily causes ulceration’s in the small and large intestines, but can effect the digestive system anywhere between the mouth and the anus. It is named after the physician who examined the disease in a landmark paper written in 1932. It is also called Morbus Crohn’s, Granulomatous enteritis, Regional enteritis, or Terminal ileitis. The disease is found in equal frequency in men and women, and usually effects young patients in their teen s of early twenties. Once the disease begins, it tends to be a chronic, recurrent condition with periods of remission and disease exacerbation. The disease tends to be more common in relatives of patients with Crohn’s disease. What are the symptoms of Crohn’s Disease? The terminal ileum is commonly involved in Crohn’s disease. Since the terminal ileum is located adjacent the appendix, right-sided abdominal pain and tenderness mimicking appendicitis is common. The pain of Crohn’s disease can also be crampy in nature, and may reflect bowel obstruction. Diarrhea is also common. Diarrhea may be a result of a partial bowel obstruction, excessive growth of bacteria in the small bowel, poor absorption of nutrients and bile acids and inflammation of the large intestine. The diarrhea may be bloody and associated with abdominal pain and cramps. Rectal bleeding and bloody diarrhea are common. While massive bleeding (hemorrhage) from Crohn’s ulcer is rare, it can occur. Diseases affecting the anus are common. Up to one third of patients with Crohn’s disease may have diseases involving the anal area. Anal diseases include tears of the anal tissue (fissures), infections (abscesses) adjacent to the anus and draining abnormal passages or tubes (fistulae) between the inside of the anus and the surrounding skin. What causes Crohn’s Disease? The cause of Crohn’s disease is unknown. Some scientists suspect that infection by certain bacteria, such as strains of mycobacterium, may be the cause of Crohn’s disease. To date, there has been no convincing evidence that the disease is caused by infection. Crohn’s disease is not contagious. Although diet may affect the symptoms in patients with Crohn’s disease, it appears unlikely that diet is responsible for the onset of the disease. Currently, Crohn’s disease is believed to be related to abnormalities 2005-08-12T04:16:46-04:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/Crohn-s-Disease--27597.aspx Sleep deprivation is a sickness that mainly adults deal with, though is still seen in various age groups. I chose this topic because studies show that a healthy individual should get about 8-10 hours of sleep each night. Myself only get 6 to 7 hours at the most. Getting this much sleep can really run me down after a while. I think if I could get more sleep and experience less drowsiness it would help me function better in school. To get help for a sleep deprivation I could go to a psychologist such as Harrison Psychology Associates at 6195 West Quaker Rd. in Orchard Park. They could give me very essential information on how to develop better sleeping patterns, or possibly prescribe a medication such as melatonin, which helps you overcome insomnia (which is sleep deprivation). I could try to stabilize my personal habits by cutting down on caffeine or other stimulants during the day, though caffeine does help me cope with my lack of sleep. I could start an exercise program for myself that would help me cope with my problem by making me more fatigued when my bedtime comes around. If I do not deal with and change my sleeping patterns I could experience various negative consequences such as mood swings or mental blocks. You may also develop stress and anxiety from schoolwork or if you have a job due to your lack of sleep. Because of the stress and anxiety problems I could then develop a form of depression. Sleep walking and nightmares are usually other problems that people who inhibit insomnia experience. To help me surpass my sleeping problems I could try reading at night. Studies have shown that reading at night makes an individual more sleepy before bedtime. I could try to make my sleeping environment a more enjoyable place where I would feel more comfortable sleeping in. I could do that by playing soft music to calm me down and helping me forget my daily frustrations. Or on the weekends I could try to regulate my sleeping pattern by not going to bed really late and then sleeping in to a time unrealistic to my school schedule. Usually on the weekends I wake up around noon so when I have to go to bed Sunday night I can’t fall asleep till really late 2005-08-07T07:11:01-04:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/Insomnia-Sleep-Deprivation-27577.aspx Nature vs. Nurture Debate There is an issue that has been conferred upon by philosophers in the past and still so by scientists today. This issue is whether heredity or environment plays a greater role in the determining or shaping of an individual's behavior. It is known as the nature versus nurture debate. Numerous generations before us have deliberated on the reasons behind the development of human behavior. There have been many theories formulated to explain why humans behave the way they do. The surviving theories for behavior derive from physiological and sociological explanations. However, the two explanations have not always been compatible with each other. The famous nature vs. nurture debate over human behavior resulted from conflicting views between proponents of the physiological (nature) and sociological (nurture) explanations. Throughout history, research has swayed popularity back and forth between the theories. Yet, theorists have broken down the line separating nature and nurture. As of today, people utilize both explanations to explore human behavior. Way before our time, early philosophers endeavored to understand the human behavior. As early as 350 BC, such philosophers as Plato and Aristotle tried to understand behavior. The question of nature or nurture as the primary drive can be traced to these times. Plato believed behavior and knowledge was due to innate factors. Author Fiona Cowie states, "The claim that the character of our mental furniture is to a large extent internally rather than environmentally determined found its first substantive defense in the works of Plato..." (Cowie, 1999). Plato theorized that all knowledge is present at birth. Plato also believed that the environment played a part in human processes, but he thought it had an unique role. He believed the environment did not teach people anything new, but its purpose was to remind people of information they already knew (Cowie, 1999). Although Plato's views are not supported today, he laid the groundwork for other researchers to follow. Alternatively, philosopher Aristotle theorized a different idea about human behavior. He presented the idea that humans are born into the world with a "blank slate" and people's behavior and thoughts are due to experience (Ashcraft, 1998). Unlike Plato, Aristotle hypothesized that humans were not born with knowledge, but they acquire it through experience (Ashcraft, 1998). Aristotle's idea of the tabula rasa is not believed today. Nevertheless, his belief that the environment was a vital factor in behavior influenced many empiricists throughout 2005-08-05T05:26:30-04:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/Nature-versus-Nurture-Debate-27567.aspx Canine Parvovirus - Common Dog Virus There are many diseases and viruses that come in conflict with the average dog today. If no precautions are taken to prevent these viruses, chances are the dog is more than likely to contract one. One of the most common among these viruses is called canine parvovirus. “Since the discovery of the canine parvovirus in 1978, the number of dogs infected has increased rapidly and tremendously” (Welch). Canine parvovirus has appeared worldwide making it one of the most common viruses to dogs. It can be transmitted from canine to canine by way of contaminated feces or coming in contact with other bodily fluids of an infected animal. Since the parvovirus can be transmitted outside the animal for many years, this makes it one of the most contagious viruses. Canine parvovirus can survive outside the infected animal from one to two years, if conditions are favorable. Parvoviruses can be carried on shoes, hands, other inanimate objects, and even through dust particles in the air. Canine parvovirus is one of the most common and most contagious viruses in the United States today. The canine parvovirus is not an old virus. It developed around the year 1978. “Canine parvovirus contains similar properties and characteristics of feline parvovirus, a disease found in cats. Feline parvovirus appeared before canine parvovirus, and it is believed that feline parvovirus is a variant of canine parvovirus. Both diseases are similar antigenically, and they both cause epidemic enteritis and myocarditis. Canine parvovirus though very similar biologically to the feline parvovirus, has its own recognizable properties that distinguish it from feline parvovirus” (Breaux). When first discovered the canine parvovirus caused thousands of deaths among both wild and domestic canines. “Canine parvovirus is a type II ssDNA virus. It is also one of the smallest viruses known to man. The canine parvovirus molecules contain palindromic sequences. This simply means the DNA sequence reads the same way forward as backwards. The virus multiplies in the nuclei very rapidly and takes place in infected cells. This virus causes the cell to require the virus to be able to pass through the S-phase (a phase in the cell’s reproduction), which helps the virus to spread quickly” (Breaux). “This virus mainly targets the intestinal track, white blood cells, and sometimes the heart muscle” (American Veterinary Medical Association). Canine parvovirus mainly causes deterioration of tissues causing extreme pain to the canine. 2005-08-04T07:06:47-04:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/Canine-Parvovirus-Common-Dog-Virus-27550.aspx STD's - Sexually Transmitted Diseases Sexually transmitted diseases, STD's, also known as Venereal diseases, VD, are spread through sexual contact, and the exchange of body fluids. Anyone who is sexually active can contract an STD. Most STD's don't show symptoms, so you can have, spread and even contract an STD without even knowing it. Some STD's are serious and others can have long term consequences. Some of the consequences could be infertility, certain cancers, and other chronic diseases years after initial infection. If symptoms do appear it may take anywhere from two days to a couple of months after initial exposure to appear. Some may take years to show up. One out of every five Americans carry a sexually transmitted disease. More than thirteen million are affected every year. Nearly one-fifth infected are younger than twenty-five years of age. Every year three million American teenagers acquire an STD. Adolescents are at a higher risk because they may have multiple partners, unprotected intercourse, and their partners are at higher risk. You would be at a higher risk of acquiring an STD if: you or your partner have had unprotected sex with someone, if you or your partner has had sex with someone after using drugs or alcohol, you or your partner have had sex after using cocaine, or you or your partner have used IV drugs. General Symptoms Some general symptoms of sexually transmitted diseases are genital sores, bumps, or blisters, pain and itching. In men some common symptoms could be penile discharge, pain during urination, and testicular swelling or pain. In women general symptoms could be vaginal discharge, lower abdomen pain, painful intercourse, and painful urination. Bacterial STD's like gonorrhea and chlamydia, can be cured with antibiotics. Viral STD's like genital herpes are life long infections. Ways to Prevent The number one way to prevent STD's is abstinence. If you do decide to become sexually active, you can do a few things to prevent a STD. For example you could talk to your partner about other sexual partners they may have had, ask them if they have ever had an STD, been exposed to one, or even symptoms of one. Another thing that you could do if you have sex is to use a condom or another form of a contraceptive that helps to prevent STD's. Gonorrhea Gonorrhea is one of the most common sexually transmitted diseases. If gonorrhea is not 2005-08-04T06:41:02-04:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/STD-s-Sexually-Transmitted-Diseases-27541.aspx The Entire Process of Photosynthesis Photosynthesis is the process by which organisms that contain the pigment chlorophyll convert light energy into chemical energy which can be stored in the molecular bonds of organic molecules. Photosynthesis powers almost all trophic chains and food webs on the Earth. The net process of photosynthesis is described by the following equation: 6CO2 + 6H2O + Light Energy = C6H12O6 + 6O2 This equation simply means that carbon dioxide from the air and water combine in the presence of sunlight to form sugars; oxygen is released as a by-product of this reaction. Photosynthesis begins when light strikes Photosystem I pigments and excites their electrons. The energy passes rapidly from molecule to molecule until it reaches a special chlorophyll molecule called P700, so named because it absorbs light in the red region of the spectrum at wavelengths of 700 nanometers. Until this point, only energy has moved from molecule to molecule; now electrons themselves transfer between molecules. P700 uses the energy of the excited electrons to boost its own electrons to an energy level that enables an adjoining electron acceptor molecule to capture them. The electrons are then passed down a chain of carrier molecules, called an electron transport chain. The electrons are passed from one carrier molecule to another in a downhill direction, like individuals in a bucket brigade passing water from the top of a hill to the bottom. Each electron carrier is at a lower energy level than the one before it, and the result is that electrons release energy as they move down the chain. At the end of the electron transport chain lies the molecule nicotine adenine dinucleotide (NADP+). Using the energy released by the flow of electrons, two electrons from the electron transport chain combine with a hydrogen ion and NADP+ to form NADPH. When P700 transfers its electrons to the electron acceptor, it becomes deficient in electrons. Before it can function again, it must be replenished with new electrons. Photosystem II accomplishes this task. As in Photosystem I, light energy activates electrons of the Photosystem II pigments. These pigments transfer the energy of their excited electrons to a special Photosystem II chlorophyll molecule, P680, that absorbs light best in the red region at 680 nanometers. Just as in Photosystem I, energy is transferred among pigment molecules and is then directed to the P680 chlorophyll, where the energy is used to 2005-08-02T13:07:22-04:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/Entire-Process-of-Photosynthesis-27530.aspx Understanding Chromosomes Imagine... you are in charge of building a 200-story skyscraper. The skyscraper has all of the newest technological features, and production has to start tomorrow. Would it happen? Of course not, you would need blue prints. This goes with your body, too. When you are born, your body has to know where everything has to go. You know, a muscle cell goes to your biceps; a (fried) brain cell goes up in to the attic. That is what chromosomes are. I am going to talk about chromosomes. They are your genetic blueprints, DNA and how you can extract DNA from anything that was living. Chromosomes are your hereditary blueprints. These blueprints tell your body what color eyes you will have. These chromosomes tell your body where every thing goes in your body. This instruction set is know as DNA, which I will explain about in the next paragraph. There are pairs of 23 chromosomes in all of the cells in your body. Making a total of 46 chromosomes. Two of those chromosomes tell whether you are going to be a male of female. These are the X and Y-chromosomes. If some one has two X chromosomes then she will be a female. If there is an X and a Y chromosome then he will be a boy. Secondly I will tell you about the DNA contained in the chromosomes. DNA stands for deoxyribonucleic acid. DNA is the blue print for the human we are going to build. This DNA is tightly wrapped around proteins. If this DNA were not tightly wrapped around proteins then the strand of DNA would be much too large to fit in a cell’s nucleus. The double helix shaped DNA would be about 2 inches long. That two inch long, skinny strand of DNA contains all of the information we need to build our very own human. Now how are we going to build our very own human? Well, that is (kind of) simple. We use RNA. RNA stands for ribonucleic acid. In simple terms, RNA builds the human really wanted. Now I bet you are thinking I wish I could get my very own DNA, but that will cost a lot of money… well you are wrong. Stay tuned and I will tell you how… Now I am going to tell you how to extract DNA from anything living. There are 5 simple steps, and 2005-08-02T06:27:52-04:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/Understanding-Chromosomes-27526.aspx Development of the Human Zygote, Human Reproduction Essay November 16, 1995 Hundreds of thousands of times a year a single-celled zygote, smaller than a grain of sand, transforms into an amazingly complex network of cells, a newborn infant. Through cellular differentiation and growth, this process is completed with precision time and time again, but very rarely a mistake in the 'blueprint' of growth and development does occur. Following is a description of how the pathways of this intricate web are followed and the mistakes which happen when they are not. The impressive process of differentiation changes a single-cell into a complicated system of cells as distinct as bold and bone. Although embryonic development takes approximately nine months, the greatest amount of cellular differentiation takes place during the first eight weeks of pregnancy. This period is called embryogenesis. During the first week after fertilization, which takes place in the Fallopian tube, the embryo starts to cleave once every twenty-four hours (Fig. 1). Until the eight or sixteen cell stage, the individual cells, or blastomeres, are thought to have the potential to form any part of the fetus (Leese, Conaghan, Martin, and Hardy, April 1993). As the blastomeres continue to divide, a solid ball of cells develops to form the morula (Fig. 1). The accumulation of fluid inside the morula, transforms it into a hollow sphere called a blastula, which implants itself into the inner lining of the uterus, the endometrium (Fig. 1). The inner mass of the blastula will produce the embryo, while the outer layer of cells will form the trophoblast, which eventually will provide nourishment to the ovum (Pritchard, MacDonald, and Gant, 1985). Figure 1:Implantation process and development during embryogenesis (Pritchard, MacDonald and Gant, 1985) During the second week of development, gastrulation, the process by which the germ layers are formed, begins to occur. The inner cell mass, now called the embryonic disc, differentiates into a thick plate of ectoderm and an underlying layer of endoderm. This cellular multiplication in the embryonic disc marks the beginning of a thickening in the midline that is called the primitive streak. Cells spread out laterally from the primitive streak between the ectoderm and the endoderm to form the mesoderm. These three germ layers, which 2005-08-01T07:25:50-04:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/Development-of-the-Human-Zygote-27504.aspx Diabetes Mellitus Research Essay Abstract Diabetes is a disease that affects 18.2 million people in the United States alone. This disease results when there is a high level of sugar in the blood for an extended period of time. It can be controlled by diet, exercise, pills and insulin injections. There are three main types of diabetes--Type I, which affects primarily the younger population; Type II, which primarily affects the population above 40; and gestational diabetes, which affects women during the third trimester of their pregnancy. While scientists do not know what causes diabetes, they do know that it is caused from a variety of factors that can vary from person to person. Examples of these factors are heredity, being overweight, and problems with beta cells, which are located in the pancreas. Diabetes can result in blurred vision, retinopathy, nerve problems, dry skin, and kidney issues. Diet plays a major role in the prevention of these problems. Sugar concentration in the blood is a major factor for diabetics, so understanding the sugar content of fats, proteins, and carbohydrates is essential. The goal from a diet perspective is to control your sugar in your bloodstream in such a way that the insulin in your bloodstream can manage it efficiently. In addition to diet, medication and exercise play a key role in controlling this disease. Currently, there is no known cure for diabetes. Diabetes Mellitus Diabetes Defined Diabetes Mellitus is a chronic disease where the blood in the body contains a high sugar level. This disease is caused by the body's inability to use insulin properly, or the inability to manufacture insulin altogether. There are times when it can be caused by both factors. "Diabetes is the leading cause of blindness, kidney failure, and leg amputations. In fact, it is the third leading cause of death in the United States." (Magee, 1999 p. 2) The Normal Process When you eat a meal, your body begins the digestion process. The food breaks down and enters the bloodstream in the form of sugars. Once the sugars are circulating in your blood, the cells need to be able to admit the sugar. A hormone called insulin is the factor that makes this possible. Once the insulin lets the sugar into the cells, it is used to produce energy. The Failure Taking insulin out of the equation, the cells in your body cannot use sugar as they would normally. Consequently, they do not get enough 2005-08-01T07:24:01-04:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/Research-Paper-on-Diabetes-Mellitus-27503.aspx [i:d871a2816b]Explain how homopoiesis occurs and how it results in mature red blood cells. How are other formed elements in blood made? Explain how homopoiesis is regulated by negative feedback mechanism. Describe three conditions, which would interfere with this and result in anemias.[/i:d871a2816b] The process of homopoiesis takes place in the red bone marrow, which is a soft network of reticular connective tissue that borders on wide blood capillaries called sinusoids. In this network are immature blood cells, macrophages, fat cells, and reticular cells (the fibroblasts that secrete the fibers). Each type of blood cell is produced at different rates, according to the body's changing needs. All formed elements of blood begin as the same type of stem cell, the hematopoietic stem cell. The appearance of membrane surface receptors, which respond to different hormones, are what determine which type of formed element a stem cell will become. RBC production (erythropoiesis) starts when a hemocytoblast known as a myeloid stem cell that becomes a proerythroblast. These then become early (basophilic) erythroblasts that produce millions of ribosomes. In these first two phases, the cells divide many times. Hemoglobin synthesis and iron accumulation occur while the early erythroblast becomes a late erythroblast and then a normoblast. It's cytoplasm color changes as the blue staining ribosomes are masked by the pink color of hemoglobin. When the normoblast gains a hemoglobin concentration of about 34% the cell collapses inward and gains its biconcave shape. It is now a reticulocyte (young erythrocyte) because it still contains a slight network of clumped ribosomes and rough endoplasmic reticulum. The whole process from hemocytoblast to reticulocyte takes 3-5 days. Now, filled almost to bursting with hemoglobin, the mature cells diffuse through the sinusoids and enter the bloodstream and begin oxygen transport. They usually become mature erythrocytes within two days of release due to their ribosomes being destroyed by intracellular enzymes. Hence, the mature erythrocyte or RBC! Reticulocytes usually account for 1-2% of all erythrocytes in healthy people. Keeping a reticulocyte count is a clinical way to monitor normal vs. abnormal erythrocyte formation. The negative feedback mechanism has a stimulus that could be a pregnancy (fetal Hb) or high altitude. When kidney cells don't have enough oxygen available they release erythropoietin. Erythropoietin stimulates red bone marrow and increases red blood cell count. This increases the oxygen carrying ability of blood. Recycling of red blood cells occurs largely in the spleen, which is made up 2005-08-01T07:21:54-04:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/Essay-on-the-Process-of-Homopoiesis-27502.aspx Prostate Cancer Prostate Cancer is a malignancy of the prostate gland, a walnut-sized organ located under the bladder in males. The prostate gland surrounds the urethra, which is the tube that carries urine from the bladder to the penis. The American Cancer Society estimates that 317,100 new cases of prostate cancer are diagnosed annually in the United States and that 41,400 men die from the disease each year. It is the second leading cause of cancer death after lung cancer in American men. The specific causes and development of prostate cancer are still unknown, but several risk factors for the disease are known. The older you are, the higher chance of getting the disease is. Prostate cancer usually doesn’t develop before the age of 40 and is mostly found in men over the age of 65. It is common in North America affecting 15 percent of American men in their lifetimes and in northwestern Europe, but rare in South America, the Near East, and Africa. In America, black males suffer from the disease 37 percent more often than white males. Evidence links diets with a lot of animal fats with prostate cancer. One study found that human prostate cancer tumors grew only half as fast in mice with diets of 21 percent fat as in mice with diets of 40 percent fat. Diet differences are believed to explain why prostate cancer is 120 times greater in the United States than in China, where fatty foods are not part of the general diet. Some foods seem to act as a shield against this disease. A nine-year study published in 1995 suggests that tomato products protect against prostate cancer, possibly because tomatoes are rich in a substance called lycopene. Lycopene is an antioxidant, a chemical that messes up the cellular process of oxidation. Too much cellular oxidation can be dangerous to a person’s health because it produces molecules called free radicals that increase the risk of cancer developing in body tissues. Environmental factors, such as workplace exposures to cadmium, have also been associated with increased risk of prostate cancer. Family history plays another important role. Men whose fathers or brothers develop prostate cancer are more likely to develop the disease. Researchers are beginning to identify genetic markers of prostate cancer. For instance, hereditary prostate cancer (HPC1), a gene detected in 1996, appears to significantly predispose men to prostate cancer when inherited in a mutated form. Symptoms 2005-07-31T06:41:55-04:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/Prostate-Cancer-Essay-27466.aspx What Is Duchenne Muscular Dystrophy? DMD is caused by a change in a gene responsible for making the protein dystrophin, which keeps muscles strong and healthy. This change is referred to as a mutation. When there is a mutation in this gene, the protein dystrophin does not work. The muscle cells become weak and they gradually break down. DMD usually affects boys; it is extremely rare in girls. DMD is a progressive disease. At first, the weakness is mostly in the legs and hips. Those affected fall frequently, have trouble running and climbing stairs, struggle to get up from a sitting position and often walk on their toes. They also develop larger than normal calves. Eventually, the muscle weakness makes walking more difficult and a wheelchair is needed. Gradually, all the muscles become very weak - including the heart muscle and the muscles used for breathing. Duchenne Muscular Dystrophy is an inherited disorder caused by a mutation in the gene that produces dystrophin. This mutation is passed down from mother to son because the dystrophin gene is located on the X chromosome. If the mother passes on an X chromosome with an altered dystrophin gene to her son, he will develop DMD because he has only one copy of the X chromosome. Girls have two X chromosomes. When they inherit the DMD mutation from their mother, they also inherit a normal copy of the DMD gene from their father. That is why they do not develop the disease. However, they may be carriers and pass DMD on to their sons. Daily Life with DMD There is no cure yet for DMD. A healthy lifestyle, exercise and medication can contribute to a better quality of life for those with the disease. Jonathan takes a steroid-based medication called Deflazacort to help maintain his muscle strength. One of the side effects of steroidal medication and a lack of physical activity (as a result of wheelchair use) is a loss of calcium in the bones. This may increase the risk of fractures. Jonathan takes daily doses of calcium, in conjunction with vitamin D, to keep his bones strong. Other possible treatments that may help with some aspects of DMD include physiotherapy to help maintain correct foot position, chiropractic treatments, nutritional supplements and naturopathic preparations. One of the challenges that Jonathan's family had to face was adapting Jonathan's environment to his needs. The local community service centre (CLSC) in 2005-07-30T06:57:33-04:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/What-Is-Duchenne-Muscular-Dystrophy-27447.aspx How Ethanol is Produced Introduction Ethanol is a colorless volatile flammable liquid C2H5OH that is the intoxicating agent in liquors and is also used as a solvent called ethyl alcohol or grain alcohol (Meriam 1). C2H5OH is the chemistry components of ethanol; this means ethanol is made of Carbon, Hydrogen, and Hydroxide. Starch or sugar-based feedstock, such as corn, have been used to produce ethanol and ethyl alcohol since the beginning ventures into value-added processing (How Ethanol 1). The value-added process means value is added to producing corn because we now have more valuable uses for the grain. Since natural resources are limited, ethanol provides us with an alternate fuel source. The basic steps to produce ethanol have been refined in the past years, which has lead to a highly efficient process (How Ethanol 1). This analysis explains the steps in producing ethanol from corn. The steps for producing ethanol are steeping the corn, which involves grinding and/or soaking, and then cooking, fermenting, and distilling the corn. Dry and Wet Milling are the two different ways ethanol can be produced (How Ethanol 1). The initial grain treatment is the major difference between these two processes (How Ethanol 1). In the Dry Mill process, the corn is put through a grinder, cookers, fermenter, distillation columns, and a molecular sieve. In the Wet Mill process, the corn is steeped, put through a starch/gluten separator, and then the starch is fermentated, (refer to the image for dry milling process). The Process Dry Mill Ethanol Production According to the RFA, grinding the complete corn kernel or other starchy grain produces flour, also known as meal. The meal is then processed without separating the different component parts of the grain. Water is mixed with the meal to form a mash to which enzymes are added to convert the mash starch into sugar. Ammonia is also combined to the mash to activate the yeast and control pH balance. The mash is then put in a high temperature cooker to help keep the bacteria level low before fermentation. The mash is cooled and moved to the fermenters where the addition of yeast produces ethanol and carbon dioxide from the sugar. During the forty or fifty hour fermentation process, the mash is agitated and kept cool to help the yeast activation. 2005-07-29T07:04:50-04:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/How-Ethanol-is-Produced--27444.aspx A meme is the original term, not an abbreviation, pronounced meme, similar to gene, since both have the same basic idea of replicating themselves, and you will see why and how shortly. Now, according to Richard Dawkins, "Examples of memes are tunes, ideas, catch-phrases, clothes fashions, ways of making pots or building arches. Just as genes propagate themselves in the gene pool by leaping from body to body via sperm or eggs, so memes propagate themselves in the meme pool by leaping from brain to brain via a process which, in the broad sense, can be called imitation. If a scientist hears, or reads about, a good idea, he passes it on to his colleagues and students. He mentions it in his articles and his lectures. If the idea catches on, it can be said to propagate itself, spreading from brain to brain. Memes should be regarded as living structures, not just metaphorically but technically. When you plant a fertile meme in my mind, you literally parasitize my brain, turning it into a vehicle for the meme's propagation in just the way that a virus may parasitize the genetic mechanism of a host cell. And this isn't just a way of talking--the meme for, say, 'belief in life after death' is actually realized physically, millions of times over, as a structure in the nervous systems of people all over the world." You can also consider, a meme as a contagious information pattern that replicates by parasitically infecting human minds and altering their behavior, causing them to propagate the pattern. An idea or information pattern is not a meme until it causes someone to replicate it, to repeat it to someone else. All transmitted knowledge is memetic, if it survives long after it's source has perished. Memes don't have to be ideas and information only, they can be behavioral as well. Such as "fire" or more importantly "how to make fire". this is a behavioral meme, mind you, one which didn't necessarily need a word attached to it to spring up and spread, merely a demonstration for another to follow. Once the meme was out there, it would have spread like wildfire, for obvious reasons. But when you start to think of memes like that-behavioral memes- then you begin to see how language itself, the idea of language, was a meme. Writing was a meme. And from within those areas, more 2005-07-29T06:45:41-04:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/What-is-a-meme--27439.aspx Effects of Alcohol on the Nervous System Alcohol is a central nervous system depressant. It acts at many sites, including the reticular formation, spinal cord, cerebellum and cerebral cortex, and on many neurotransmitter systems. Alcohol is a very small molecule and is soluble in "lipid" and water solutions. Because of these properties, alcohol gets into the bloodstream very easily and also crosses the blood brain barrier. Some of the 2005-07-29T06:13:32-04:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/Alcohols-Effects-On-The-Body-27433.aspx What is the Ozone? In 1839, a German scientist Christian Schobein was a professor of chemistry at the University of Basel in Switzerland. In addition to his teaching duties, he regularly performed secret experiments in hopes of finding out which substances make up the Earth's atmosphere. So Schonbein combined and separated a number of liquids and gases. During one of these experiments, Schonbein passed an electric charge thought a glass beaker of water, be noticed a very familiar odor. He first thought it was the result of electrically charge oxygen atoms but he last realized that he had found a new substance. He named this new substance ozone, after the Greek word ozein, meaning "to smell". Ozone is a gas and is a form of oxygen. Each molecule of ozone contains three atoms of oxygen. Molecules are tiny building blocks that form all gases, liquids, and solids. Each one of these molecules can be broken down even smaller into tinier building blocks called atoms, which are the basic particles of all matter. Because each molecule of ozone is composed of three atoms, ozone is referred to 03. Ozone gas is colourless but has a strong odor. The "electrical" smell that often lingers after a summer thunderstorm is the smell of ozone. The ozone molecule is unstable; it has a tendency to break apart and join with other atoms. This process, which is called, oxidation, can be destructive. For Example, rust develops on iron when oxygen atoms in the ozone combine with iron atoms. Similarly, ozone can weaken other materials such as nylon or rubber. In large amounts can even kill living cells. For this reason, scientists have to monitor ozone levels constantly. Schobein himself invented a very primitive way of measuring levels of ozone levels. First, he soaked a piece of paper with a chemical. As the chemical dried the ozone in the air oxidized it. This process turned the paper blue. The more ozone that was around the darker the paper turned. Schonbein placed a new piece of paper outside everyday in order to measure the levels of ozone in the air. In time, scientists came to refer to this technique as the Schonbein Paper Method (SPM). But unfortunately, this method shoes only if the ozone levels are light, moderate, or heavy, so it is not very precise. A better method for measuring ozone 2005-07-28T07:17:58-04:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/What-is-the-Ozone--27424.aspx To understand the process of DNA replication, you much first be familiar with the structure of DNA. Resembling a twisted ladder, DNA is a double helix formed with nucleotides, a phosphate and sugar backbone, and nitrogenous bases. There are four bases, and each one will only bond with it’s complement. Adenine will only bond with Thymine, and Cytosine with only Guanine. The double helix is antiparallel, meaning each strand runs in a different direction. The first step to DNA replication is the unwinding of the double helix with the help of an enyme called helicase. Once unwound, the DNA unzips and the bonded nucleotides 2005-07-26T04:53:23-04:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/DNA-Replication--27381.aspx Paper on The Leonids Meteor Showers "Late every autumn around November 17th or 18th, in the still, silent hours before dawn, dedicated meteor watchers have long kept a vigil. In the cold early morning darkness the sky glimmers with a preview of early spring constellations. Leading them up in the east is Leo. Its familiar Sickle asterism, a backward question mark, seems especially full of meaning these nights, for on the cutting edge of the Sickle's curved hook is the radiant of the greatest of all meteor showers" (Roe). The Leonids are called the "Kings of meteor showers" for good reason; they light up the sky brilliantly with white streaks, and occasionally a ball of fire that seems to fall toward earth. First, to understand the Leonids, you must understand meteoroids and comets. Comets are large pieces of ice, rock, and metal. They form in the outer reaches of our solar system, near the distances of Uranus and Neptune. They formed where there was plenty of water and temperatures were cold enough for water to freeze into balls of ice. These pieces of ice then condensed under the force of gravity from the nearby planets to form comets. Often referred to as "dirty snowballs" or "dirty icebergs", these comets are held in two belts in our solar system, the Kuiper Belt and the Oort cloud. The Kuiper Belt has a plane of approximately that of our earth; it is about 500 AU from our sun. The Oort cloud is a vast holding tank for the majority of our solar systems comets; it is projected to be about 50,000 AU from our sun (Kaufmann). Once in a while a comet will come out of one of these reserves (most likely from the Kuiper Belt) and enter into a highly elliptical orbit around the sun. When a comet approaches the sun, the immense heat of our sun will begin to melt a portion of the comet and sends debris off into space, leaving a trail of small pieces of rock and ice behind. This trail left by the comet, called the meteoritic stream, more or less remains in the original orbit of the comet for a lengthy period of time. These small pieces of debris are meteorites; they range in size from a few millimeters to a few meters across. If they would be any larger, they could be classified as asteroids (Kaufmann). When the comet 2005-07-18T06:15:30-04:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/Paper-on-The-Leonids-Meteor-Showers-27323.aspx Why you don't want herpes Herpes Genital is the name of a widespread sexually transmitted disease. It is also generally known simply as herpes. Genital herpes is caused by the herpes simplex virus or the Herepes Simplex Virus 2. HSV-2 is one of the herpes viruses, a group of viruses that cause a wide variety of diseases (Banikowski, S 1999). HSV-2 infects only human beings and is transmitted during intimate sexual activity. Infection 2005-07-18T06:04:10-04:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/Why-you-Don-t-Want-Herpes-27320.aspx Neurological Regeneration Biological regeneration has been studied over the years, in salamanders, and biological imitations of life. Through research on the mitotic capabilities of certain animals, to the DNA and hormones that make regeneration possible, scientists are slowly finding a way so that humans can regenerate lost or missing limbs, or grow organs used to save millions of lives in the future. Because being able to reproduce a limb or body part is dependent on nerves, scientists have found it vital to perform especial experimental procedures to find a way to prevent difficult regenerated nerves from inhibiting the regeneration process. The medicinal leech, a worm-like creature once used by doctors to bleed patients, now is being used to draw clues on how a common protein may help promote neural regeneration. A specific enzyme or protein, called nitric oxide synthase, or NOS, is activated when parts of the nerve cell are damaged in the medicinal leech. This particular Hirudinean leech is a three-inch-long invertebrate known for its ability to regenerate its neural connections. Scientists hope that one day their findings may be applied to research in human spinal regeneration. Purdue's studies show that NOS in the leech is activated at the site of injury within minutes after axons or nerves are severed. Axons are the long "arms" of a nerve cell that carry impulses away from the cell body toward a target cell. NOS remains active well beyond 48 hours after the injury to start neural reconstruction. Conducting follow-up studies to identify what information this molecule provides at a cellular level, they see how these functions might help the leech's nervous system set itself up to allow regeneration to occur. This same enzyme NOS, also found in humans, produces a "signaling" molecule that sends chemical messages throughout the body to incite certain chemical reactions. The enzyme found in leeches is very much like the human NOS, and it may serve a similar function in both species. However, the drawback is that nerve regeneration in higher systems is not complete as it is in medicinal leeches and such less complex creatures. By analyzing how nerves regenerate in a simple system, scientists may begin to find clues to facilitate regeneration in vertebrates. After the problems of regeneration and axonal regrowth are solved for humans, the next issue scientists are interested in, is the creation of man-made tissues or organs, known as neo-organs. There are 2005-07-16T07:46:06-04:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/Neurological-Regeneration-Debate-27307.aspx As early as the 1940's, psychiatrists have labeled children with hyperactivity and extremely distracted and impulsive. Such children have said to have "minimal brain dysfunction," "brain-injured child syndrome," hyper kinetic reaction of childhood," "hyperactive child syndrome," and "attention-deficit disorder (ADD)." These frequent label changes show how uncertain researchers are about the causes of, and the diagnostic criteria for the disorders. In the past several years, the people who study ADHD have commenced to clarify the disorder's symptoms and causes, and have reason to believe that it may be genetic. Today's view on this disorder is very different from the beliefs of just a few years ago. Researchers are finding that ADHD is not a disorder of just attention, but is from a developmental failure in the brain's circuitry and control for inhibition and self-control. The loss of self-control weakens other important brain functions mandatory for maintaining attention. ADHD involves two sets of symptoms: inattention and a combination of hyperactive and impulsive behaviors. Most children are more active and distractive than adults are. Children are more inconsistent, affected by brief actions and dominated by objects in their environment. The younger the child, the less aware of time they are. This behavior is a sign of a problem when it is displayed more in them than in their peers. Boys are at least three times more prone than girls to develop ADHD. Studies have found that ADHD in boys outnumber girls 9 to 1, this is believed to be because boys are genetically likely to develop disorders in the nervous system. These behaviors generally occur between the ages of 3 and 5, even though some children don't start to develop the disorder until late childhood or early adolescence. Researchers are unable to find the reasons why this delay occurs. Studies estimated that between 2 and 9. 5 percent of all school-age children have ADHD; this is true in every culture and nation studied throughout the word. Researchers had believes that this disorder only existed in childhood and went away with age. Now they have found that ADHD can continue into adulthood. Approximately 2/3 of 158 children studied with ADHD in the 1970's, still had the disorder in there twenties. Many of these people still have major adjustment problems at work, school or in other social places. Psychiatrists and psychologist are trying to better understand the causes of ADHD to help children and adults 2005-07-14T05:06:52-04:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/Facts-about-ADHD-27298.aspx The Bending of Light According to Einstein's Special Theory of Relativity, light can be bent. This is a concept that seems to contradict the well-known law that states that all light travels in a straight line. But they do not contradict each other. Light does travel in a straight line; only the space-time continuum bends around it causing it to change direction. This bend or warp in the space-time continuum is a result of the presence of mass, also known as gravity. Gravity is a force that is always present, always consistent but has never been understood. Einstein's Special Theory of Relativity tries to illustrate what gravity is. He explains it something like this. Picture flat space as a normal grid made of rubber. Now picture something pushing down on the center of the grid. You end up with the picture on the left. Press harder and you get the picture on the right. Now roll a marble through it. The marble will roll down and be slingshot out with a path that appears to be curved. This "pressing" is analogous to the presence of mass. The presence of mass is the cause of gravity wells. Let say this mass that is "pressing" down is the sun. Now send a spaceship through its gravitational field. It will enter orbit momentarily but will have too great a velocity and will slingshot out. Light is the same way, it will enter this "gravity well" and be slingshotted out. Although light has no mass it is still effected by warps the space-time continuum. This theory of gravity wells caused by mass is very radical yet it makes a lot of sense. I'll explain if you look at the formula for the force of gravity you will notice a direct correlation between the way the equation is plotted out on a graph and the shape of the diagram above. The equation states that gravity is always proportional to the mass of the two objects and is inversely proportional to the square of the distance between the two objects. If you look at a plotted graph for an inverse square you will notice something. As the x-value increases the line becomes infinitely closer to the x-axis, yet never reaching it. This is exactly the same as gravity. Gravity is an infinite force that spans across the universe, but as the distance between two objects increases the force of 2005-07-10T04:05:51-04:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/The-Bending-of-Light--27274.aspx Neurological Regeneration Biological regeneration has been studied over the years, in salamanders, and biological imitations of life. Through research on the mitotic capabilities of certain animals, to the DNA and hormones that make regeneration possible, scientists are slowly finding a way so that humans can regenerate lost or missing limbs, or grow organs used to save millions of lives in the future. Because being able to reproduce a limb or body part is dependent on nerves, scientists have found it vital to perform especial experimental procedures to find a way to prevent difficult regenerated nerves from inhibiting the regeneration process. The medicinal leech, a worm-like creature once used by doctors to bleed patients, now is being used to draw clues on how a common protein may help promote neural regeneration. A specific enzyme or protein, called nitric oxide synthase, or NOS, is activated when parts of the nerve cell are damaged in the medicinal leech. This particular Hirudinean leech is a three-inch-long invertebrate known for its ability to regenerate its neural connections. Scientists hope that one day their findings may be applied to research in human spinal regeneration. Purdue's studies show that NOS in the leech is activated at the site of injury within minutes after axons or nerves are severed. Axons are the long "arms" of a nerve cell that carry impulses away from the cell body toward a target cell. NOS remains active well beyond 48 hours after the injury to start neural reconstruction. Conducting follow-up studies to identify what information this molecule provides at a cellular level, they see how these functions might help the leech's nervous system set itself up to allow regeneration to occur. This same enzyme NOS, also found in humans, produces a "signaling" molecule that sends chemical messages throughout the body to incite certain chemical reactions. The enzyme found in leeches is very much like the human NOS, and it may serve a similar function in both species. However, the drawback is that nerve regeneration in higher systems is not complete as it is in medicinal leeches and such less complex creatures. By analyzing how nerves regenerate in a simple system, scientists may begin to find clues to facilitate regeneration in vertebrates. After the problems of regeneration and axonal regrowth are solved for humans, the next issue scientists are interested in, is the creation of man-made tissues or organs, known as neo-organs. There are 2005-07-04T18:20:15-04:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/Neurological-Regeneration-27249.aspx Geneticall Engineered Golden Rice At one time, golden rice was just a wild idea that Ingo Potrykus thought up. Optimally, golden rice would improve the lives of millions of the poorest people in the world. The rice would contain beta-carotene which is the building block for vitamin A. However, imagining golden rice was one thing and bringing it into existence was another. He struggled for years with his colleagues to deal with the finicky growing habits of the rice they transplanted to a greenhouse near the foot hills of the Swiss Alps. Potrykus and his colleagues became successful in the spring of 1999. By creating golden rice, Potrykus wanted to be sure it would reach malnourished children of the developing world; those for whom it was intended. He knew that would not be easy because of the fact that the golden grains also contained snippets of DNA borrowed from bacteria and daffodils. Being a product of genetical engineering, Potrykus's product was entangled in a web of hopes, fears, and political baggage. Until now, genetically engineered crops were created to resist insect pests or to control the growth of weeds by using herbicides. However, in this circumstance the genetically engineered rice not only benefits the farmers who grow it, but primarily the consumers who eat it. These consumers include at least a million children who die every year because they are weakened by vitamin-A deficiency and an additional 350,000 people who go blind. In addition to this concern, there is another. It is prospected that by the year 2020, the demand for grain, both for human consumption and for animal feed, is projected to go up by nearly half, while the amount of farmable land will probably dwindle, thus introducing a whole new series of problems. There is only a short four step process that enables one to produce golden rice. The genes that give golden rice is its ability to make beta-carotene in its endosperm come from daffodils and a bacterium called Erwinia uredovora. These genes, along with promoters (segments of DNA that activate genes), are inserted into plasmids that occur inside a species of bacterium known as Agrobacterium tumefaciens. These agrobacteria are then added to a Petri dish containing rice embryos. As they "infect" the embryos, they also transfer the genes that encode the instructions 2005-07-03T05:03:26-04:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/Geneticall-Engineered-Golden-Rice-27218.aspx Cloud Research Paper Cloud formations have always been observed by people, many centuries before our time. People were always fond of clouds. They always wondered why some clouds were dark and others were white and fluffy, and why some clouds are so up high and others were so low that they looked reachable by the human hands. The most recent classification of clouds was accomplished by the World Meteorological Organization in 1956. This organization lists 10 basic kinds of clouds that are subdivided into species according to their outer shape and inner structure. In addition, cloud varieties are discussed according to arrangement and transparency. There is a height classification which are called high, middle, and low altitudes. The different kinds of clouds are found in these three divisions according to the clouds' altitude. First, we have the high clouds that range in altitude from 16,500 to 45,000 feet. In this division we have the cirrus, cirrocumulus, and cirrostratus clouds. A cirrus cloud appears in delicate, feather-like bands that are not attached to each other, and is usually white with no shading. Cirrocumulus clouds appear like very small round balls or flakes. The cirrocumulus clouds sometimes form a pattern of a buttermilk sky. The cirrostratus clouds sometimes form tangled webs or thin whitish sheets. A large ring or halo is sometimes seen around the sun or moon when the cirrostratus covers the sky. The middle layer of clouds range in altitude from 6,500 to 23,000 feet. The altocumulus, altostratus, and nimbostratus clouds are found in the middle division. The altocumulus clouds are more rounded and puffier than the cirrocumulus clouds. When people stare at the altocumulus clouds, they usually see a shape of an animal, usually an elephant. Altostratus clouds cover the sky with a grayish veil through which the sun or moon may shine as a spot of pale light. The nimbostratus clouds are the clouds that we can identify the fastest. These are the clouds that ruin our day. Nimbostratus clouds are thick, dark, and shapeless and that brings rain or snow. The last height classification is the low altitude. These low clouds range in altitude from ground level to 6,500 feet. This division includes the last four kinds of clouds, which are: stratocumulus, stratus, cumulus, 2005-06-30T05:14:40-04:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/Cloud-Research-Paper--27206.aspx Genetic Engineering. Right or Wrong? Genetic engineering has been one of the most controversial ethical issues since 1997; when Dolly the first successfully cloned sheep was announced. Dolly has redefined the meaning of "identical twin"; not only does she look exactly like her mother she also has the same genetic make up. This experiment was not only impossible but unthinkable. Yet, Dr. Ian Wilmut revealed Dolly on February 23, 1997, at seven months old ( Travis 1). On the surface genetic engineering may appear to be the solution to all of society's ills and the worlds problems. In all actuality it may have tremendous and unknown side effects. The issues that surround genetic engineering undoubtedly make it immoral and ethically wrong. Genetic Engineering as defined by Susan A. Hagedorn is: The manipulation of an organism's genetic endowment by introducing or eliminating genes through modern molecular biology techniques. A broad definition of genetic engineering also includes selective breeding and other means of artificial selection ( "Genetic Engineering" 1). After hearing of the "creation" of Dolly Americans soon learned the harsh fact surrounding her creation. Dr. Wilmut's success was accompanied by 276 failures. This success rate is no where near clinically acceptable. To start the developing of the eggs they were shocked with electric pulses; twenty nine of the 277 of these eggs began to divide. The eggs, at that point were implanted into adult female sheep; thirteen of which became pregnant, and only the one of 277 eggs were born - Dolly ( Wilmut 1). Long term prospects of mammal cloning remain in question. This is not clinically acceptable for experimentation on humans. In the months following the news of Dolly, President Clinton requested, "a through review of the legal and ethical issues associated with the use of this technology... with recommendations on possible federal actions to prevent its abuse" (Shermer 1). The answer is clear-- there is no safe place to draw the line on when genetic engineering is acceptable and is not. Governments can not say that the uses are strictly limited to curing disease because then there becomes a question of what is a genetic disease. For example, we may feel comfortable defining a mutation in the cystic fibrosis gene as causing disease if it leads to chronic respiratory infections from birth to death at the age 2005-06-30T05:04:02-04:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/Genetic-Engineering_-Right-or-Wrong-27203.aspx Formation of acid rain. Acid deposition, more commonly known as acid rain, occurs when emissions of sulfur dioxide (SO2) and nitrogen oxides (NOx) react in the atmosphere with water, oxygen, and oxidants to form acidic compounds. This mixture forms a mild solution of sulfuric and nitric acid which then falls to the earth in either wet (rain, snow, sleet or fog) or dry (gas and particles) form. Approximately one-half of the atmosphere's acidity falls back to earth through dry deposition in the form of particles and gases, and are then spread hundreds of miles by winds where they settle on surfaces of buildings, cars, homes, and trees. When acid rain falls, the dry deposited gases and particles are sometimes washed from buildings, trees and other surfaces making the runoff water combine with the acid rain more acidic than the falling acid rain alone. This new combination is referred to as acid deposition. The runoff water is then transported by strong prevailing winds and public sewer systems into lakes and streams. Although some natural sources such as volcanic eruptions, fire and lightening contribute to the emissions of sulfur dioxide and nitrogen oxides in the atmosphere, more than 90% is the result of human activities such as coal burning, smelting of metals such as zinc, nickel and copper, and the burning of oil, coal and gas in power plants and automobiles. When does rain become acidic? Scientists determine whether rain or lake water is acidic by measuring its pH (the measure of acidity or alkalinity of a solution on a scale of 0 to 14). A value of 7 is considered neutral, whereas values less than 7 are acidic and values over 7 are alkaline or basic. A change of one unit on the pH scale represents a factor of ten in acidity; for example, a solution with a pH of five is ten times as acid as one with a pH of six . Normal or clean rainfall--without pollutants--is slightly acidic due to carbon dioxide, a natural gas in the air that dissolves in water to form weak carbonic acid. But rain, snow, or other moisture is not called "acid rain" until it has a pH value below 5.6 . Rainfall in eastern North America is often acidic with a pH of 4 to 5. Why is North America greatly at risk? Acid rain is more common in the Eastern U.S. and Canada than in 2005-06-29T04:25:28-04:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/Facts-on-Acid-Rain--27181.aspx Biology Research Paper: In Vitro Fertilization. In Vitro Fertilization (IVF), is the procedure whereby human babies are conceived, not in the womb but in a test tube or a Petri dish. This procedure has become one of the greatest developments in the world of medical technology. In Vitro Fertilization has given infertile couples the chance to conceive and bear a child from a full term of pregnancy. Without this procedure, their infertility would render them childless. There are many aspects of the IVF program that have been both praised and criticized. The legal, ethical and social repercussions of the IVF program have created great debate and controversy. This essay will demonstrate the procedures used in the IVF program and set out the arguments for and against it. There are many reasons why couples cannot conceive or bear a child for a full term of pregnancy. The process of natural fertilization can only be achieved if the male and female reproductive organs are functioning without any abnormalities. The reproduction process begins with the male producing sperm in the testes and the female producing an egg in the ovaries. Once every 28 days or so, an egg matures in the ovary, bursts from its follicle and enters the Fallopian tube. Once sexual intercourse has taken place, millions of sperm released from the penis swim up the vagina, through the uterus and into the Fallopian tube. 'A single sperm fertilizes the egg; the others are locked out.' (Time, 1997, pg. 66) Once the egg has been fertilized, cell division begins and the embryo drifts down the Fallopian tube. The embryo reaches the uterus in about a week. The embryo anchors itself to the wall of the uterus where it develops into a foetus. The foetus feeds off nutrients and oxygen provided by the placental lining in the uterus. There are several conditions in both males and females that cause abnormalities in the functioning of natural fertilization. Firstly, a condition in women called Endometriosis causes infertility. 'It is a condition where pieces of uterine tissue leak out of the uterus into the Fallopian tube.'(Fertility Rights, 1993, pg. 6) It causes blockages in the Fallopian tubes and 'is associated with infertility even when the Fallopian tubes are not actually blocked.' (Fertility Rights, 1993, pg6) Secondly, the cause of infertility in men is a reduced sperm count, or low 2005-06-21T22:33:17-04:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/Biology-Research-Paper-In-Vitro-Fertilization-27117.aspx Fetal Alcohol Syndrome Research Paper Fetal Alcohol Syndrome (FAS) refers to a group of physical and mental birth defects resulting from a women's drinking alcohol heavily or at crucial stages during pregnancy. Fetal Alcohol Syndrome was first named and treated in the late 1960's. This condition results from the toxic effect of alcohol and its chemical factors on the developing fetus. FAS is the leading cause of mental retardation occurring in 1 out of every 750 births. The frequency of FAS occurs about 1.9 times out of every 1000 births according to the latest figures, and minor effects can be seen in up to 20% of pregnancies per year. This number changes drastically for women who are clearly alcoholics. As high as 29 children out of every 1000 births will suffer from FAS if the mother is an alcoholic. The overwhelming consistency of this disease is that it is 100% preventable if a mother would drink no alcohol while pregnant. There are three major effects or hallmarks of drinking while pregnant. First, alcohol will cause pre- and postnatal growth retardation for the baby. Second, alcohol can cause central nervous system dysfunction and neurodevelopmental defects for the child. The third consequence of drinking while pregnant causes facial disformaties. Studies comparing children of women who drank continually throughout their pregnancy with women who abstained from drinking that alcohol exposed offspring were smaller in weight, length, and head circumference. The greatest effect of FAS appears to be the overall size of an alcohol-exposed child. Children exposed prenatally to alcohol continue to be smaller than their non-exposed peers. A study has shown that there is a relationship between alcohol exposure during the second and third trimesters and growth at 8 months, 18 months, and 3years of age. Children exposed to an average of one drink per day or more during the second or third trimester were significantly smaller in weight, length, and head circumference when compared with children who had not been exposed to alcohol. Children that were exposed to less than one drink a day were smaller than the non-exposed children but larger than the more heavily exposed children. The attempt to understand FAS has lead to new areas of research attempting to discover the mechanism that causes defects. As of now the 2005-06-21T22:30:04-04:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/Fetal-Alcohol-Syndrome-Research-Paper-27116.aspx ULYSSES Mission to Space The Ulysses Mission is the first spacecraft to explore interplanetary space at high solar latitudes. Ulysses is both a study of the European Space Agency (ESA) and the National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) of the USA. The spacecraft and spacecraft operations team is provided by ESA, and the launch and the spacecraft, radio tracking, and data management operations are provided by NASA. Scientific experiments are provided by investigation teams in both Europe and USA. This spacecraft was launched on October 6, 1990. It was originally proposed as a dual spacecraft mission to explore the regions over the Sun's north and south poles. In order for the spacecraft to reach these high solar latitudes, it was aimed close to Jupiter so that Jupiter's large gravitational field would accelerate Ulysses out of the ecliptic plane to high latitudes. This cannot be done with any man made launch. Ulysses landed on the planet of Jupiter on February 8, 1992. Since that day on, it has traveled to higher latitudes with maximum Southern latitude of 80.2 degrees. This was achieved on September 13,1994. Then in June through September of 1995, Ulysses traveled through high northern latitudes. These high latitude observations are being obtained during the quiet portion of the 11-year solar cycle. The primary mission of Ulysses is to characterize the heliospheric as a function of solar latitude. The heliospheric is the vast region of interplanetary space occupied by the Sun's atmosphere and dominated by the outflow of the solar wind. The periods of primary scientific interest were when Ulysses was at or higher than 70 degrees latitude at both the Sun's south and north poles. On June 26, 1994, Ulysses reached 70 degrees south. There it began a four-month observation from high latitudes of the complex forces at work in the Sun's corona. Scientists have long studied the Sun and the Earth using Earth based sensors but no other previous spacecraft had reach such a higher latitude. Now with Ulysses, high latitude data is available. Ulysses spacecraft carried a suite of instruments out to Jupiter where that planet's gravity pulled the spacecraft into a trajectory that carried it over the Sun's South Pole in the fall of 1994. Such instruments were the magnetometer, solar wind plasma experiment, solar wind ion composition instrument, unified radio instrument, energetic particle instrument, low- energy ion and electron experiment and many others shown on the following 2005-06-21T22:28:51-04:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/Documentary-of-Ulsses-Mission-to-Space-27115.aspx Helium Chemistry Research Paper Helium (Greek helios,"sun"), symbol He, inert, colorless, odorless gas element. In group 18 of the periodic table, helium is one of the noble gases. The atomic number of helium is 2. Pierre Janssen discovered helium in the spectrum of the corona of the sun during an eclipse in 1868. Shortly after it was identified as an element and named by the chemist Sir Edward Frankland and the British astronomer Sir Joseph Norman Lockyer. The gas was first isolated from terrestrial sources in 1895 by the British chemist Sir William Ramsay, who discovered it in cleveite. In 1907 Sir Ernest Rutherford showed that alpha particles are the nuclei of helium atoms. II PROPERTIES AND OCCURRENCE Helium has monatomic molecules, and is the lightest of all gases except hydrogen. Helium solidifies at -272.2° C; helium boils at -268.9° C. The atomic weight of helium is 4.0026. Helium, like the other noble gases, is chemically inert. Its single electron shell is filled, making possible reactions with other elements extremely difficult and the resulting compounds quite unstable. Molecules of compounds with neon, another noble gas, and with hydrogen have been detected. Helium is the most difficult of all gases to liquefy and is impossible to solidify at atmospheric pressure. These properties make liquid helium extremely useful as a refrigerant and for experimental work in producing and measuring temperatures close to absolute zero. Liquid helium can be cooled almost to absolute zero at normal pressure by rapid removal of the vapor above the liquid. At a temperature slightly above absolute zero, it is transformed into helium II, also called superfluid helium, a liquid with unique physical properties. It has no freezing point, and its viscosity is apparently zero; it passes readily through minute cracks. Helium-3, the lighter helium isotope, which has an even lower boiling point than ordinary helium, exhibits different properties when liquefied. Helium is the second most abundant element in the universe, after hydrogen; however, it is rare on earth, primarily found mixed with natural gas trapped in underground pockets. Once helium is released it is so light it escapes the earth's atmosphere and cannot be recovered. At sea level, helium occurs in the atmosphere in the proportion of 5.4 parts per million. The proportion increases slightly at higher altitudes. About 1 part per million of atmospheric helium consists of helium-3, now thought to be a product of the decay of tritium, a radioactive hydrogen 2005-06-21T22:26:22-04:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/Helium-Chemistry-Research-Paper-27113.aspx Asthma Research Paper Asthma Research Paper Asthma is a chronic illness that affects many people. Asthma affects approximately 155 million people around the world. The pharmaceutical industry approximates $5.5 billion in sales for asthma medication per year for a condition that is incurable. Asthma is an inflammatory disease of the airways. The narrowing of airways occurs due to inflammation and excessive mucous secretion. The constriction of the airway gives rise to common asthmatic symptoms of wheezing, coughing, tightness in the chest, and shortness of breath. The usual form of control for asthma is bronchiodilators and corticosteriods. Although, bronchiodilators are used in asthma therapy they have no effect on the inflammatory process. Bronchiodilators are a class of drug that relaxes airway smooth muscle by increasing cAMP and opening potassium channels. Corticosteriods on the other hand are now considered the first line of treatment for patients with severe and chronic asthma. Corticosteriods bind to a receptor in the cytosol, which translocates to the nucleus and binds DNA to activate genes. The main action of corticosteriods is to suppress multiple inflammatory genes, such as cytokines, inflammatory enzymes and adhesion molecules. The effectiveness of the corticosteriod is in most part due to the inhibition of transcription factors, such as AP-1 (activation protein 1), Nuclear factor-b (NF-b), and nuclear factor of activated T-cells (NF-AT), which are required for inflammatory response. The FcRI is the receptor for the IgE antibody. The FcRI is composed of a  chain that binds the Fc portion of the IgE, the  chain and the  chain together form a tetrameric structure. Due to the fact that release of mediators from mast cells in asthma is IgE-E dependent one approach would be to block the activation of IgE using blocking antibodies that do not result in mast cells. A humanized murine monoclonal antibody directed to the FcRI-binding domain of human IgE (rhuMAb-E25) reduces allergen specific IgE after intravenous administration. RhuMAb reduces early and late responses to inhaled allergen and eosinophils counts from induced sputum. Although reduction in early response to allergen, which is due to mast cells bound to IgE the reduction in late response and sputum eosinophils is unexpected, but it could be explained by blocking the effect of IgE on low affinity IgE receptors such as CD23 on antigen presenting cells (APC). Anti-IgE in mice inhibits IL-4,5 secretion and pulmonary eosinophilia by blocking Th2-cell activation in response to allergen, and this is mimicked 2005-06-21T22:24:06-04:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/Asthma-Research-Paper-27111.aspx Martian Rocks: Commentary on the Recent Discoveries from Mars H. G. Wells wrote in his book, "War of the Worlds", about Martian invasion toward earth. He mentioned, "No one would have believed, in the last years of the nineteenth century that this world was being watched keenly and closely by intelligences greater than man's and yet as mortal as his own; that as men busied themselves about their various concerns they were scrutinized and studied, perhaps almost as narrowly as man with a microscope might scrutinize the transient creatures that swarm and multiply in a drop of water." Since then it has now been about 100 years Wells based his well-known story of human's first contact with extraterrestrial life. Now, in the 20th century scientists are starting to believe what was once a fictional story by writers now actually could be real, becoming the stuff of science. In 1994 scientists discovered fragments of meteorites which may in fact prove that signs of early life existed on Mars. Many of these meteorites are found in the Antarctica, extremely cold weathers aid in preserving and fossilizing the fallen meteorites for millions of years. In order for scientists to conclude that the meteorites are from Mars and contain signs of fossilized life or traces of it they must provide sufficient evidence to support their theory. Today, a meteorite from Mars is being closely scrutinized by earthly intelligences. The famous meteorite to bare significant signs of life is the Allan Hills 84001 (ALH84001), classified as one of the meteorites thought to come from Mars. Due to the atmospheric data taken by the Viking Lander spacecraft sent to Mars in the 1970s. The data make it possible to know that gases trapped inside the rock is identical to the Martian atmosphere. "It is one of only 12 meteorites identified so far that match the unique Martian chemistry measured by the Viking spacecraft that landed on Mars in 1976" Scientist believed that the ALH84001 blasted off from the surface of Mars about 16 million years ago by a comet or asteroid. The rock orbited in the solar system for a few million years and finally reached Earth about 13, 000 years ago. Investigation into the ALH84001 and the possibilities for containing remains of ancient Martian life was assigned to a team of NASA scientists. Dr. David McKay, Dr. Everett Gibson and Kathie Thomas-Kerpta of Lockhead Martin co-led the team 2005-06-21T22:22:15-04:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/Martian-Rocks-Commentary-on-Recent-Discoveries-from-Mars-27110.aspx PCP and its Effects on the Human Body PCP or Phencyclidine is a very deadly drug in today's society. PCP was developed in the 1950's as an anesthetic. Use of PCP in humans was discontinued in 1965, because it was found that patients often became agitated, delusional, and irrational while recovering from its effects. PCP is illegally manufactured in laboratories and is sold on the street by such names as "diabolic" "wet" and "digital". The variety of street names for PCP reflects its bizarre and irrational effects on those who use it. (Andersen) PCP can be mixed easily with dyes and turns up on the illegal drug markets in a variety of tablets, capsules, and colored powders. PCP can be taken in multiple ways, it can either be smoked, snorted, or eaten. For smoking, PCP is usually mixed with marijuana. PCP use often leads to psychological dependence, craving, and compulsive PCP-seeking behavior. It was first discovered as a street drug in the 1960s and quickly gained a reputation as a drug that could cause bad reactions in its users. Some continue in using PCP because of its addicting properties. Others say its the feelings of strength, power, invulnerability and a numbing effect on the mind as reasons for their continued PCP use. (Andersen) Many PCP users are brought to emergency rooms because of PCP's bad psychological effects or because of overdoses. In a hospital they often become violent or suicidal, and are very dangerous to themselves and people around them. At a low dose, physiological effects of PCP include a slight increase in breathing rate and a more pronounced rise in blood pressure and pulse rate. Respiration becomes shallow, and flushing and profuse sweating occur. Numbness of the extremities may also occur. Psychological effects include distinct changes in body awareness, similar to those associated with alcohol. (www.nida.com) At high doses of PCP, there is a drop in blood pressure, pulse rate, and breathing. This may be accompanied by nausea, vomiting, blurred vision, rolling of the eyes, and dizziness. High doses of PCP can also cause seizures, coma, and death. Psychological effects at high doses include hallucinations. PCP can cause effects that mimic the full range of symptoms of schizophrenia, such as delusions, paranoia, disordered thinking, a sensation of distance from one's environment, and catatonia. Speech is often slurred or distorted to the point of no understanding. (www.nida.com) People 2005-06-21T22:15:50-04:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/PCP-and-its-Effects-on-the-Human-Body-27105.aspx Prostate Cancer Prostate cancer is cancer of the prostate gland. The prostate is part of the male reproductive system. This gland is locates inside the body at the base of the penis, just below the bladder and in front of the rectum. It is composed of the glandular and fibrous tissue enclosed in a capsule of connective tissue. The prostate is in the shape of a donut and about the size of a walnut. It surrounds the first inch or so of the urethra, the tube that carries urine from the bladder. Normal functions of the prostate depend on the presence of the male hormone testosterone, which is produced by the testes. The prostate produces semen, the thick, whitish fluid that carries sperm. Cancer of the prostate has become the number one cancer in American men. In the United States, approximately 1 in every 11 men will develop prostate cancer during his lifetime. Prostate cancer becomes increasingly common with each decade of life. Over 80 percent of all cases are diagnosed in men over 65. The incidence of prostate cancer increased 47 percent from 1973 to 1987, about a 2.6 percent increase each year. It is estimated that 106,00 new cases of prostate cancer were diagnosed in the US during the 1990. Black men in the US have the highest incidence of prostate cancer in the world. Little is known about the cause of prostate cancer, and it is seldom possible to explain why a man has developed this disease. Scientists believe that cancer of the prostate develops over a period of many years as a result of gradual changes in the cells. No single theory explains the development of this disease, but a number of possible causes have been suggested. Investigations have focused on four general areas: genetic predisposition (heredity), hormonal influences, environmental and lifestyle factors, and sexually transmitted agents, including viruses. Data from population studies have produced opposite results. Some studies suggest a genetic predisposition to prostate cancer and an increased risk for blood relatives of men with the disease. However, other studies have not confirmed a genetic link. Data from studies of people migrating from one geographic area to another point to the importance of the environment as a factor, including diet, in the development of prostate cancer. Some doctors suggest that a diet rich in fat increases the risk of prostate cancer. Scientists have suspected 2005-06-21T22:14:49-04:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/Prostate-Cancer-Paper-27104.aspx Iodine-Deficiency and Toxicity. This essay talks about Iodine. What it does to the body when there is deficiency and toxicity. Why it is important to the body. The essay focuses on different age groups as well. The precautions to take. etc. If you are looking for a grade 12 study report on Iodine deficiency and toxicity then this is for you! A human body has to intake iodine (which is found in food as iodide) for the proper functioning of thyroid glands related hormones. These hormones are called: thyroxine and tri-iodothyronine - and they are synthesized from the amino acid tyrosine and from iodide. The two hormones are essential for the body mainly because they regulate metabolic rate and promote growth and development throughout the body including the brain. In the case where there is a deficiency of thyroid hormones in the blood, the thyroid gland will become enlarged which is known as goiter. This deficiency occurs when they thyroid gland does not have enough iodine to make the hormones thyroxine and tri-iodothyronine. Due to the increase of cell size to get more iodine it causes a swelling in the neck when the size of the whole gland increases. Besides from causing in goiter, the deficiency of iodine may also lead to dry skin, hair loss, fatigue, and slowed reflexes. In the developing of a fetus and young child, iodine deficiency in more serious. Stunned growth, diminished intelligence, and retardation may result from the deficiency of iodine in the new born. Vegetarians can be said to be another group that may be at risk of iodine deficiency because they do not eat seafood. However, they receive their iodine from iodized table salt, or seaweeds. Hypothyroidism is another deficiency that occurs when the thyroid gland cannot manufacture enough thyroid hormone because the immune system produces antibodies that over time destroys the thyroid tissue. Similarly, it also causes an enlarged thyroid gland that makes swallowing difficult. Furthermore, it results when the thyroid gland is removed or when remaining thyroid tissues does not function properly. This, however, cannot be prevented, but routine screening of adults could detect the disease in its early stages and prevent complications. Moreover, iodine from natural diet doe not cause a specific danger of toxicity. Special care should be taken when supplementing iodine or using it in drug therapy. A lot of iodine intake can reduce both the production of thyroxine 2005-06-21T22:06:22-04:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/Iodine-Deficiency-and-Toxicity_-27097.aspx Pharmacology: A Case Study in Polypharmacy Case Study: Mrs A is a 71 year old widow with CCF and osteoarthritis who has recently been exhibiting quite unusual behaviour. Her daughter is concerned about her mother's ability to remain independent and wishes to pursue nursing home admission arrangements. She fears the development of a dementing illness. Over the last two to three months Mrs A has become confused, easily fatigued and very irritable. She has developed disturbing obsessive/compulsive behaviour constantly complaining that her lace curtains were dirty and required frequent washing. Detailed questioning revealed that she thought they were yellow-green and possibly mouldy. Her prescribed medications are: * Frusemide 40 mg daily in the morning * Digoxin 250 micrograms daily * Paracetamol 500 mg, 1-2 tablets 4-hourly PRN * Piroxicam 20 mg at night * Mylanta suspension, 20 ml PRN * Coloxyl 120 mg, 1-2 tablets at night Critically discuss this case study in terms of the problematic nature of this patient's pharmacological management. Your answer should include a discussion of the problems of polypharmacy as it is related to this case study and the assessment/management and educational strategies which could have been implemented to improve the outcome of Mrs A. Introduction In analyzing the case study of Mrs A, a number of factors come into play. The patient has recently been exhibiting unusual symptoms including confusion, fatigue, irritability and apparent obsessive/compulsive behaviour. Her daughter fears the onset of a dementing illness. However, upon close examination of Mrs A's prescribed medications, very different conclusions can be drawn. Overview of each Mrs A's medical conditions The Online Medical Dictionary at www.mydr.com.au defines CCF as a condition where there is ineffective pumping of the heart leading to fluid retention and organ congestion. The site defines osteoarthritis as "Noninflammatory degenerative joint disease occurring chiefly in older persons." There are various drug treatments available for these conditions. Polypharmacy and Mrs A's problematic pharmacological management A close examination of Mrs A's drugs, serves to reveal the problematic nature of her pharmacological management and the results of polypharmacy. Frusemide 40 mg daily in the morning Loeb, S (2001:649) includes the following factors in his outline of frusemide. Indications & dosage: Hypertension - adults 40 mg P.O. b.i.d. Adjust dose according to response. Adverse reactions: Hypokalemia (low potassium), fluid and electrolyte imbalances. Relevant interactions: Care should be exercised in patients receiving potassium depleting agents. Nursing considerations: Monitor serum potassium level. Watch for signs of hypokalemia (for example fatigue, muscle weakness and cramps). Give P.O. and I.M. preparations in a.m. to 2005-06-21T22:05:19-04:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/Pharmacology-A-Case-Study-in-Polypharmacy-27096.aspx Fermentation Purpose: To investigate the effect of temperature on the fermentation of glucose by bakers yeast. Hypothesis: If to separate tubes of 20% glucose solution with 1 mil of yeast is added to battery jars filled with 20 and 38 c water then the warmer one will cause the yeast to ferment at a quicker rate. Materials: -2 test tubes (100 mm. Long x 11 mm. I.D.) -2 ones-hole stoppers (size 00 w/3 mm. Hole) -Glucose -Bakers yeast suspension -Balance -Molding clay -Submersible test tube racks -Pins -Masking tape -Wax pencil -10 ml. pipette w/pump -50ml. graduated cylinder -Dropping pipette -Ice -Stirring rods -Thermometer -Battery jars (2) 1. Prepare a 20% glucose solution by mixing 8 g. of glucose with 32 ml. water. 2. Prepare two water bathes, one at 15 degrees C and another at 38 degrees C using battery jars, ice, and warm water from the tap. Be sure that the water baths are deep enough for your respirometers to be completely submerged. 3. Prepare a data chart that will allow you to record the number of bubbles you see per minute for ten total minutes. 4. Prepare the two respirometers as shown to the right. Using a 10 mL. pipette and pump, put 4 mL. of the 20% glucose solution into each test tube. Add 1 mL. of yeast suspension to each tube after stirring the suspension completely. Mix by gently batting the tube bottom with one forefinger while gripping the top of the test tube tightly with the thumb and forefinger of the opposite hand. Put a one-hole stopper on each test tube, being sure that it seals the tube. Stick a pin with a tape flag into the stopper to identify the tube as yours. Knead and stick a small amount of modeling clay to the bottom of the test tube to be sure the respirometer sinks to the bottom of the water bath . Place one respomiter into the 20º water bath and place the other into the 38º water bath. Add ice or warm water to the water baths as needed to maintain their respective temperature. Allow the respirometers to sit undisturbed for three minutes, so that their contents will come to the temperature of the water bath. After three minutes, count the number of bubbles that rise from the stopper opening per minute for a total of ten minutes. Record these numbers in your chart. 6. perform a responsible clean up by washing out then drying the test tubes and stoppers, remove the tape flags from the dried 2005-06-21T22:03:52-04:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/Fermentation-Lab-27095.aspx Excess dietary protein and Hypercalcuria. Calcium INTRODUCTION: Osteoporosis is the major public health problem in the United States because the disease costs million lives and dollars. Osteoporosis, which means "porous bones," is a condition of excessive skeletal fragility resulting in bones that break easily. A combination of genetic, dietary, hormonal, age-related, and lifestyle factors all contribute to this condition. Osteoporosis leads to 1.5 million fractures, or breaks, per year, mostly in the hip, spine and wrist, with the cost of treatment estimated at $10 billion to $15 billion a year, according to the National Institutes of Health. It threatens 25 million Americans, mostly older women and men. One in three women past 50 will suffer a vertebral fracture, according to the foundation (Munger 147). These numbers are predicted to rise as the population ages. Most causes of osteoporosis are uncontrollable, such as genetics and ages. However, there are also dietary factors and living lifestyles that contribute greatly to the disease. For more than half a century there were studies and research, which showed that that diets high in protein increase calcium resorption from bone and urinary calcium excretion, thus, increasing the risks for osteoporosis and other diseases (Munger 149-52). First, this paper will give evidences about how diets that are high in protein contents can cause hypercalciuria. Second, it will give the mechanism of how hypercalciuria is caused. Lastly, it will present what types of people are affected by this disease, and how diets high in fruit and vegetables can reverse the process. THE EVIDENCES: There were many researches and studies, which proved that high consumption of dietary protein could lead t urinary calcium excretion, and eventually caused hypercalciuria. One of those evidences was a study conducted by Dr. Jane Kerstetter at the School of Allied Health. His study concluded that high levels of dietary protein increased urinary calcium excretion and induced negative calcium balance. The experiment had sixteen healthy women (aged 20-40 yr) as participants. The control was a two-week diet containing moderate amounts of calcium, sodium, and protein. Followed the control was the experimental diet, which was four days long and consisted of one of three levels of protein (low, moderate, or high). On day four, serum and urinary calcium, serum PTH, 1,25-dihydroxyvitamin D, serum osteocalcin, bone-specific alkaline phosphatase, and urinary N-telopeptide excretion were measured (Kerstetter 1053-4). The cycle of a 2-week adjustment period and a 4-day experimental period was repeated two 2005-06-21T22:02:52-04:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/Excess-Dietary-Protein-and-Hypercalcuria_-Calcium-27094.aspx The neuromuscular junction as a site of disease process Proteins involved in formation of the neuromuscular junction The neuromuscular junction is a specialized junction, where a motor nerve forms its synaptic terminal with a muscle fibre, one of many fibres that make up a whole muscle. The mature neuromuscular junction is composed of three types of cells - a motor nerve terminal, a muscle fibre and a Schwann cell covering the junction. All three of these cells are highly differentiated and specialized for their functions (Kandel 2000, p. 1089). The events that occur during the formation of the neuromuscular junction have been extensively studied and are the most comprehensively understood of any nerve-to-target cell contact. Prior to formation of the synapse all three components of the neuromuscular junction develop and acquire identities independently. The muscle cells are derived from the mesoderm and migrate from the dermomyotomal portion of the somite. Motoneurons migrate from the ventricular zone of the neural tube to a ventral-lateral location before axons grow out of the spinal cord. Schwann cells are glial cells, which insulate the axons outside of the spinal cord, they are derived from neural crest cells and associate with axons from the somite onwards to the peripheral target. At the time of the first axons reaching the developing muscle, the muscle fibres are myoblasts that have just fused to form multinucleated myotubes, there is no evidence to suggest that motor neurons prefer certain site on the developing myotube or that there is a predetermined site for the formation of the synapse, on the contrary, synapse formation can occur on most, if not all of the myotube surface (Lichtman et al in Zigmond et al 2000, pp. 547-8). Acetylcholine receptors (AChR) are found uniformly dispersed over the surface of the myotube until the nerve approaches the myotube. As the nerve approaches the myotube a protein known as agrin, which is synthesized in the motor neuron, is transported down the axon to the synaptic cleft where it is released from the nerve terminal, here it is deposited in the synaptic basal lamina. The major components of the basal lamina are laminins, which are made up of α, β and γ chains; it forms a continuous non-myelin layer over the nerve terminal and is a potent promoter of axon outgrowth. The basal lamina is present (at least components of the basal lamina are present) prior to the arrival of the nerve 2005-06-21T22:01:11-04:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/The-Neuromuscular-Junction-as-a-Site-of-Disease-Process-27093.aspx The Inland Taipan The Oxyuranus microlepidotus (inland taipan) is a member of the family Elapidae (elapid snakes), and belongs to the Genus Oxyuranus. The back, sides and tail are of a buff brown colour, and it's eyes are of average size, with a blackish brown iris. It is found only in the central, and central western desert regions of Australia. Although the inland taipan has the most lethal venom of any snake in the world, it is placid and shy. However, if cornered and/or provoked, it holds it's body in low, flat, S-shaped curves with it's head pointed straight at the disturber. It usually makes a single bite, or a few fast ones. The venom of the inland taipan is primarily neurotoxic. However, while the myotoxic and procoagulative proteins are present to a lesser degree, they too contribute to the bite pathology. Neurotoxins The neurotoxins contained in the inland taipan's venom are as follow: *Taipoxin - presynaptic neurotoxin, phospholipase A2 based, moderately acidic sialo-glycoprotein, MW 45,600, as a ternary complex 1:1:1 with a , b , g subunits. a and b subunits are 120 amino acids long, with 7 disulphide bridges. g subunit has 135 amino acids and 8disulphide bridges. Only the very basic (pI >10) g-subunit has lethal neurotoxicity. LD50 of complete molecule is 2 mg/kg (IV mouse). 17% of venom. *Paradoxin - presynaptic neurotoxin, phospholipase A2 based, essentially identical to taipoxin. It accounts for 12% of crude venom, is a sialo-glycoprotein with three subunits and has an LD50 of 2 mg/kg (IV mouse). Amino acid analysis of paradoxin and taipoxin, both in whole form and as subunits, shows close homology. *O. scutellatus fraction III - minimal data. Presumed postsynaptic neurotoxin. LD50 100 mg/kg (IV mouse). 47% of venom.*O. scutellatus fraction IV - minimal data. Presumed postsynaptic neurotoxin. LD50 100 mg/kg (IV mouse). MW approximately 8,000. 10% of venom. [http://www.inchem.org/documents/pims/animal/taipan.htm] Composition of this mixture may not be uniform throughout all populations of taipans. The presynaptic constituents are much more potent than those which are postsynaptic. They work by affecting the terminal axon. On reaching the neuromuscular junction the presynaptic neurotoxin must bind to the terminal axon membrane, damage the membrane, and then exert its toxin effects. Initially this may cause release of acetylcholine (Ach), with some muscle twitching, rarely noticed clinically, before destroying vesicles and blocking further Ach release. This process takes from 60 to 80 minutes. Following the process, the neuromuscular block becomes detectable, and quickly becomes complete paralysis. 2005-06-21T21:52:10-04:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/The-Inland-Taipan--27089.aspx The Biochemistry of Snake Venom Overview Snake venom is the poison fluid normally secreted by venomous snakes when biting. It is produced in the glands, and injected by the fangs. Snake venom is used to immobilize and/or kill prey, and used secondarily in defence. It is a clear, viscous fluid of amber or straw colour. There are two main types of venom produced by snakes, containing primarily either: *Neurotoxins - these attack the nervous system. *Hemotoxins - these attack the circulatory system. While most snakes' venom contains primarily either 2005-06-21T21:48:04-04:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/The-Biochemistry-of-Snake-Venom-27088.aspx Water: The Genesis of Life The first thing water reminds us of is the clear liquid in our water bottles. However, water is more than a normal substance. Water is the beginning and the continual of life on earth. Because of its many unique properties, water was able to start life on our planet. The simple structure of H2O is the source of all water's properties. With two hydrogen atoms sticking to an oxygen atom in a tetrahedron shape, water is considered as a polar molecule. Because oxygen is very electronegative, it pulls hydrogen's electrons towards it, causing oxygen to become partial negative. The hydrogen atoms then will have fewer electrons towards its own nucleus, therefore making it partial positive. Since positive charge and negative charge attracts each other, the molecular formation of H2O will result hydrogen bonding. Cohesion is an important property of water that greatly helps organisms. One of the significant contributions is the transportation of water in plants against gravity. When water evaporates from a leaf, other water molecules from further down the vessel will be tugged up due to the hydrogen bonding. The way water molecules attach to each other is called cohesion. Adhesion, the clinging of different substances, also plays a role. Water can hold on to the walls of the vessels to oppose gravity. Because of cohesion and adhesion, water became the prime transportation in the ecological society. Air temperature can be stabilized by water because water can absorb and release heat. When the temperature is high, water absorbs heat to break the hydrogen bonds; thus, cooling the hot air. When the hydrogen bonds form, heat is released, causing the surrounding air to warm up. This property of water has many advantages because it keeps Earth's temperature shifts within limits that permit life. Also, organisms that are generally made out of water are more able to resist changes in their own temperature. Water's high heat of vaporization also helps moderate temperature. When water molecules move fast enough to break the hydrogen bonds between the molecules, water molecules escape into the air. This process, called evaporation, will result warmer air and cooler water. The evaporation will stabilize climate for the reason that tropical seas absorb a large amount of solar energy and the moist air will move poleward. Then, the moist air will release heat as it condenses into rain. When the hot water molecules turn into gas, evaporative cooling occurs. 2005-06-21T21:46:48-04:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/Water-The-Genesis-of-Life--27087.aspx The Biochemistry of Human Energy systems With the aid of diagrams provide a summary of how the following energy systems work. Energy systems; introduction Energy systems are cellular levels processes used to produce Adenosine Triphosphate (ATP) figure 1. This is an adenosine molecule linked to three high-energy phosphates that acts as an energy store for the cell. The energy is released when ATPase, an enzyme, reacts with ATP to produce ADP and Pi, e.g. ATP ADP + Pi There are three energy systems that do this; •The Creatine Phosphate System •The Glycolytic or Lactic Acid system •The Oxidative system (The Krebs cycle, Citric Acid Cycle or Tricarboxylic Acid Cycle) The first too are ANAEROBIC, the third is AEROBIC. I.Creatine Phosphate (CrP) Summary: A cytoplasm based catabolic reaction in which Creatine Phosphate is degraded to Creatine to provide ATP; net profit of one ATP molecule; can proceed anaerobically. Net reaction: CrP + ADP+H+--->ATP + Creatine Detail: During high-intensity exercise energy for ATP resynthesis is provided primarily by another high-energy phosphate compound called creatine phosphate (CrP), see figure 2. Cellular concentrations of CrP are 4-5 times greater than that of ATP and are generally concentrated in areas of contractile protein; skeletal muscle has 95%. CrP is like a match; when the muscle receives a nerve impulse from the brain instructing it to contract, it instantly releases its energy, as if the match had been struck. This gives a natural "reservoir" of energy to enable resynthesis of ATP to occur rapidly, 7Toler (1997), 8Vandenberghe (1996) and 9Feldman (1999), but it can only sustain work at maximal levels for about 5 - 15 seconds dependant on activity level and the individual's personal physiological adaptations to exercise. The system has two steps. Firstly, bond between creatine and phosphate splits energy is liberated, as CrP has a higher potential energy than ATP, sufficient energy is released to resynthesise ADP to ATP. This reaction is catalysed by the enzyme creatine kinase. CrP Cr + Pi + energy The energy created in the split's useless to the cell directly; so in step two it's used to convert ADP and Phosphate to ATP and thus a source of useable energy to the cell. The process of ATP-CrP regeneration is the most rapid pathway for providing muscular energy. Energy ADP + Pi ------------------> ATP This is a 1:1 ratio in that one Creatine phosphate delivers one ATP molecule. This is not a very efficient system but it's very fast; 2005-06-21T21:45:29-04:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/The-Biochemistry-of-Human-Energy-Systems-27086.aspx Jupiter is 2005-06-21T02:41:01-04:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/Jupiter--27041.aspx When travelling at slow speeds in your car the wearing of a seatbelt has little effect of your body when you brake. So why is it important to wear your seat belt? A driver or passenger travelling in a car is moving at the same speed as the car. If the car suddenly stops, the body of the rider inside will keep moving forward at the same speed. This demonstrates inertia. The tendency of a moving object to keep moving, or of a stationary object to remain at rest. Basically Newtons first law; that a body stationary or moving with constant velocity will want to continue to do so, unless acted on by a force. Lets understand what is happening here. First drive along in your car at 60 km/h on a backstreet with no traffic, then brake gently and slowly. You will notice that the seat belt doesn’t really do much to hold your body. Now do the same again but this time break as quickly and sharply as you can. Your body will be thrown forwards with great force, and your seatbelt will be literally holding you in place. Now your body was what is commonly referred to as being "thrown forwards", however this is not the case. Your body was actually not slowing down much at all and your velocity relative to the car initially was much greater. The car began to slow down due to breaking and your body in accordance with Newtons First law wanted to continue to move at the original constant velocity. Now if your seat belt was not there to provide an opposing force, to your momentum and inertia, by holding you from going forwards, you very likely would have been thrown into the dash or steering wheel. Lets look at this mathematically. m= your mass in kilograms for this purposes 70kg V= final velocity 0 m/s U= initial velocity 60 km/h or 16.6 m/s straight line S= distance taken to stop 42 m t= 3.8 a= -4.368 m/s/s Now your momentum at 60km/h is P=MU So P= 70kg*16.6m/s P=1162 Kg m/s Impulse I=MU/t I=70*16.6/3.8 I=305N So your body will weigh about 610kg when you are breaking hard, a force it is difficult for any person to withstand. Now in the context of a head on accident at around 60km/hr the force exerted on your body is greatly increased. In the event 2005-06-19T18:17:23-04:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/Importance-of-Seatbelts-from-a-Physics-Standpoint-27003.aspx As we enter the 21st century, the world faces problems with feeding the increasing population. The need for agricultural food commodities increases along with concerns about being environmentally friendly. Agricultural lands will be forced to become more productive or move into previously wild areas. Most people favor keeping wild areas free from agricultural or human influence. The most realistic alternative is to make the current farmlands more productive. One method of doing this is to incorporate herbicide resistant biotechnological crops into agricultural food commodity systems. The use of herbicide resistant crops would allow farmers to produce a higher quality crop with less input of labor and chemicals. There are several stages in bringing a biotechnological crop from the lab to the market. These cops must also gain approval from government regulations and address consumer safety concerns. A system must be determined to be of great demand in the market to continue the process. There are high costs associated with bringing a biotech crop to the market and the crop must be able to recover the research and testing costs in order to be successful. The first step in creating a biotech crop is to begin looking for a desired trait to incorporate into a plant genome. This includes finding a gene that makes a plant resistant to the herbicidal chemical glyphosate. Glyphosate is the active ingredient in the Monsanto contact herbicide, Roundup. A plant must be found that is resistant to the chemical and the gene must be isolated. The gene is then inserted into the desired host plant genome. This may be accomplished through the use of Agrobacterium or a gene gun. The plant now has the gene that makes it tolerant to the over-the-top application of glyphosate containing herbicide. The product then moves into field-testing where the USDA Animal and Plant Health Inspection Service (APHIS) must regulate the field-testing of the genetically modified organism. After the field-testing, the plant must move into the product registration process and government agency safety tests. Several government agencies govern areas of biotech crops. The Food and Drug Administration governs the safety and labeling of food in this country. The need for approval from other countries similar agencies will be necessary in the future to increase the market value of the crop. One method of safety in the future is the use of an ELISA (Enzyme Linked Immunosorbent Assay) test to quickly classify 2005-06-19T05:56:22-04:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/Plant-Systems-Through-Biotechnology-26947.aspx Bacteria Bacteria is a simple organism that consists of one cell. They are among the smallest living thing on earth. Most bacteria measures from about 0.3 to 2.0 microns in diameter, and can only be seen through a microscope. Scientist classify bacteria according to shape. Cocci are round and sometimes linked together. Bacilli look like rods, and Vibrios resembles bent rods. There are two types of spiral-shaped bacteria, spirochetes and spirilla. Bacteria exist almost anywhere you can think of. There are thousands of types of bacteria, most of which are completely harmless to the human body. Some species cause diseases while others are harmless. The Pros & Cons of Bacteria Certain kinds of bacteria live in the intestines of human beings and animals. These forms of bacteria are essential in the digestion process. They help the digestion process by eliminating and destroying harmful organisms. Intestinal bacteria also produces some vitamins needed by body. Bacteria cells resemble the cells of other living things in many ways, and so scientist study bacteria to learn more about complex organisms. For exmaple, the study of bacteria has helped researchers understand how certain characteristics are transferred through heredity. Most species of bacteria reproduce quickly. This enables many scientist to grow large quantities of research due to rapid reproduction of bacteria. Some kinds of bacteria cause diseases to human beings, animals and plants. The diseases include: cholera, gonnorhea, leporasy, gangrene, pneumonia, tuberculosis, tracheal bronchitis, syphilis, and typhoid fever. Bacteria enters the body through natural openings, such as the nose, mouth, and even breaks or cracks in the skin. In addition to transfer of bacteria through natural openings, bacteria is also transfered from one person to another by means of food, water, and air. Harmful bacteria prevents the body from functioning properly by destroying healthy cells. Certain bacteria produces posions which cause such diseases such as diperthia, tetanus, and scarlet fever. Some posions are produced by living bacteria while others are released only after bacterium dies. A form of food posioning called botulism is caused by posions from bacteria in improperly canned foods. Bacteria that may live harmlessly in the body can also cause infections. The infections are only minor compared to posion produceing bacteria. An example of this would include, if bacteria in the throat of a person with low immunity, reproduces faster than the persons body can dispose of them , the result is an infection 2005-06-17T09:02:11-04:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/What-is-a-Bacteria-a-Research-Paper-26893.aspx The Meat Production Industry and Concerns For the Environment Currently there exists many concerns about the direction that the people of the world are moving towards solving environmental problems. Growth in the meat production industry and corresponding manure production has contributed to concerns over air and water quality. If the meat production industry does not yield to more strict regulations pollution will lead to the eventual loss of livestock production from a given community, as well as environmental damage. Land use planning should provide an opportunity for the livestock producers to work with the environment to develop an approach that is fair, equitable, and contributes to an improved livestock industry. A relative concern many governments are faced with is how to feed the world with the least amount of side effects. The creation of a more realistic meat production industry will require better integration of livestock with crop production, and improvement of current land management. These improvements will lead to a more localized system of production and supply to the relative economy of the meat industry to the geographic area. These changes, associated with a more direct approach of addressing the livestock-sector policies, would transform the livestock economy while alleviating the environmental damages caused by the industry (Durning and Brough 41). Although improvements have been made in many countries a greater call to action is required. Many environmental improvements could be seen in less groundwater depletion, agricultural-chemical pollution, and methane and ammonia emissions (Durning and Brough 42). Within many rural and agricultural communities there is the belief that the continued intensification of agriculture and meat production has degraded and will continue to degrade the environment. This concern over the impact of meat production and agriculture on the environment is occurring at a time when there are continuing shifts in the views of the community. For issues such as the growth and development of livestock facilities there growing concerns where and how these facilities are established. At the same time there is a need to ensure fair regulations, and adequate protection of the interest of the farm community and individual farmers. If there is going to be an appropriate balance between agriculture, the environment, meat producers and community interests, farmers are likely to face increasing harassment and corresponding legal action over issues related to air and water contamination. 2005-06-17T08:01:26-04:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/Meat-Production-Industry-and-Environmental-Concerns-26891.aspx Vitamin B6 and Vitamin B6 Deficiency A vitamin is any of various fat-soluble or water-soluble organic substances essential in small amounts for normal growth and activity of the body and obtained naturally from plant and animal foods. A mineral is naturally occurring inorganic solid substance having a definite 2005-06-16T09:41:15-04:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/Vitamin-B6-and-Vitamin-B6-Deficiency-26882.aspx Freshwater Regions • Freshwater is defined as having a low salt concentration—usually less than 1%. Plants and animals in freshwater regions are adjusted to the low salt content and would not be able to survive in areas of high salt concentration (i.e, ocean). • There are different types of freshwater regions: ponds and lakes, streams and rivers, and wetlands. The following sections describe the characteristics of these three freshwater zones. • Ponds and Lakes - These regions range in size from just a few square meters to thousands of square kilometers. Scattered throughout the earth, several are remnants from the Pleistocene glaciations. Many ponds are seasonal; lasting just a couple of months (such as sessile pools) while lakes may exist for hundreds of years or more. Ponds and lakes may have limited species diversity since they are often isolated from one another and from other water sources like rivers and oceans. Lakes and ponds are divided into three different “zones” which are usually determined by depth and distance from the shoreline. • Streams and Rivers - These are bodies of flowing water moving in one direction. Streams and rivers can be found everywhere—they get their starts at headwaters, which may be springs, snowmelt, or even lakes, and then travel all the way to their mouths, usually another water channel or the ocean. The characteristics of a river or stream change during the journey from the source to the mouth. The temperature is cooler at the source than it is at the mouth. The water is also clearer, has higher oxygen levels, and freshwater fish such as trout and heterotrophs can be found there. Towards the middle part of the stream/river, the width increases, as does species diversity—numerous aquatic green plants and algae can be found. Toward the mouth of the river/stream, the water becomes murky from all the sediments that it has picked up upstream, decreasing the amount of light that can penetrate through the water. Since there is less light, there is less diversity of flora, and because of the lower oxygen levels, fish that require less oxygen, such as catfish and carp, can be found. • Wetlands - are areas of standing water that support aquatic plants. Marshes, swamps, and bogs are all considered wetlands. Plant species adapted to the very moist and humid conditions are called hydrophytes. These include pond lilies, cattails, sedges, tamarack, and black spruce. Marsh flora also include such species as cypress 2005-06-16T08:04:31-04:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/Freshwater-vs-Marine-Water--26874.aspx The Bubonic Plague In this world we’ve seen many forms of death. From natural disasters of unfathomable and devastating proportions to war which shed the untainted blood of soldiers and civilians alike, our mass killings have all been delivered by visibly enormous forces, which have consumed and gratified their lust for life before our very eyes. This was true until the introduction of a killer so small and intangible it left almost an entire nations skeptic and dying, searching for the answers in the heavens and in god. This minute killer was known as the Black Death. This terrible epidemic exhausted small towns across Europe, including the British Isles, brutally killing an incredible amount of people. The disease had wiped out entire villages leaving dead bodies to decompose within the gutters of streets and corners of allies(Ziegler 17). Though people were introduced to the seriousness of the plague, they were still puzzled as to the causes of the deadly disease. Because of this fact, a group of unconfirmed myths and questionable facts rose concerning the sources of the epidemic for over five centuries(Coulton 493). In the nineteenth century, the causes of the terrifying disease was discovered and the Black Death was no longer unknown. One myth, of the origin of the deadly plague was said to be a result of medieval gas warfare. Yet another myth, stated that the murderous disease was an aftereffect of a great earthquake that occurred in Europe. Scientists even believed that the epidemic was caused by heaps of unburned corpses left in churchyards(Beatty and Marks 80). The last proven cause of the plague was found to be a disease of rats and other related animals(Rowling 186). One of the myths as to the cause of the Black Plague is an unusual story that was formed by people’s imaginations. One of the possible sources of the epidemic supposedly was born in a terrible war that had occurred between the deadly waters of the Indian Ocean and the sun(Ziegler 14). The immense waters of the dangerous blue ocean were lifted up like a solid wall of concrete to fight the sun. As the wall stood in the middle of the air still touching the base of the water, dangerous vapors began to disperse from the water. The high winds speeded the poisonous fumes out in every direction(Ziegler 14). The plague reached the nearby lands and the epidemic began to 2005-06-16T04:46:23-04:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/The-Bubonic-Plague-Disease-Profile-26870.aspx Conquering Insomnia, Pharmaceutical and Natural Methods There is an old Chinese proverb that says, "Only when one cannot sleep does one know how long the night is." If you have ever had trouble falling asleep night after night after night, you know how true that is. This condition, known as insomnia affects nearly a quarter of adults in the Unites States. Insomnia not only ruins your night by your difficulty falling asleep, it ruins your day by as you are not physically and mentally prepared to go about and do your normal work and activities. There are many things you can to try to alleviate this problem. Look out for things going on in your life that may causes insomnia and seek help when necessary. There are a lot of treatments, both good sleep hygiene methods and sleep drugs, which can cure insomnia. First, it is helpful to know what insomnia actually is. It is the most common of all sleep disorders. It is a condition that can be characterized by one or more of these four things (NIH): • difficulty falling asleep at night • awaking during the night, and having trouble falling back asleep • waking up earlier than you should • getting sleep which is not refreshing to your body Chronic insomnia is the most unwelcome kind of insomnia. That is when you have difficulty falling asleep or with any of the above symptoms on a near-nightly basis, or having these symptoms for at least several weeks. Insomnia is a problem because sleep is a very important activity for your body. Why, then, is sleep such a vital thing for your body to get? When you sleep, your body is not just shutting down and completely resting. In the 1950s, much research was done on sleepers and they found that there are actually two major phases of sleep (U. of Mich.). The four-stage non-rapid eye movement sleep is where people gradually drift from mild, relaxing sleep, to a very deep slumber. Rapid eye movement sleep, or REM sleep, alternates with non-REM sleep in 90-minute cycles. This phase is where your eyes move quickly back and forth under your eyelids, and much of your dreaming occurs during REM sleep (U. of Mich) Without getting the sleep you need, you suffer during the day. You may feel tired or lazy. Your concentration is not at the level that you need. Your performance at work or school may suffer. Theoretically, if you 2005-06-16T00:44:47-04:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/Conquering-Insomnia,-Pharmaceutical-and-Natural-Methods-26862.aspx Research Fraud In Britian A group of leading figures from the medical Royal Colleges[1] has today published a blueprint, for open debate with the government and other stakeholders, for the establishment of a National Panel which would identify and investigate suspected cases of fraud and misconduct in clinical and biological research studies. The blueprint, published in the medical journal Proceedings of the Royal College of Physicians of Edinburgh[2], proposes that a government-funded ‘National Panel for Research Integrity’ (NPRI) (with widespread representation from medical, public, charitable, academic, and pharmaceutical organisations) should be established so as to bring the UK in line with other international countries, such as the US and Denmark, where procedures have already been introduced for dealing with this type of research fraud[3]. The blueprint was developed during a period in which a recent international survey of biostatisticians found that 51% of respondents knew of fraudulent research projects including fabrication and falsification of data, deceptive reporting of results, suppression of data, and deceptive design and analysis[4]. It is anticipated that the creation of the NPRI would close the ‘loophole’ by which the General Medical Council (GMC) has jurisdiction to investigate suspected cases of deliberate research misconduct by doctors, but not by others involved in the biomedical sciences (clinical research studies and activities involving patients and human volunteers; research on biological material; and publications of biomedical research or clinical audit projects). In addition to proposing the establishment of the NPRI the blueprint contains details of its objectives (the promotion of best practice in biomedical research through the education of researchers and supervisors, the development and maintenance of standards and audit, and the development of a co-ordinating function for allegations or suspicions of misconduct) and also provides details of its status, composition/representation, and possible procedures which could be followed in investigating suspected cases of misconduct[5]. The publication of the blueprint follows a sustained period of development during which the Colleges, and other stakeholders, have addressed this area of activity in the UK in order to ensure that public and professional confidence in UK clinical and biological research activities can be maintained and justified. In 1999 the Colleges and their Faculty of Pharmaceutical Medicine[6] held a Joint Consensus Conference on Biomedical Research, at the Royal College of Physicians of Edinburgh, which was supported by the General Medical Council (GMC), the Medical Research Council (MRC), the British Medical Association (BMA), the Chief Scientist’s Office, 2005-06-15T03:13:28-04:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/Clinical-and-Biological-Research-Fraud-in-the-UK-26856.aspx What is Rapid Eye Movement (REM)? Rapid Eye Movement Encyclopedia Information Dream, mental activity associated with the rapid-eye-movement (REM) period of sleep. It is commonly made up of a number of visual images, scenes or thoughts expressed in terms of seeing rather than in those of the other senses or in words. Electroencephalograph studies, measuring the electrical activity of the brain during REM sleep, have shown that young adults dream for 1 1/2 to 2 hours of every 8-hour period of sleep. Infants spend an average of 50% of their sleep in the REM phase (they are believed to dream more often 2005-05-27T07:42:27-04:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/Rapid-Eye-Movement-Class-Summary-26786.aspx Analysis of Charles Darwin's Origin of the Species Charles Darwin in his book, On the Origin of Species, presents us with a theory of natural selection. This theory is his attempt at an explanation on how the world and its species came to be the way that we know them now. Darwin writes on how through a process of millions of years, through the effects of man and the effects of nature, species have had a trial and error experiment ongoing. It is through these trials that the natural world has developed beneficial anomalies that at times seem too great to be the work of chance. Darwin writes on how a species will adapt to its surrounding given enough time. When an animal gains a genetic edge over its competitors, be they of the same species or of another genus altogether, the animal has increased its chance of either procreation or adaptation. When this animal has this beneficial variance, the advantage becomes his and because of this, the trait is then passed on to the animals offspring. The theory of natural selection is not limited to inheritable and beneficial variations of a species. It also relies a great deal on the population growth and death of a species. For a species to continue to exist it must make sure of a few things. It must first produce more offspring than survive. If this is not done then the species is obviously going to die off. It is also important for the species to propagate at such a rate as to allow for variance, for it is variance that will ultimately allow the animal to exist comfortably in his surroundings. In his studies, Darwin was led to understand that “…the species of the larger genera in each country would oftener present varieties, than the species of the smaller genera;” (p. 55). Thus the larger species would adapt while the smaller one would not. And to quote Darwin again, “…if any one species does not become modified and improved in a corresponding degree with its competitors, it will soon be exterminated.” (p. 102) Extinction, although not as pleasant a concept as the idea of adapting to ones surroundings, plays just as large a role in natural selection as anything else. As one adaptation of a species proves beneficial, and as that variation begins to propagate, the original, less advantageous variant will die off. 2005-05-27T07:31:07-04:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/Analysis-of-Charles-Darwin-s-Origin-of-the-Species-26780.aspx The Plant Cell Cell Wall Size: Around 1µ Basic Function: * Hold the shape of the cell. * Strengthen the cell. Covering the cell membrane of the plant cell, there is the cell wall. The cell wall is composed of two layers of rigid, hard cellulose embedded in compounds like pectin and lignin. Pores in the cell wall allow molecules to pass through. The cell wall has two parts. The primary cell wall is formed during the growth of the cell. After the cell has stopped growing, a secondary cell wall forms. This secondary wall is made of lignin and cellulose, woven together tightly, to prevent further growth and to form and strong protective barrier. Cytoplasm Size: Unmeasurable Basic Function: * Helps dissolve waste products * Creates a "medium" for vesicles to travel through * Aids in cell metabolism * Serves as a home for the cytoskeleton. The cytoplasm is the jelly-like material that makes up much of the cell. It is 80% water and usually clear in color. It also contains many salts. The liquid portion is referred to as cytosol. In fact, "cytoplasm" means "cell substance." The cytoplasm is also the home of the cytoskeleton, a network of cytoplasmic filaments that are responsible for the movement of the cell. The cytoplasm is constantly moving and churning due to cytoplasmic streaming. Golgi Apparatus Size: Between 2 and 3µ Basic Function: * Serves as "processing center" for cell. * Packages and processes new proteins. * Prepares proteins for secretion or storage. The Golgi Apparatus is a series of stacked membranes in the cytoplasm that packages proteins for secretion or storage in vesicles. Inside the membranes are sacs of fluid or gel-like substances. The Golgi Apparatus takes proteins in transport sacs from the endoplasmic reticulum and sends it through a series of these membranes. The proteins are then "modified"' as they pass from membrane to membrane. After the vesicle of proteins has finished its trip through the Golgi Apparatus, it buds off the organelle in a Golgi sac, ready to be stored or transported to other parts of the body. Cell Membrane Size: 7 to 8 NM (nanometers) Basic Function: * Controls what enters and exits the cell. * Separates cell from outer environment. On the outside of all cells, there is a layer of protein and lipid (fat) called the cell membrane or the plasma membrane. This membrane is found in ALL cells. The 2005-05-26T10:04:08-04:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/Notes-on-The-Plant-Cell--26747.aspx CRITIQUING BRADLEY [i:9efa03e43b]Description: This paper critiques Bradley's arguments in his writing 'The Unreality of Space and Time.' This paper argues against Bradley's position using all logical methods necessary.[/i:9efa03e43b] Critiquing Bradley In his article, The Unreality of Space and Time, F. H. Bradley argues that space and time, as they exhibit themselves, are unreal. For Bradley space and time are unreal because they both possess necessary, yet contradictory characteristics. At this time we will depart from directly addressing the issue of time and restrict ourselves to dealing solely with the issue of space, but note that the conclusion and key premises are uniform to both issues. For Bradley the problem with space is that it is necessarily both ending and endless. Essential to its being space must continue to an end which it cannot possess. Though unexplained, the contradiction is revealed. Space, either how it is exhibited or how it is perceived is self-contradictory and therefore unreal. In explanation Bradley presents the following argument: Space is a relation. That is to say space is an association- a connection between things. This associative nature of space derives from that which constitutes space. For Bradley space consists of parts of space in relation to each other. To grasp this premise you might consider any amount of space and imagine that space divide in half. These two halves of space exist in relation to each other. Either or both of these halves could further be divided endlessly into oblivion. The picture one then should have is innumerable parts of space in relation to each other continuing to no final limit. These infinite relational parts of space constitute the relation that is space, the assumption being that space is, what it is constituted of. A problem arises out of this because if space is a relation it is required that it be relative to something other than itself. It is not difficult to understand the logic behind this. Imagine having a conversation speaking associatively about yourself. Such statements as "compared to myself I am relatively tall" or "relative to myself I am very smart" would surely classify you as a fool. A relation requires an association between two or more things. And so a problem occurs. The continuity of space is hindered by a necessary discreteness. Space as a whole must have a separateness to it. It must have something to reference itself with, and space itself must 2005-05-26T09:35:54-04:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/Critique-of-Bradley-s-Space-and-Time-Essay-26730.aspx Greenhouse Effect The importance of the greenhouse effect was just conceived in the mid-twentieth century. "For billions of years, cosmic forces shaped Earth, and land and air coevolved at an almost inconceivably slow pace to create a climate in which human beings and other creatures could flourish." (Franscesca Lyman). Now, for the first time, humanity has the power to change the global climate. By releasing the huge amounts of carbon stored in fossil fuels over millions of years, we are distorting the natural carbon cycle. We are intensifying the natural greenhouse effect and turning it into a "planetary menace" when it actually makes human life possible. Thus, the German climatologist Wilfred Bach writes, "The carbon-dioxide problem becomes a central question for the co-existence of humans and the survival of mankind." If we do not deal with our problems now, such as global warming, the consequences will amplify and the consequences could mean our health, our life, our future. Could we, as humans, mend what we have destroyed? From the words of J.Stephen Bottum, "Constructive action begins with an understanding of what's causing the problem and what each of us can do about it." The greenhouse effect has been described by Vice President Al Gore as the potentially most dangerous environmental problem facing mankind, with consequences second only to nuclear war (The Greenhouse Trap). The greenhouse effect can be visualized as follows: Imagine the Earth has been encircled by a giant glass sphere. The heat penetrates through the glass. Some of the heat is absorbed by the Earth and some is radiated back towards space. The radiated heat reaches the glass sphere and is prevented from dispersing any further. Similarly, the Earth is surrounded by a blanket of gas which traps energy in the atmosphere. This results in the overall warming of the atmosphere. "For two hundred years we've been conquering nature. Now we're beating it up," says Tom McMillan. The greenhouse occurs naturally, but when humans put more greenhouse gases (carbon, methane, water vapor, and, nitrous oxide) and pollutants in the air the natural balance is off set. Since the beginning of industrialization, two hundred years ago, the gases have risen substantially, mainly from fossil fuels. This has produced a reduction in environmental quality and an increase in global warming. It is estimated that the Earth's average temperature has risen by five tenths to six tenths degrees Celsius since the 1880's 2005-05-26T09:32:04-04:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/Greenhouse-Effect-Research-Paper-26728.aspx Living In Space: Energy Space is filled with radiant energy and beyond earth's atmosphere this energy flow more steadily and more intensely from the sun than that which penetrates to the surface of the Earth. So an abundant and essential source of energy that would be used in space for the space colony would be solar radiation by developing satellite solar power stations. To live in space, humans must be protected from the fierce intensity and penetrating wavelengths of unattenuated sunlight, but this same energy is one of the primary resources of space. The colony will have to have enough energy to maintain a fairly uniform temperature even though it is apace. The sun shines twenty-four hours a day and is not dimmed by an atmosphere. Shaded materials not exposed to direct sunlight will almost be at absolute zero. While the temperature in closed bodies exposed to the sun can soar above the boiling point. The colony will need to have both heaters and air conditioners. On the other hand, this sun's energy can be converted into electricity in the colonies. It will be converted with ten percent efficiency to electrical power which is sold at a rate of .012 kw/hr, a square kilometer of space would return more than $14,000,000 each year. Converting solar power to electricity in space, we would build satellite solar power stations that would intercept the sunlight and convert it into electricity. The satellite solar power stations would intercept enough sunlight to replace five nuclear reactors or coal plants. The stations could be as big as nine miles long and four miles wide and it would only weigh twenty thousand tons. It would be built with hollow triangular girders made of aluminum that is very fast and easy to build . Solar power satellites are a pollution free way to generate electricity and cost no more than coal or nuclear energy. There has been twomajor designed stations made so far. One is designed by Peter Glaser of Author D. Little Inc., which would use very large arrays of photo voltaic cells to make the conversion directly into energy. The other major design is by Gordon Woodcock of Boeing Aircraft Corporation, proposed having conventional turbogenerators operating on a Brayton cycle with helium as the working fluid. The key product in the solar power stations is solar cells, which does the actual converting of energy into electricity. A useful material 2005-05-26T09:15:59-04:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/Living-In-Space-Energy-26724.aspx What is DNA? What is it used for? Forensic science uses techniques developed in DNA research to identify individuals who have committed crimes. DNA from semen, skin, or blood taken from the crime scene can be compared with the DNA of a suspect, and the results can hold important information that can put a criminal in prison, DNA doesn’t lie. DNA is not just used in forensic science but also in medicine. Through DNA technology, scientists can change microorganisms so that they become medicine. This technology is used to produce insulin, which is a drug used by diabetics, and interferon, which is used by some cancer patients. Using this powerful, weapon you can manipulate organisms to make products that benefit humans. Using Biotechnologies, you can alter food production, waste disposal, mining, and medicine. DNA stands for Deoxyribonucleic Acid. A molecule of DNA consists of two chains, that have chemical compounds called nucleotides. These chains are arranged like a ladder that has been, called a double helix. Each nucleotide consists of three units: a sugar molecule called Deoxyribose, a phosphate group, and one of four different nitrogen-containing compounds called bases. The four bases are adenine (A), guanine (G), thymine (T), and cytosine (C). The nucleotides in one DNA strand have a specific association with the corresponding nucleotides in the other DNA strand. Because of the chemical affinity of the bases, nucleotides containing adenine are always paired with nucleotides containing thymine, and nucleotides containing cytosine are always paired with nucleotides containing guanine. The complementary bases are joined to each other by weak chemical bonds called hydrogen bonds The DNA is located in the exact center of the nucleus. As you see, Guanine is always attracted by Cytosine, also Thymine is attracted by Adenine. Different variations of those four chemical compounds create different organisms of species that called a Repeat Sequence. For example, the Repeat Sequence, for the human species is TTAGGG. As for yeast its (TG)1-3TG2-3. So different species, have different formulas. If DNA makes one wrong, misplacement of any chemical, the organism can be corrupted, and well die soon. People who have corrupt or mixed DNA have Down syndrome or commonly called Mongolism disease. This disease causes people, to have learning disabilities and physical symptoms 2005-05-22T03:14:48-04:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/What-is-DNA-What-is-it-used-for-26703.aspx Circumcision To Be Or Not To Be "Push! Push, I can see it crowning. Don't stop keep pushing." The doctor says in a deep but calming voice. "I can see it, I can see it! Here it comes!" says John with tears of excitement in his eyes, as he looks at his beautiful wife Nechelle, who is about to give birth to their first child, will it be a boy or a girl he wonders. "I see its head, one more push here it comes Oh my god it's here, it's a boy Yes it's a boy! We will name him John Jr." John shows all the signs of a man who is completely excited about having a newborn son, but the truth is that in the back of his mind there is question, a dark scary question, that John still has no answer to. "Should his son be circumcised?" To be or not to be that is really and truly the question. Before John can make a wise, educated decision he must first understand what circumcision is, why it is done, how it is done, how it affects the natural functions of the penis, and what the alternatives are. "Circumcision is a surgical procedure in which the skin covering the end of the penis (called the foreskin) is removed exposing the glans (head or tip of the penis)"(Love) The procedure is usually done on infants in the first few days of their life. A doctor does the procedure. Circumcision is an ancient and widespread practice. Some cultures as wide spread as the aborigines of Australia, to the Kazakh of Russia circumcises their male children. "An Egyptian inscription from around 4000 BC refers to the procedure. Male mummies have been found to be circumcised." (Encyclopedia of Human Sexuality 118) According to the Old Testament god commanded Abraham to circumcise all males of his household. The religious, spiritual and emotional reasons for circumcision differ greatly from a pact with god, to showing your faithfulness to a tribe by having your son publicly undergo the procedure. But are there any medical justifications for circumcision? According to the American Academy of Pediatrics (AAP) in 1971 "There are no valid medical indications for circumcision in the neonatal period." Recently however the AAP reconsidered its position. In 1989 it concluded that circumcised male infants have " potential medical benefits and 2005-05-20T09:24:09-04:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/Circumcision-To-Be-Or-Not-To-Be-26684.aspx Oceanography: Salt Marshes Research Paper Salt marshes are coastal wetlands rich in marine life, which are covered by water at least once per month. They are found in the intertidal zones along low-energy coastlines, forming along the margins of estuaries, where freshwater from the land mixes with seawater. These marshes can be found near the Great South Bay and the Long Island Sound. The entire south shore of Long Island is considered to be a salt marsh important to the health of the marine life. Beginning in Jamaica Bay and extending to Montauk Point, Long Islands salt marches help remove toxic chemicals that are caused by pollution, thus making them a vital part of the eco-system. The Salt Marshes contain different types of grasses that grow out of the water and along the water's edge. This grass can be seen when the tide is low and is covered by water when the tide comes in. This grass helps hold the soil together by dispersing any wave energy and creating a breeding ground for many important marine animals. Also, the plants act as a natural filter, removing any chemicals that might be in the seawater. Some of the plants that are found in salt marshes are: Salt Marsh Grass or Spartina Alterniflora and Cord grass as well as reeds, sedges and golden rod. At low tide, nutrient-rich water flows from the marsh back into the sea, feeding the plankton upon which all other life depends. Peat, which is what the march is mostly made of, is very absorbent. In some areas, it limits coastal flooding by containing the water that comes in during a very high or storm-driven tide. Peat also acts as a filter, cleaning water by removing various compounds and either storing or breaking them down. The salt marsh is also an important breeding ground for many species of marine life. These animals use the marsh and its tall grasses for protection from predators. Some of the marine life is: clams, mussels, shrimp, oysters and small fishes such as killies and spearing. Some mammals use the salt marsh also. These animals include: mice, skunks and many, many species of water fowl. These animals use the marsh not only as a home, but as a place to find food as well. There are destructive forces at work against the salt marsh. While a slowly rising sea level has had some 2005-05-19T03:26:48-04:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/Oceanography-Salt-Marshes-Research-Paper-26677.aspx UFO Controversy and History The mysterious phenomenon of UFO sightings seems worthy of serious scientific research. This is due to theories found within the field of ufology, past reported sightings, and credible information given out by the government. Ufologists should also be aware of past examples that have been successful from the astronomical community. Bernard Haisch is an astrophysicist, scientific editor of the Astrophysical Journal, and editor of the Journal of Scientific Exploration. The Journal of Scientific Exploration (JSE), which Bernard edits, is a peer reviewed research journal in which scholarly investigations on phenomena not part of the currently accepted scientific paradigms may be published. UFO's fall in this category, or more to the point, UFO's certainly settle outside the realm of mainstream science (William Dudley). Bernard himself is not a UFO researcher, but, as an editor of an unconventional journal, he has been exposed to enough data and met enough serious investigators to become supportive of the need to carefully study whatever this phenomenon, or perhaps phenomena, may be. His profession is that of an astronomer and by most criteria, apart from editing JSE, he is an insider in the scientific mainstream: author of research papers, principal investigator on NASA projects, associate editor of a leading journal in astrophysics (William Dudley). The field of astronomy is supported by hundreds of millions of dollars in government research funding every year, billions if one keeps track of such major missions as the Hubble Space Telescope. For the January 1996 meeting of the American Astronomical Society in San Antonio, the head of NASA, Daniel Goldin, flew down from Washington just to address the astronomers. Goldin made it clear that NASA's job is not to support astronomers. Nor is NASA's job to employ engineers and astronauts to keep the shuttle flying. NASA's job, said Goldin, is to serve the American people. He mentioned a talk he had given in Bozeman, Montana and the excitement that the Hubble pictures elicited there among the ordinary men and women of Montana, far removed from NASA centers. The fact that the announcement at the same astronomical society meeting of the discovery of two new planets orbiting the stars 70 Virginis and 47 Ursae Majoris made the front pages of major newspapers underscores this point. People want to know about the universe. And people especially want to know whether there are other 2005-05-19T03:25:49-04:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/UFO-Controversy-and-History-26675.aspx Anatomical Analysis [i:28f22a605a]How does a roundhouse kick work?[/i:28f22a605a] Tae Kwon Do is a Korean, unarmed martial art and is best known for its kicks (Park, 2001). The roundhouse kick is a turning kick and happens to be the most commonly used kick during competition (Lee, 1996). For this reason, the roundhouse kick will be analyzed in reference to sparring competition. The roundhouse kick, a multiplanar skill, starts with the kicking leg traveling in an arc towards the front with the knee in a chambered position (Pearson, 1997). The knee is extended in a snapping movement, striking the opponent with the top of the foot. One’s goal would be to make front torso contact with the kick, while avoiding leaving one’s self open to a counter strike. The movements that comprise the roundhouse kick begin with a fighting stance: both feet on the ground, toes pointing straight ahead, back foot turned outside up to 22 degrees, front foot approximately 1.5 the distance of one step from the back foot, both feet approximately one length of one foot apart, extension of both legs, slight rotation of the torso in the direction of the back leg, fists held in front of the chest, flexion at the shoulders by about 45 degrees, flexion at the elbow by about 60 degrees, and flexion of the fingers. One initiates the preparatory phase of the roundhouse kick from the fighting stance: rotation of the torso in the direction of the front leg, flexion and abduction at the hip, flexion at the knee of the back leg which brings the knee to the torso and maintains a minimal relative angle at the knee to the thigh, plantar flexion of the foot, and lateral flexion of the spine toward the ground away from the kicking leg (Table 1). The fighter is then ready to initiate the movement phase: extension at the knee with a relative angle to the thigh of about 180 degrees, lateral rotation of the grounded foot between 90 and 120 degrees, and additional lateral flexion of the spine. After attempting to make contact with the opponent, the fighter immediately follows up with the recovery phase: flexion at the knee, lateral flexion of the spine opposite the aforementioned direction, during a slight rotation of the torso, extension of the hip, and dorsiflexion of the foot. This brings the fighter back into the fighting stance with the opposite leg in 2005-05-17T00:16:22-04:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/Anatomical-Analysis-of-a-Roundhouse-Kick-26640.aspx Historical Development - Cell Theory 1. Robert Hooke - In 1662, he observed tiny compartments in the cork of a mature tree and gave them the Latin name cellulae (meaning small rooms). This was the origin of the biological term cell. 2. Anton Von Leeuwenhoek - By the late 1600s, he had observed diverse protistans, sperm, even a bacterium - an organism so small it would not be seen again for another two centuries. 3. R.J.H. Dutrochet - French botanist who prepared plant cells and studied them between 1824 and 1830. He discovered and named the phenomenon of osmosis, which is the passage of a liquid through a semi-permeable membrane. He was the first to carefully study respiration and light sensitivity in plants. 4. Robert Brown - In 1827, he noticed the constant presence of an opaque spot in egg cells, pollen cells, and then cells of the growing tissues of orchid plants and called this spot protozoa in 1834. 5. Dujardin - He discovered one -celled animals called rhizopoda, now called protozoa in 1834. 6. Matthias Schlieden - In 1838, he suggested that the nucleus and cell development are closely related. He decided that each plant cell leads a double life - one independent, involving its development, the other as an integral part of the plant. 7. Theodor Schwann - In 1839, after years of studying the structure and growth of animal tissues, he concluded that animals, as well as plants, consist of cells and cell products, and even though the cells are part of a whole organism, they have an individual life of their own. 8. Rudolf Virchow - In 1849, he completed his studies of cell growth and reproduction of their division into two cells. He concluded that every cell comes from an already existing cell. 9. Walther Flemming - In the early 1880s, while using dyes to study the structure of cells, he found a structure, which strongly absorbed dye, and named it chromatin. He observed that the chromatin separated into stringy objects during cell division, which became known as chromosomes. Flemming named the division of somatic cells mitosis, from a Greek word for thread. He also observed that the chromosomes formed two star shaped structures on either side of the dividing cell, which he named asters. 10. C. Golgi - In 1898, he described the existence of a network of thread like structures and small sacs (vesicles) in the cytoplasm of nerve cells. This complex organelle composed of flattened sacs and vesicles is now known 2005-05-16T06:22:11-04:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/Historical-Development-of-Cell-Theory-26636.aspx The Fire Ant Research Paper The "Fire Ant" is one of the most feared migratory arthropods in North America. The first non-native species was introduced into the Port of Mobile, Alabama, starting in 1919, through soil ballast, from South American ships, being dumped ashore. The black fire ant (Solenopsis richteri Forel) arrived sometime in 1919, and the red fire ant (Solenopsis invicta Buren) sometime in the late 1930's; both much more aggressive and harsh than their two sister species of fire ants, the Tropical fire ant (Solenopsis xyloni McCook) and the Southern fire ant (Solenopsis geminata Fabricius), which are considered native to North America. The presence of imported fire ants within United States boarders was first reported in 1929. Currently, the IFA (imported fire ant) is found in eleven states (over 300 million acres) , with sporadic, isolated showings as far west as California and as far north as Kansas and Maryland. The surge in fire ant migration came right after world war two, with the housing boom. The migration of fire ants was mostly associated with the mass movement of grass sod and decorative plants for landscaping purposes. However, "In 1958, the Federal Fire Ant Quarantine was implemented [to] try to limit the spread of fire ants from the quarantined areas. Hay, sod, plants and used soil moving equipment must me inspected and/or treated before being moved out of the quarantine area." The IFA migration methods include "...seasonal relocations, migration in nursery stock, natural flights, and after floods rafting on water. Ants can be blown by the wind 12 miles during mating flights. They can "hitchhike" on birds [or other animals] or mass together to form a floating ball to ride out a flood." It is estimated that a fire ant colony can expand 20-30 miles per year based on mating flights alone. The IFA migration fear is due to damage to people, but also damage to crops and property. Currently, the IFA is known "...as damaging 57 different species of cultivated plants" including wheat, cotton, corn, sorghum seed, soybean, blueberry, peanut, sunflower, watermelon, cantaloupe, cucumber, pecan, eggplant, okra, strawberry, and potato in addition to property, fire ants have been associated with may outdoor electrical equipment, due to their strong attraction to electrical and magnetic fields and impulses. The effected items where fire ants 2005-05-16T05:02:33-04:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/Profile-of-The-Fire-Ant--26624.aspx Dinosaurs and Birds Are birds really dinosaurs or are they simply related? That is a question that has gained new life in recent years due to the overwhelming facts the are pouring in from newly found fossils and studies from fossils that have been found in the past. Two groups have formed in the study of this question: those who believe birds are a direct result of dinosaurs and those who feel dinosaurs and birds must have had a common ancestor. Determining which view is correct is a matter of opinion based on fact. The main problem involves the use of cladistics or phylogenetic systematics to group organisms according to characteristics they share. When one looks at dinosaur fossils, he or she may feel that certain characteristics are used for something entirely different than someone else who has looked at the same fossil. One cannot talk about dinosaur and bird lineage without mentioning Archaeopteryx. Most paleontologists agree that Archaeopteryx was the first bird. Archaeopteryx thus represents what paleontologists would call a "transitional form" between two major groups of animals, the reptiles (dinosaurs) and birds. The main difference between the theropods and Archaeopteryx were the long arms of the Archaeopteryx, adapted as wings, the feathers, and the presence of a wishbone that the theropods did not have. All of these features tie it to birds and its other characteristics tie it to theropods. One might say it was the "missing link" between the two. Opponents of this idea say that the similarities between Archaeopteryx and theropods were due to convergence, with the birdlike dinosaurs appearing in the Cretaceous some 75 million years after Archaeopteryx. Also, support is gaining that Archaeopteryx was not in fact the first bird, but instead a descendent of an earlier bird ancestor that had developed along a different pathway and actually represents an evolutionary dead end. Two opponents of the "birds are dinosaurs theory" are Alan Feduccia of the University of North Carolina and Larry Martin of the University of Kansas. They believe that birds evolved from some unknown reptile from a time before dinosaurs came to be. One point they make is that flight must have begun from tree climbing or an arboreal ancestor but that all the proposed dinosaurian ancestors were ground dwellers or cursorial On the other side, supporters for the "birds are dinosaurs theory" feel 2005-05-16T04:56:09-04:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/Evolution-Are-Birds-Descendants-of-Dinosaurs-26623.aspx Hydroponics: Advantages of Producing Crops Through Use of Hydroponics HYDROPONICS derives its name from the Greek HYDRO-PONOS meaning water/labor. Literally, "Hydroponics" means "Water Work." There is no soil in a hydroponic garden. No organic matter is present so nourishment (Nutrient) is not available to the plants in the same was as it is in a soil garden. Instead, nutrients are added to the water. So, as plants are watered, they are also fed. There are many ways to feed and water plants. The method 2005-05-16T04:15:10-04:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/Advantages-of-Hydroponics-26619.aspx Mechanisms of Genetic Exchange: Transformation and Conjugation Introduction Genetic exchange had been known to play a role in the evolution and survival of microorganisms. Genes of one bacterium can be exchanged to another through several different ways: conjugation, transformation and transduction. However, the focus of this paper is to further examine the characteristics of conjugation and transformation mechanisms. Transformation was first discovered in 1928 by Frederick Griffith while he was studying pneumococcal infection in mice.1 In 1944, Avery, McCleod and McCarthy discovered that the transforming substance is DNA.1,2 Transformation occurs when a naked, double-stranded DNA was taken from outside into the cell, may be followed by the integration of the DNA into the host’s chromosome, and also replication, transcription and expression of the information encoded in the DNA.1,2,3 However, the recipient cell must be competent- do not secrete DNAase- upon the intake of the DNA fragment (from the donor) in order for the DNA fragments to be recombined into the recipient cell’s chromosome.2 In other words, transformation can be made to be more efficient if the DNAase do not exist since the enzyme acts as a digestor of foreign DNA.4 An advantage of transformation is the fact that the DNA can be subjected to mutagenesis and other treatments or manipulations, enabling the analysis of the bacterial genome. A disadvantage to the transformation method is the fact that this method can only produce small percentage of transformation in most bacteria.3 Due to the much smaller sizes of the transforming fragments and their competition for uptake with many other DNA fragments, the probability that a recipient cell incorporated the desired DNA fragment is very slim.4 Conjugation is another method that is very adaptable and efficient for intra- or inter- species genetic transfer.3 First discovered in 1946 by Lederberg and Tatum in a strain of E.coli called K-12, conjugation requires physical contact between two genetically different cells via a conjugation tube called the F-pilus, which transfers the F factor.1,2,4 The F factor is acquired by conjugation from an F+ to an F-. The F factor has a size of approximately 1/50 the size of the E.coli chromosome and it has no connection to the bacterial chromosome, thus the F factor and the chromosome replicated independently of each other. Eventhough the F factor is not involved in the normal function of the cell and it is dispensable, it is the determinant in the “organism’s 2005-05-14T00:53:17-04:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/Genetic-Exchange-Transformation-and-Conjugation-26593.aspx Human Cloning The possibility of human cloning was raised when Scottish scientists, led by Dr. Ian Wilmut at the Roslin Institute, created the much-celebrated sheep "Dolly". Being the first mammal ever cloned this aroused worldwide interest and concern because of its scientific and ethical implications. The feat, cited by “Science Magazine” as the “breakthrough of 1997”, also generated uncertainty over the meaning of "cloning" -- an umbrella term traditionally used by scientists to describe different processes for duplicating biological material. Since this creation, mice, goats, cows and pigs have been successfully cloned around the world. This has made human cloning a real possibility. Cloning is the production of one or more individual plants or animals that are genetically identical to another plant or animal. It is different from natural fertilisation which is "sexual" reproduction that occurs when a sperm fertilises an egg. In normal fertilisation the developing embryo (and person) has the genetic makeup or DNA of both parents 23 chromosomes from the female and 23 from the male. The embryo is the unique human organism with a novel genetic makeup having the full potential to develop to adulthood. Current definitions define "embryo" as follows: “the term `human embryo or embryos’ includes any organism that is derived by fertilisation, parthenogenesis, cloning, or any other means from one or more human gametes or human diploid cells.” Figure 1: Comparing cloned embryo’s with fertilised embryo’s Source: Available from URL: http://www.house.gov/weldon/issues/clone_basics.htm#cloning (Accessed Sunday 15th August 2004) When the media report on cloning in the news, they are usually talking about only one type called reproductive cloning. There are different types of cloning however, and cloning technologies can be used for other purposes besides producing the genetic twin of another organism. A basic understanding of the different types of cloning is the key to taking an informed stance on current public policy issues and making the best possible personal decisions. The three main types of cloning are: 1. Embryo cloning 2. Reproductive cloning 3. Therapeutic cloning Embryo cloning Embryo cloning might be more accurately called "artificial twinning", because it simulates the mechanism by which twins naturally develop. It involves removing one or more cells from an embryo and encouraging the cell to develop into a separate embryo with the same DNA as the original. It has been successfully carried out for years on many species of animals. Some very limited 2005-05-10T04:36:34-04:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/Human-Cloning-Controversial-Research-Essay-26588.aspx Nutrition Paper: Self Assessment After assessing my diet through the process of recording my intake of food over the course of two days and analyzing its nutritional value, relative to my gender, weight, height, activity level and age, I have successfully reached several conclusions about my current dietary habits. Prior to this analysis of my diet, I was unsuspecting of some of my bad habits which were unbeknownst to me at the time and as a result, I was fairly shocked to see the results. Among the aspects which were particularly surprising to me was my level of protein intake. Compared to the recommended 92 grams of daily intake, I managed to consume 213 grams worth of protein on average during these two days. This was 230% of what the recommended value is. However, despite my mammoth protein intake, due to the fact that my calories intake (4,295.94) exceeded the recommended level (3,000) by 1,296 calories, I my protein intake was still in the ballpark zone of what it should have been, relative to my percentage of sources of daily calories. This number was 20%, whereas It should have been somewhere around 15%. This is seen as a recurring theme throughout my diet. That is that due to my enormous calorie intake, the levels nutrients I received from each category exceeded the recommended daily value in nearly every category. However, it seems that my percentages from sources of calories remained in the target area. As mentioned above, protein was 20% whereas the target was 15%, carbohydrates were 55% whereas the target was 55%, and fats were 26% whereas the target was 30%. Despite this favorable percentage of course of calories breakdown, the fact of the matter is that these are merely percentages and my total intake of calories was much too high. This is also seen in my intake of total fat which was at 122.8 grams or 119% of the recommended value and saturated fat which comprised 52.65 grams of that or 154% of the recommended value. My excessive intake of cheese was a strong contributing factor to these high levels of fat. The most appalling aspect of this breakdown is, without question, my intake of cholesterol. At a recommended daily value of no less than 300 grams, I consumed a staggering 631 grams which is over 2005-04-24T08:27:21-04:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/Nutrition-Paper-on-Self-Assessment-of-Physical-Health-26565.aspx Case Study: Biomechanics and Motor Control in “Remember the Titans” Both biomechanics and motor control are extremely prevalent subjects in the film “Remember the Titans.” The movie instills the basic principles of kinesiology throughout the entire story line. It is very interesting how each different position on the field is accompanied by its own sub-set of kinesiology, exemplifying the diversity of the field. Throughout the movie, biomechanics, the study of the physical movement, is essential to the skill that the players carry out. The quarterback uses various aspects of biomechanics to throw the ball, make the ball spin in a tight spiral, and estimate the position of the ball and the position of his receivers. Without all of these components working together, the quarterback would not be able to successfully complete an intended pass. In essence, the quarterback acts as the physicist, or biomechanist, on the field, dictating the velocity, acceleration, height, distance, and displacement of the football. Meanwhile, the receivers, guards, and other players on the field use different ways to employ biomechanics. The guards and center use force, velocity, and momentum to block and hold off the offensive players. The receivers use acceleration and impulse to run and complete a pass. In addition to all of the physical aspects of playing football, all of the players are constantly using muscular force to generate power in order to do work. They are readily exemplifying gait, kinetics, kinematics, and ground reaction forces among many other aspects of biomechanics. When studying football, it is imperative to strategically plan different plays. Biomechanics plays a significant role in being able to perform them. Since the game of football greatly relies on the use of physical movement, biomechanics is an integral part of the underlying basics of the game. Motor control, or the acquisition, performance, and retention of motor skills, can also be seen often in “Remember the Titans.” In order for a quarterback to function as the “center” of the field, he must acquire motor skills through practice, be able to perform those motor skills, and then retain the ability to execute those motor skills. Without these three basic components, a quarterback will not be very successful. However, having good motor control is an important skill that must be acquired by all of the players, not just the quarterback. In fact, every player on the field must have motor control skills in order to play football at 2005-04-24T08:22:14-04:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/Biomechanics-and-Motor-Control-in-Remember-the-Titans-26562.aspx Engineering in Medicine: Evoked Potentials Today, there are many forms of imaging available to the medical profession. Among the more well-known types include x-rays, ultrasounds, CTscans, PETscans, and the most groundbreaking, the MRI. One lesser known form of imaging is the technique of evoked potentials. The evoked potential uses stimulation of the body to force activity in the brain. Using electrodes, a clinician can take signals directly from the brain without any intrusive methods. The electrodes remain on the surface of the skin and unlike many other imaging techniques, evoked potentials do not involve any type of ionizing radiation that would be dangerous to the body. Since evoked potentials involve the stimulation of the body, they are directly related to the arousing of the sense. There are three main types of evoked potentials: visual, auditory, and somatosensory. Although there are also experimental studies being conducted with gustatory and olfactory evoked potentials, vision, hearing, and touch have shown the most successful clinical uses. In this paper, visual evoked potentials will be covered in depth and auditory and somatosensory evoked potentials will be reviewed in brief. The most common clinical uses of this technique are to obtain ideas of brain activity by monitoring the size of amplitudes and latencies and subsequently diagnosing diseases and disorders concerning neural activity. The most common potential obtained is the visual evoked potential (VEP). Before explaining how a VEP is obtained, however, the basic physiology of the visual system must be understood. Each individual eye receives light from both the right and left visual fields. Upon entering the eye, they hit the retina and then they are transferred to the optic nerve. The optic nerve is the eye’s connection to the brain. The optic nerve of each eye cross at the optic chiasm, where the information from both the right and left visual fields are separated. Thereafter, they are directed into the opposite hemisphere of the brain via the optic tract. The information is then brought to the occipital cortex at the rear of the brain. This is also called the primary visual cortex. Today, a more modern form of the VEP is the multifocal visual evoked potential, which through different testing techniques and forms of analysis can take signals from various locations, forming a more complete image of the 2005-04-20T05:12:10-04:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/Imaging-Techniques-in-Medicine-Research-Paper-26532.aspx Immunohistochemical Detection of Her2/neu Protein p185Her2 in Feline Mammary Carcinoma <b>Background</b> A lot of work has been done recently to establish a Human Genome Model, a genetic map, physical map and comparative DNA sequence of human chromosomes. This work with the Human Genome Model cannot be achieved without a small part upon the parallel implementation of gene mapping projects in other species. One of these other species which has been associated with the human recently has been the feline (1). With exception to the primates, of the nonprimate mammalian species with developing comparative gene maps, the feline gene map (Felis Cat) displays the highest level of syntenic conservation with that of the humans gene map. The comparison of the human and feline map has shown many similarities between the human and feline, one of the most important similarities being the analogous relationship between felines and human diseases (2). <b>Her2/neu Gene</b> The human epidermal growth factor receptor 2 (Her2)/neu proto-oncogene, sometimes seen referred to as c-erbB2, encodes a 185kDa transmembrane tyrosine kinase receptor protein with homology to the epidermal growth factor (egfr) receptor (3). The Her2/neu gene has an important role in normal cell growth and differentiation (6,7). The egfr family of receptors (including the Her2/neu gene) is involved in cell-to-cell and cell-to-stroma communication primarily through a process known as signal transduction, in which external growth factors, or ligands, affect the transcription of various genes by phosphorylating or dephosphorylating a series of transmembrane proteins and intracellular signaling intermediates, many of which possess enzymatic activity (4). Receptor activation requires three variables, a ligand, a receptor and a dimerization partner (5). After a ligand binds to a receptor, that receptor must interact with another receptor of identical or related structure in a process known as dimerization in order to trigger phosphorylation and activate signaling cascades (picture 2b). The activity of Her2/neu transmembrane receptor seems to be regulated by a 30kDa glycoprotein ligand (8). This phosphorylation and activation of signaling cascades will sometimes cause gene alterations, including gene amplification (9). <b>p185Her2</b> All normal cells contain two copies of the her2 gene and produce low levels of protein, also referred to as p185Her2 (10). It is mostly the gene amplification of the Her2/neu gene that has caused p185Her2 protein to overexpression in many cells. This overexpression is almost always the result of gene amplification (6, 11-14), an increase 2005-04-20T03:52:00-04:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/Immunohistochemical-Detection-of-Her2-neu-Protein-p185Her2-26515.aspx Manufacture of "Ecstacy" from Chemical Abstracts 52, 11965 (1958) For Informational Purposes Only. The authors & distributors do not advocate the use of illegal drugs and assume no liability for the use or misuse of this information 2005-04-20T03:41:43-04:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/Manufacture-of-quot-Ecstacy-quot-from-Chemical-Abstracts-26513.aspx Epilepsy is a neurological disorder characterized by synchronized excitation of large groups or neuron. To reduce seizures, patients are given drugs that act on the neurotransmitter GABA. How does this type of drug control seizures? Describe seizures and the drug effects on them in terms of synaptic transmission. This type of drug is very effective in prevetning 2005-04-20T03:39:21-04:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/Essay-on-Drug-Help-for-Epilepsy-26512.aspx Medicine: "Microsurgery: Sew Small" A man came into the emergency ward at one o'clock. His thumb came in an hour later. The surgeon's job: get them back together. The successful re-attaching of fingers to hand requires long hours of painstaking work in microsurgery. In the operating room , the surgeon doesn't stand, but sits in a chair that supports her body. Her arm is cradled by a pillow. Scalpels are present as are other standard surgical tools, but the suture threads are almost invisible, the needle thinner than a human hair. And all the surgical activity revolves around the most important instument, the microscope. The surgeon will spend the next few hours looking through the microscope at broken blood vessels and nerves and sewing them back together again. The needles are so thin that they have to be held with needlenosed jeweller's forceps and will sew together nerves that are as wide as the thickness of a penny. To make such a stitch, the surgeon's hands will move no more than the width of the folded side of a piece of paper seen end on! Imagine trying to sew two pieces of spaghetti together and you'll have some idea of what microsurgery involves. Twenty-five years ago, this man's thumb would have been lost. But in the 1960s, surgeon's began using microscopes to sew what previously had been almost invisible blood vessels and nerves in limbs. Their sewing technique had been developed on large blood vessels over a half century earlier but could not be used in microsurgery until the needles and sutures became small enough. The surgical technique, still widely used today, had taken the frustrating unreliability out of sewing slippery, round-ended blood vessels by ingeniously turning them into triangles. To do this, a cut end of a blood vessel was stitched at three equidistant points and pulled slightly apart to give an anchored, triangular shape. This now lent itself to easier, more dependable stitching and paved the way for microsurgery where as many as twenty stitches will have to be made in a blood vessel three millimetres thick. The needle used for this can be just 70 millimetres wide, only ten times the width of a human blood cell. All this technology is focused on getting body parts back together again successfully. The more blood vessels reattached, the better the survival chances for a toe or a finger. The finer the nerve resection, the 2005-04-14T04:28:58-04:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/Medicine-Microsurgery-Sew-Small-26495.aspx Mining in Space -- AIAA and New York Academy of Sciences On December 10, 1986 the Greater New York Section of the American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics (AIAA) and the engineering section of the New York Academy of Sciences jointly presented a program on mining the planets. Speakers were Greg Maryniak of the Space Studies Institute (SSI) and Dr. Carl Peterson of the Mining and Excavation Research Institute of M.I.T. Maryniak spoke first and began by commenting that the quintessential predicament of space flight is that everything launched from Earth must be accelerated to orbital velocity. Related to this is that the traditional way to create things in space has been to manufacture them on Earth and then launch them into orbit aboard large rockets. The difficulty with this approach is the huge cost-per-pound of boosting anything out of this planet's gravity well. Furthermore, Maryniak noted, since (at least in the near to medium term) the space program must depend upon the government for most of its funding, for this economic drawback necessarily translates into a political problem. Maryniak continued by noting that the early settlers in North America did not attempt to transport across the Atlantic everything then needed to sustain them in the New World. Rather they brought their tools with them and constructed their habitats from local materials. Hence, he suggested that the solution to the dilemma to which he referred required not so much a shift in technology as a shift in thinking. Space, he argued, should be considered not as a vacuum, totally devoid of everything. Rather, it should be regarded as an ocean, that is, a hostile environment but one having resources. Among the resources of space, he suggested, are readily available solar power and potential surface mines on the Moon and later other celestial bodies as well. The Moon, Maryniak stated, contains many useful materials. Moreover, it is twenty-two times easier to accelerate a payload to lunar escape velocity than it is to accelerate the identical mass out of the EarthUs gravity well. As a practical matter the advantage in terms of the energy required is even greater because of the absence of a lunar atmosphere. Among other things this permits the use of devices such as electromagnetic accelerators (mass drivers) to launch payloads from the MoonUs surface. Even raw Lunar soil is useful as shielding for space stations and other space habitats. At present, he noted, 2005-04-14T04:27:39-04:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/The-Future-of-Space-Exploration-Mining-in-Outer-Space-26494.aspx What is Heredity? Research Essay on Heredity heredity {hur-ed'-i-tee} Heredity is the transmission from one generation to the next of factors that determine the traits of offspring. Although successful breeding of plants and animals was practiced by humans long before modern civilizations were established, there is no evidence that these early people understood the nature of hereditary factors or how they are transmitted through reproduction. EARLY HISTORY One of the early Greek philosophers, Pythagoras (582-509 BC), postulated that all traits of an offspring are derived solely from its father's semen. Aristotle thought that females also produce semen and that the embryo is formed by a fusion in the uterus of both types of semen. He further postulated that both male and female semen are produced by the body's blood. Leeuwenhoek Until the 17th century, European medical schools taught that hereditary factors in the semen were derived from vapors emanating from each body organ. However, Anton van LEEUWENHOEK observed human semen through his microscope and reported finding "animalcules." It became generally accepted that sperm were the actual carriers of hereditary factors from males to their offspring. Other biologists studied the ovaries of animals, noted the presence of swollen bodies--which they correctly assumed contained eggs--and hypothesized that these eggs were also units of transmission of hereditary factors. Epigenesis Some biologists of the 17th and 18th centuries believed that they saw miniature individuals in the sperm or eggs of various organisms, an observation that led to the doctrine of preformation. According to this theory all parts of the adult are already formed at the beginning of embryonic life, and as a result, embryonic development consists solely of growth. Toward the end of the 18th century, Caspar Friedrich WOLFF conducted extensive investigations on developing chicken embryos. He demonstrated that the adult parts of the animal are not present at the beginning of embryonic life but are formed during the developmental period. His doctrine of DEVELOPMENT, known as epigenesis, has been substantiated by countless observations and experiments. It is important to note that the biologists who disproved preformation and advanced the idea of epigenesis 200 years ago still held beliefs similar to those of the ancient Greeks on the origin of the hereditary material. The 18th-century scientists thought that the individual body organs produced tiny particles that had the potential of forming in offspring the same structures as that of the parent. These biologists postulated that the particles from the various organs would be transferred to 2005-04-13T03:07:29-04:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/Research-Paper-on-Heredity-and-Pioneers-26493.aspx Reproduction: What is love? Is love real? Or is it just reproductory? REPRODUCTION: A-Courting to Nature! For some time she had watched his movements, appearing coyly in his haunts. And now, had it paid off? Doubtless, he was in love. His muscles were taut; he swooped through the air more like an eagle than a Greylag gander. The only problem was, it was not for her that he then landed in a flurry of quacks and wingbeats, or for her that he dashed off surprise attacks on his fellows. It was, rather, for another - for her preening rival across the Bavarian lake. Poor goose. Will she mate with the gander of her dreams? Or will she trail him for years, laying infertile egg clutches as proof of her faithfulness? Either outcome is possible in an animal world marked daily by scenes of courtship, spurning and love triumphant. And take note: these are not the imaginings of some Disney screen-16 writer. Decades ago Konrad Lorenz, a famed Austrian naturalist, made detailed studies of Greylags and afterwards showed no hesitation in using words like love, grief and even embarrassment to describe the behavior of these large, social birds. At the same time he did not forget that all romance - animal and human - is tied intimately to natural selection. Natural selection brought on the evolution of males and females during prehistoric epochs when environmental change was making life difficult for single-sex species such as bacteria and algae. Generally, these reproduced by splitting into identical copies of themselves. New generations were thus no better than old ones at surviving in an altered world. With the emergence of the sexes, however, youngsters acquired the qualities of two parents. This meant that they were different from both - different and perhaps better at coping with tough problems of survival. At the same time, nature had to furnish a new set of instincts which would make "parents" out of such unreflective entities as mollusks and jellyfish.. The peacock's splendid feathers, the firefly's flash, the humpback whale's resounding bellow - all are means these animals have evolved to obey nature's command: "Find a mate. Transmit your characteristics through time!" But while most males would accept indiscriminate mating, females generally have more on their minds. In most species, after all, they take on reproduction's hardest chores such as carrying young, incubating eggs and tending newborns. Often they can produce only 2005-04-13T03:04:19-04:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/Reproduction-What-is-Love-Is-Love-Real-26492.aspx Lung Cancer Research Lung cancer is the uncontrolled growth of abnormal cells in the lung. Normal lung tissue is made up of cells that are programmed by genes to create lung tissue in a certain shape and to perform certain functions. Lung cancer develops when the genetic material responsible for production of lung cells is damaged (genetic mutations). Repeated exposure to carcinogens such as tobacco smoke may cause damage in lung cells. While tobacco, is the leading cause of lung cancer, some other carcinogens linked to lung cancer include radon and asbestos. These mutations in the genetic material of the lung cells cause the instructions for those cells to go askew. Consequently, those cells and their offspring reproduce wildly, without regard for the normal shape and function of a lung. That wild reproduction causes the formation of tumors that block air passages in the lung and make it stop functioning as it should. Lung cancer is usually divided into two major types. The first type is small cell lung cancer (SCLC). The second type is non-small cell lung cancer NSCLC. Sometimes a lung cancer may have characteristics of both types. This is called mixed small cell/large cell carcinoma. About 20% of all lung cancers are is small cell lung cancer (SCLC). It is named for the size of the cancer cells. Although each of the cells is small, they can multiply quickly and form large tumors, and can spread to lymph nodes and other organs such as the bones, brain, adrenal glands, and liver. This type of cancer often starts in the bronchi and toward the center of the lungs. Smoking almost always causes small cell lung cancer. It is very rare for someone who has never smoked to have small cell lung cancer. Other names for SCLC are oat cell carcinoma and small cell undifferentiated carcinoma. Nonsmall cell (NSCLC) represents 75% to 80% of all cases of lung cancer and includes three distinct types of lung cancer: squamous cell carcinoma, adenocarcinoma, and large cell carcinoma. These subtypes are grouped together and called "nonsmall cell lung cancer" because their pattern of spread and their treatment differ from small cell lung cancer, and when diagnosed at an early stage, may have the potential to be cured by surgery. In addition to the two main types of lung cancer, other tumors can occur in the lungs. Some of these are 2005-04-11T04:34:43-04:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/Lung-Cancer-Research-Paper--26473.aspx Please give a grade to this essay after reading/downloading this essay. Back to southern China 2000-3000 yrs ago, virologists generally believed that in domestication of ducks there, flu jumped species. A new virus is a cross-species transmission in which the virus has mutated from its animal vector so that it can infect human beings. Generally speaking, the most manifest examples are influenza and HIV (Human Immunodeficiency Virus) and the latest and the acutest case—SARS (Serve Acute Respiratory Syndrome). Back to the past, there were several calamitous cases which were all due to mutated viruses and caused a lot of death. From the history, around the whole planet, the “Russian flu” of 1889-1890 is thought to have slew 250,000 people in the whole Europe. In a more severe case, the “Spanish flu” of 1918, estimated to cause 40 million deaths in a year. In a later time, the virus dispersed to Philadelphia in USA and the deadly bug contributed a further death of 7,500 there. With the more advanced medical treatments and better sanitary condition, the aftermath of a new virus was greatly mastered and reduced, though virus does continue to mutate into a new species from original avian vectors. For instance, Hong Kong’s “bird flu” broke out in 1997. This virus was part human and part avian and its damage has much less obvious, compare to the first two cases. People over the world have a confidence that influenza virus will not be a great problem to our health anymore. However, most recently, a new plague break out in Hong Kong. Because of our confidence, the experts and scholars seem to underestimate the situation of it. However, the fear behind becomes more apparent. Will it be a minor analogy of “Russian flu” or “Spanish flu”? The SARS outbreak underlines the importance for early warning, given the threats that such rapidly transmitted new diseases pose. The disease could be spread to more countries if information is not made available. The SARS outbreak is an example—or a sign, a sign that shows any new break-out disease can pose certain degree of threat to us since we have no idea and information on what it is. “It is not as if viruses have suddenly got more muscular in the past two years” (TIME, Vol. 141 No. 13 P.58). The new 2005-04-06T09:20:40-04:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/Birth-of-a-Deadly-Bug-26470.aspx Objective Reality Tyler Ross 2-28-05 Computer Throughout man’s existence, we see questions arise upon certain topics. These questions are based upon answers of other questions, and everything becomes based upon itself. But it was Rene’ Descartes who first decided to doubt, to challenge, and to reject all that could be rejected. Suspicious of all that he was able, and skeptical of all, which might be criticized, Descartes fell upon his famous postulate, “I think therefore I am.” Although this theorem accounts for the existence of a perceiver, it leaves a trail of questions towards what is being perceived. Does Reality, as we know it, Exist? Or is our universe simply a phantasm? Is the existential really being perceived? Or is it simply a ploy in the mind of the perceiver? Query upon query leads us to the fundamental question. Does Objective Reality Exist? Objective Reality – (Lawrence D’ Olivero) “Objective Reality is that which remains true whether you believe it or not” (The Perception, which exists regardless of the perceiver) Throughout man’s existence, we see questions arise upon certain topics. These questions are based upon answers of other questions, and everything becomes based upon itself. But it was Rene’ Descartes who first decided to doubt, to challenge, and to reject all that could be rejected. Suspicious of all that he was able, and skeptical of all, which might be criticized, Descartes fell upon his famous postulate, “I think therefore I am.” Although this theorem accounts for the existence of a perceiver, it leaves a trail of questions towards what is being perceived. Does Reality, as we know it, Exist? Or is our universe simply a phantasm? Is the existential really being perceived? Or is it simply a ploy in the mind of the perceiver? Query upon query leads us to the fundamental question. Does Objective Reality Exist? This concept is one that is generally extremely hard to grasp by those not well versed in philosophy, or even in quantum physics. One common misconception is the notion that, if an attribute or object is perceived, it must exist. This is simply, not always the case. That said, I offer this example for clarification, before going on to contrast the viewpoints of Objective Reality and Monistic Idealism. Observe a green object, or any object with a notable color for that matter, in your vicinity. Although you perceive that object to be green, in reality, is it? Thinking objectively we come to 2005-04-04T18:55:42-04:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/Research-paper-on-Quantum-physics-and-Objective-Reality_-26465.aspx INTRODUCTION History of ATM Asynchronous Transfer Mode or ATM came about through the evolution of the Integrated Services Digital Network (ISDN) in the 1980's and the demand for high-speed packet communications. This extended further into the higher speed solution of Broadband ISDN with the intention to provide integrated broadband services such as high-speed telephone, data and video communications. In 1988, the International Telecommunications Union (ITU) defined ATM as the vehicle for B-ISDN with a view to it becoming the universal network transport. It is the ability to serve different service types, together with fast transmission rates and low overheads, which is leading to the widespread use of B-ISDN today. More information may be obtained from [Ref. 6] Efficiency Issues of a Transmission System In the transfer of data, whether it be voice, video or computer data it is common to use some form of compression technique in order to use the transmission medium efficiently. These data compression techniques commonly include some form of Run Length Encoding (RLE) to remove redundancy within a signal and thus reduce the bandwidth consumed by the transmission. Although, data compression is performed at a much higher level, ATM achieves its efficiency by making use of small, compact packets with a small header field, maximising the user information to system overhead ratio leading to higher data rates than other transmission mechanisms. Image and Video Compression Again in the late eighties, the MPEG standard for video compression was born and defined as a compression standard mainly for CD-ROM applications. This standard was closely followed by the MPEG-2 standard widely used today in the compression of pre-recorded video. Unlike M-JPEG compression, MPEG-2 works by predicting the movement of objects within a picture, producing a series of related frames each of which depends on a single start image. The relationships between frames can become very complex unlike those in M-JPEG compression, which may function independently or in a video stream. As MPEG compression is beyond the scope of this project more information on the mechanisms involved may be found in [Ref. 4, 5, 6]. Applications for ATM ATM has enough flexibility to provide transport for a wide range of services including audio, video and raw data. Not only may it accommodate any one of these, but also it may successfully accommodate a mixture of data types. Each type however has its own optimum transmission characteristics. Transfers such 2005-03-29T02:03:12-04:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/History-of-Asynchronous-Transfer-Mode-ATM-26457.aspx Environmental Effects of Global Warming In order to talk about global warming, we must first learn what causes the greenhouse effect. A lot of the rays from the sun are absorbed by water vapor that is naturally in our atmosphere. Water vapor accounts for "80 percent of natural greenhouse warming. The remaining 20 percent is due to other gasses that are present in very small amounts1". Carbon dioxide is also a big absorber of the sun's heat rays. Global warming will not just make sea levels rise, it will also affect sea life. Corals "are intolerant of temperatures just a few degrees warmer than usual7". Small increases in the temperature can kill corals. There have been problems with corals dying in the past few years because of increased water temperatures. Other marine life may migrate northward or southward because the waters are warmer. The warm water would make them think that they were in their natural habitat, when they were actually migrating toward the poles. Food would be scarce in their new habitat. Patterns of the circulation of sea water are disturbed by global warming. Cold water moves along the sea floor towards the equator and warm water around the equator moves toward the poles across the surface of the ocean. It is known as thermohaline circulation. It is a very important process concerning ocean life. This circulation process brings oxygenated water to the sea floor. If this did not happen, "water along the sea floor would become depleted of the oxygen organisms need to survive8". Fish, such as salmon, are also sensitive to the temperature of the water. During the summer when the water is warm, salmon have a higher metabolic rate. During the winter months, their metabolism slows down, which is good because less food is available. With global warming and increased water temperatures, salmon would have a higher metabolic rate, even if it were during the winter. Less food would be available for them and many salmon would die. Another impact of global warming will be that some diseases are likely to be spread more easily. Mosquitoes are a major carrier of tropical diseases. Malaria outbreaks are usually confined to "where the minimum winter temperature reaches no lower than 16 [degrees Celsius]," according to the World 2005-03-29T01:47:43-04:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/Environmental-Effects-of-Global-Warming-26450.aspx West Nile virus was first isolated from an adult woman in the West Nile District of Uganda in 1937. The ecology was characterized in Egypt in the 1950s. The virus became recognized as a cause of severe human meningoencephalitis (inflammation of the spinal cord and brain) in elderly patients during an outbreak in Israel in 1957. Equine disease was first noted in Egypt and France in the early 1960s. The first appearance of WN virus in North America in 1999, with encephalitis reported in humans and horses, and the subsequent spread in the United States may be an important milestone in the evolving history of this virus. West Nile Virus" is a flavivirus commonly found in Africa, West Asia, and the Middle East. It is closely related to St. Louis encephalitis virus found in the United States. The virus can infect humans, birds, mosquitoes, horses and some other mammals. While all residents of areas where virus activity has been identified are at risk of getting West Nile encephalitis; persons over 50 years of age have the highest risk of severe disease. It is unknown whether people suffering from autoimmune disorders are at increased risk for West Nile Virus. West Nile Virus is an "arbovirus" that causes encephalitis (inflammation to the brain). Blood-feeding insects such as mosquitoes transmit these viruses. Mosquitoes draw the virus from infected birds and transmit it to animals and humans through bites. During the incubation period the West Nile Virus multiplies in the persons' blood system and crosses the blood brain barrier to reach the brain. The virus interferes with normal central nervous system functioning and causes inflammation of brain tissue. A person contracting WNV is assumed to develop an immunity that will be lifelong, but it may wane in later years. Most infections with WNV have been identified in wild birds, but the virus can also infect horses, dogs, cats, domestic rabbits, domestic birds as well as humans. West Nile virus may be transmitted when an infected mosquito bites a human to take in blood. Mosquitoes become infected when they feed on infected birds, which may circulate the virus in their blood for a few days. The virus is located in the mosquito's salivary glands. During blood feeding, the virus may be injected into humans, where it can multiply and possibly cause illness. In addition, a recent investigation has confirmed West Nile Virus transmission through transplanted organs. Investigations of other 2005-03-29T01:36:11-04:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/West-Nile-Virus-Research-Paper-26444.aspx The Process of Bulk Movement 1. a) Bulk movement is the overall movement of a fluid. The molecules all move in the same direction. Diffusion however is the random movement of molecules which usually results in a fairly even distribution. In other words the movement is not guaranteed to move in one direction but the probability that it will move in the lower gradient is greater. Osmosis is similar to diffusion but is differentiated by the membrane's behavior. The cell membrane does allow water to move from higher to lower concentrations but does not allow solutes do that. b) Water potential is the capacity of water to move to a from a region where there is high water potential to low water potential. This action happens without the affect of outside forces. When outside actions due occur and they give water a high potential energy than the water will move to the region where less potential energy is. Hydrostatic pressure is the pressure required to stop water the movement of water. This is a method of measurement. The osmotic potential is the measure of tendency of water to move through a membrane which contains a solution. This occurs when a cell does not allow a hypertonic solution to leave the cell membrane. The cell begins to increase with water but the cell membrane can not release the solution and thus the water potential within the cell increases. This causes the water to no longer enter the cell. c) Hypotonic is less solute to a certain amount of water. Hypertonic is more solute to a certain amount of water. Isotonic is the equal amount of solutes in two different solutions. d) Endocytosis is the inward bulge causes by incoming molecules. Exocytosis is the expelling of a material outside a cell. e) Phagocytosis is the process where the cell obtains solid matter. This is different from the pinocytosis where the cell obtains liquid matter. These both are endocytic processes. Receptor-mediated endocytosis is the process where there are interactions between a material and receptor sites on the cell. In this process the cell accepts the material if it matches with the receptor sites. f) Coated pits are areas which peripheral proteins indent the membrane. This is where the vesicles for certain materials are formed. The vesicle which is formed is called the coated vesicle. g) Plasmodesmata are the links which hold two adjacent cells 2005-03-29T01:18:50-04:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/The-Process-of-Bulk-Movement-26434.aspx Abuse and Neglect Having a child is something that is supposed to be an experience that lasts a lifetime. Children need lots of attention when they are born, and they need to be properly taken care of by parents that are responsible and caring. As sad as it is there is a large problem with child neglect and abuse. I believe that every couple, or single parent that is going to raise a newborn should have to go through mandatory parenting classes before the child is born. I think that this will help parents to learn how to properly handle and raise their children. There are people all around the world that are unable to have kids, who would give anything for that chance. It’s truly a sad thing that some women find out that they are unable to bear children, when they really want to. Because of such things as abuse, there are babies that are found outside street corners with notes saying please take. With a list of over thousands of people waiting to even adopt kids, this is a sad thing going on. What’s even sadder is that there are people out there every day who take advantage of this. They have children and neglect to care for them. When children are growing up it’s the vital period of life in which they need the most attention. If they have parents that act like they want nothing to do with them then it leads to many problems down the road. Many studies have been done to show that children that are neglected are rougher on themselves. There are case studies from psychology that prove without love and nurture from your parents or elders, you are physically and mentally damaged for the rest of your life. Many of the largest murderers and serial killers known have been victims themselves of child abuse. It’s not a process that goes on when there younger, and when they grow up they suddenly forget about it. When a child is abused or neglected as a kid it sticks with them for the rest of their lives. There are many babies that are born to uneducated parents, who are not ready to bring another person into this world. They are parents who have no idea what it really takes to raise a child. These parents are the same parents who you see running with 2005-03-25T23:39:12-04:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/Essay-on-Abuse-and-Neglect-on-Children-26398.aspx About 1 out of 201 Caucasian people carries at least one of the fatal defective genes that cause cystic fibrosis, CF, or mucoviscidosis (in Europe) although carriers don't show any signs of the disease. Therefore, 10 million2 people carry the defective gene and aren't aware of it. Consequently, it makes it one of the most common genetic defect in the United States. CF is a autosomal recessive gene. That means that it may, but doesn't always skip generations. In order to get this disease, both parents must be carriers. If one parent has CF and the other one is not a carrier than there is a 100% chance that their child will be a carrier. If one parent has CF and the other is a carrier than the child has a 50% chance of having CF and a 50% chance of just being a carrier. If both parents are carriers than their child will have a 25% of having CF, a 50% chance of being a carrier and a 25% chance of not being affected. CF is common in both males and females, there is not a specific sex that it is more common in. How does a person know if they have CF? There are many symptoms to this deadly disease including: salty tasting skin, constant coughing, large amounts of mucus, trouble gaining weight, frequent greasy, foul smelling bowel, growths in the nose (nasal polyps) and clubbed or enlarged fingertips and toe tips is another symptom. Now there are many tests that can be done to find put if a person has CF. One way which CF can be detected is to observe the symptoms. A person doesn't need to have all the symptoms in order to have cystic fibrosis, but they usually show most of them. Another way are different genetic testing. Doctors can now do genetic testing for CF, but about 10 years ago they couldn't. In 1989, the location where the of the defective gene on chromosome number 7 is was discovered by Francis S. Collins from University of Michigan. Tests can now be taken to see if an unborn child is infected with CF such tests are amniocentesis, chronic villus biopsy3 and a removal of cells from the embryo during invitro. Many years ago, New York4 had a heat wave, and the hospitals became overwhelmed with dehydrated CF children. These children became dehydrated much quicker than children 2005-03-24T04:02:31-04:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/Cystic-Fibrosis--26397.aspx Nerve Agents: Tabun, Sarin, and Soman IV Now imagine that you are on a beach code-named OMAHA during World War II. As you travel inland from the beach, suddenly you see your commanding officer on the ground; he is dead but not from a bullet wound. After you take a few steps away from him you start to shake, very hard, then all of a sudden everything goes BLACK, into oblivion. You have just been a victim of one of the most deadly gases ever developed before or after World War II. Even though nerve agents were never used in World War II, if they had the outcome might have been very different. The creation and little known facts about nerve agents, like Tabun, Sarin, and Soman are very interesting. The development of, and original usage of the first nerve agent, proves very enlightening. This is an in depth look at some of the deadliest nerve agents ever created. Dr. Gehard Schrader, who was a pesticide specialist, in Leverkusen, Germany at the I.G. Farbindurstrie laboratory created the first nerve agent(“Chemistry of GA”). Schrader first created what he called Tabun on December 23, 1936(“Short History”). About one year later Schrader and his assistant started showing symptoms of meiosis, the contraction of the pupils of the eye, and they also had some shortness of breath. It was later said Schrader was lucky to escape with his life. On the more scientific side, the chemical structure contains five different atoms and they are seven carbons, eleven hydrogen, two nitrogen, two oxygen and phosphorus. What is unique is phosphorus is the center of the molecular structure(“Chemistry of GA”). The American classification of Tabun is GA; all nerve agents of this origin are called the G-series nerve agents. Schrader sent a sample of GA to the chemical warfare department in 1937,as for told in a Nazi decree in 1935, after his close call (“Short History”). Dr. Gerhard Schrader also created the second nerve agent in1938 at an undisclosed location in Germany(“Short History”). I was not able to find any information on its effects suffered by a person that has been exposed to Sarin. Sarin like Tabun has five atoms four carbon, ten hydrogen, fluorine, two oxygen and phosphorus, the chemical structure has phosphorus as the center(“Short History”). As there is no known use of Sarin in wartime, it is speculated that Sarin was used in a town during 2005-03-19T22:34:07-04:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/Nerve-Agents-Tabun,-Sarin,-and-Soman-IV-26378.aspx Color affects every moment of our lives although our color choices are mostly unconscious. Color has a great emotional impact on a person that comes out via the clothes we chose to wear, decorations to fill our homes, personality, foods we choose to eat and many more ways. It is possible to introduce colors to different areas of daily life to give off more energy, soothing affects, stimulate appetites and sexual motivation or even give a place a clean atmosphere. I asked thirty males from the ages of fifteen to sixty what color bra they would like to see their dream girl wearing to find out what colors are the most sexually stimulating. As I predicted, out of thirty, fourteen chose black, while four chose pink, red, blue and white were also chosen by three each and gray and purple were each favored by one person a piece. I also conducted an experiment to see what colors were stimulating on appetites. I added food coloring to make one flavor of Jell-O turn red, orange, yellow, green, blue, purple, brown, and pink. Out of fifteen total people, seven chose red, purple and pink were chosen by three a piece, and orange and green were chosen by one each. Blue can either be a calming color or a depressing color, depending on how much one is surrounded by. Although, blue most always has a pleasant association. Blue also is associated with a cool, cleansed, relaxed, calm, hopeful, protected, reassuring, trusting and accepting feeling. It inspires mental control, clarity and creativity. Blue has a direct effect on the autonomic nervous system, which helps calm and soothe humans. However, subconsciously it affects us because we associate blue with the night sky, so it makes us feel calm as though we are being soothed by the night sky. On the other hand, dark blue is sedative and too much can give off a feeling of depression. Blue is also an appetite suppressant. This is believed to be that due to the fact that nature does not create a blue food other than blueberries, therefore we do not have an automatic appetite response to blue. Actually, in a decorative perspective, blue is a spacious color that is most suited for deep thought and relief from a stressful, hectic life. If you wear blue, you may feel self-reliant, sensitive or intelligent. It promotes a good imagination and 2005-03-05T01:50:54-05:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/Psychological-Effects-of-Color-26357.aspx Tomas Izquierdo has not slept since 1945. Due to an attack of encephalitis, an inner brain inflammation, his ability to fall asleep was lost at the age of 13. Although he rests with his eyes closed, his brain patterns are those of someone who is fully awake and aware. He has memory problems and very sensitive eyes, but is otherwise completely normal. To relax, he usually uses transcendental meditation from about three or four AM until the morning (Coleman 94). Tomas Izquierdo is what one might call someone without circadian rhythms. Circadian rhythms are the daily sleep patterns of humans. Circadian rhythms tell people when they are most alert, when they feel tired, and when they should wake up. These circadian rhythms, while difficult to research, are important to many industries, as well as a multitude of sleep disorder patients. For several years, scientists and doctors have been seeking a greater understanding of these patterns through constant, difficult, and fast paced research. The applications of such knowledge would be quite beneficial in shift based industries as well as some special circumstances. As of yet, doctors have been able to determine a few important correlations between internal time cues and sleep, activities or events that give cues to the brain about what time it is or should be. However, the research is very difficult. Researching sleep is difficult for a variety of reasons. The first reason for difficulty is the nature of experimentation. To truly isolate the sleep patterns, all time-giving cues, or zietgebers, have to be eliminated. Light, electromagnetic waves, the schedules of researchers, and even the growth of a facial hair on outsiders may lead the subject to guess the time of day. The body can detect even the faintest cues of time, so it is incredibly important that the subject be completely shut off from time giving cues. If the subject of the research knows the time of day, he or she may adjust accordingly, skewing results and making it all but impossible to collect the data needed. Another reason for the difficulty of sleep research is the pace of discovery. The field moves too fast for its own good. As a result, no comprehensive beginner’s text is available in the field of circadian rhythms. By the time a book would go to print, too much important experimental evidence would have been released for it to be considered up to date. 2005-02-23T09:46:10-05:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/Circadian-Rhythm-and-Sleep--26334.aspx Sun Effects The Skin Since 1980s, that we have started hearing how bad the sunlight can be for the skin and it is surprising to see millions of people still lying on the beach every summer, or working out in the sun from days to days. In United States, more than 600,000 cases of skin cancer were been reported in 1999, most of them caused by too much exposure to ultraviolet rays from the sun. Can you believe that? Around 30,000 of these cases will be the most dangerous kind of cancer, called melanoma, a kind of skin cancer which is directly related to exposure to the sun, and approximately 6,500 people will die from it. These kinds of statistics should really make us a big impact of the dangers of the sunlight. Also, about one out of every six people will develop some form of skin cancer and more than 90 percent of those cases will be directly related to exposure to the sun. Part 2 Who is most likely to suffer from the most serious form of skin cancer? There are three major factors that raise a person's risk of getting melanoma. Firstly, there is a hereditary factor. Hereditary factors are factors we are born with- our general genetic makeup, such as our skin and hair color. In general, light-skinned, light-eyed people of northern European background are most likely to suffer from skin cancer. These people often have red or blond hair. In contrast, dark-haired Caucasians, Asians, and Hispanics suffer less from this disease, and dark-skinned people are 50 times less likely than light-skinned people to get skin cancer. Secondly, it is the environmental factor. Where we live seems to influence our chances of contracting the disease. Geography has the direct relationship with skin cancer. The further away, north or south, of the equator you are, the less likely you are to get skin cancer because the sunlight are not directly overhead, but instead hit the Earth at a softer angle. For example, someone who lives in southern Florida, where is fairly near the equator, is more likely to contract this disease than someone who lives in Alaska, where the sunlight are never directly overhead. This means that the rays take longer to reach the Earth, so the ozone layer of the Earth's atmosphere is able to stop more of the sun's dangerous ultraviolet light. One interesting topic I read recently that a 2005-02-20T05:26:34-05:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/The-Effects-of-Sun-on-Skin-such-as-Cancer,-etc_-26269.aspx Acupuncture: Chinese Medicine There is quite a bit of mystery surrounding acupuncture. The part people see the most is a person with needles sticking out of their flesh. Understandably being wary of sharp pointed objects being wielded by a complete stranger, this is often an obstacle that needs to be over come. The best way to do this is by becoming educated about how acupuncture is performed, where it came from, what it does, some of the benefits vs. the problems, and the different views about it. Though out the many different texts on acupuncture you find there is room for interpretation on how to perform it, what to use, and even where the pressure is placed. One thing you will find in common among these texts is this, acupuncture works to varying degrees. The earliest recordings of the use of acupuncture go back 2,000 years. In China it is widely expressed that it has been in use for 4,000 years. The origins go back as early as the Stone Age where abscesses were punctured by sharp stones or bone fragments. ( History ) When you experience pain it is an instinctive reaction to apply pressure to that location. Such as when you get a toothache. Also the body may experience pain where the infection is not localized. Your body naturally sends you warning signals that something is wrong. The Ancient Chinese utilized these warnings, and developed an intricate system of these points over time through observation. It is easy to infer that applying pressure to relive pain with your hands evolved into the use of needles instead. Tortoise shells have been found and dated back to 1500 B.C. – during the Shang Dynasty - recording the use of acupuncture. The first actual written text acclaiming acupuncture is called Nei Ching Su Wen. It is written into two basic sections. The Su Wen, or easy questions and the Lung Shu, or hard questions. This book basically lays out all the different points, but it is mostly a book on concept and theory. The Nei Ching Su Wen lays the basic rules of philosophy and treaties on health. These philosophies branched form two mainstream religions that abounded during the Warring States period in Chinese history. The first is Confucianism. The teachings of this “ religion “ stress that the body is scared and are against dissection or surgery. This makes acupuncture a perfect means 2005-02-14T06:14:29-05:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/Acupuncture-Chinese-Medicine-26263.aspx About Cell Organelles The studies of Robert Hooke 1665 into a plant material would allow the determination of a pore like regular structure surrounded by a wall of which he called ‘cells’ this in itself unbeknownst to him, was the discovery of the fundamental unit of all living things. In 1838 a botanist called Schleiden derived the theory ‘The basic unit of structure and function of all living organisms is the cell.’ Over 150 years later this can be regarded as one of the most familiar and important facts within the biological fields. Drawing of cork cells published by Robert Hooke 1665 The Cell itself and use of Cytology: The cell can be thought of as a bag in which the chemistry of life is allowed to occur, partially separated from the environment outside the cell, it exists within all living organisms as its basic structure. The study of cells is made possible through the use of ‘cytology’ the preparation of materials for examination through microscopes as an average animal cell exists on a scale of 10 microns roughly one hundredths of a millimetres. Originally light microscopy was used in this field but with the advancement of knowledge scientists were restricted to 200nm magnification, or 2 tenths of a micron. Realising the existence of cell organelles within the cell structure, allowing the function of the cell itself to occur; It was necessary to increase magnification by utilising an alternate source radiation (alternate to light).The result was the electron microscope, whereby the short wavelength and negative charge of electrons when supplied with energy allowed for greater focusing with electromagnetism. This method bends the path of the beam in the manner of a lens to light. Cell Organelles and the variation between Plant and Animal Cells: We have already determined the cell to be the foundation to all organisms, however the term cell is associative and categorises a wide variation. Every animal cell has a specified function whether it be the production of hair, mucus, or the process of other chemicals ( multiple reactions occur within a cell for other purposes i.e. creation of ATP, protein manufacture etc.) So from this we must examine the cell in more detail and determine what it is within the cell that creates it specialised function and separates it as an individual type. Plant cells vary from animal through the existence of certain organelles. Organelles are the 2005-02-03T00:52:41-05:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/Cell-Organelle-Overview--26252.aspx Since its inception, science relied on predictability and order. The true beauty of science was its uncanny ability to find patterns and regularity in seemingly random systems. For centuries the human mind as easily grasped and mastered the concepts of linearity. Physics illustrated the magnificent order to which the natural world obeyed. If there is a God he is indeed mathematical. Until the 19th century Physics explained the processes of the natural world successfully, for the most part. There were still many facets of the universe that were an enigma to physicists. Mathematicians could indeed illustrate patterns in nature but there were many aspects of Mother Nature that remained a mystery to Physicists and Mathematicians alike. Mathematics is an integral part of physics. It provides an order and a guide to thinking; it shows the relationship between many physical phenomenons. The error in mathematics until that point was linearity. “Clouds are not spheres, mountains are not cones, bark is not smooth, nor does lightning travel in a straight line.” - Benoit Mandlebrot. Was it not beyond reason that a process, which is dictated by that regularity, could master a world that shows almost no predictability whatsoever? A new science and a new kind of mathematics were developed that could show the universe’s idiosyncrasies. This new amalgam of mathematics and physics takes the order of linearity and shows how it relates to the unpredictability of the world around us. It is called Chaos Theory. The secular definition of chaos can be misleading when the word is used in a scientific context. As defined by Webster’s dictionary chaos is total disorder. That may lead one to believe that chaos theory is indeed the study of total disorder, which it truly is not. In 1986 at a prestigious conference on Chaos another definition for chaos was introduced. It is stochastic behavior occurring in a deterministic set. This definition of chaos was hesitantly brought forth. The scientists, mathematicians and intellectuals present were hesitant to define a concept they did not truly understand yet. They left the scientific community with a rather cryptic and oxymoronic definition of chaos. Deterministic sets behave by precise unbreakable law. Stochastic behavior is the opposite of deterministic it has no finite laws, it is totally dependant upon chance. The dissected definition of chaos is lawless behavior that is ruled entirely by law. (Stewart 16-17) The principles of Chaos Theory are 2005-02-03T00:50:55-05:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/Chaos-Theory--26251.aspx Vegetated sand ridges called dunes, built up by dry beach sand blown inland and trapped by plants and other obstructions, back most beaches. As sand accumulates, the dunes become higher and wider. Plants play a vital role in this process, acting as a windbreak and trapping the deposited sand particles. A characteristic of these plants is their ability to grow up through the sand and continually produce new stems and roots as more sand is trapped and the dune grows. Stable sand dunes play an important part in protecting the coastline. They act as a buffer against wave damage during storms, protecting the land behind from salt-water intrusion. This sand barrier allows the development of more complex plant communities in areas protected from salt-water inundation, sea spray and strong winds. The dunes also act as a reservoir of sand, to replenish and maintain the beach at times of erosion. Frontal sand dunes are vulnerable. The vegetation can be destroyed by natural causes such as storms, cyclones, droughts or fire, or by human interference such as clearing, grazing, vehicles or excessive foot traffic. If the vegetation cover is damaged strong winds may cause 'blowouts' or gaps in the dune ridge. Unless repaired, these increase in size, the whole dune system sometimes-migrating inland covering everything in its path. Meanwhile, with a diminished reservoir of sand, erosion of the beach may lead to coastal recession. To avoid this, protecting the vegetation is vital. The beach, between high and low tides, is hard-wearing but the sensitive dunes, which we cross to reach it, must be protected also. For this reason damaged and sensitive dunes might need to be fenced and access tracks for vehicles and people provided. Processes such as waves, near shore currents and tides continually modify shorelines. The ability of beaches to maintain themselves is achieved through these natural forces. The natural process of beach renourishment, sometimes called "dynamic equilibrium", is how the beach responds to weather. When waves are high during storms or when hurricanes hit the shore, sand is carried from the beach and deposited on the ocean floor. This makes the ocean bottom flatter and makes waves break further from shore and smaller. During subtle weather or erosion, smaller waves slowly shift the sand back to the shore and replenish the beach. When people build homes or resorts on beaches, the buildings interrupt this natural process because the sand that is usually taken 2005-02-02T09:34:18-05:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/Beach-Dune-Erosion--26239.aspx BATTERY RESEARCH PAPER There are many kinds of batteries which consist of different materials in order to produce an electric charge. Here are some of the most common batteries, what they consist of and how they work. Bichromate Cell (see picture # 1) A battery is a device which converts chemical energy into electrical energy. A battery usually consists of two or more cells connected in series or parallel, you can also have a single cell battery. All cells consist of a positive electrode, and a negative electrode. An electrolyte is a liquid substance capable of conducting electricity. In this substance one of the electrodes will react producing electrons, while the other will except electrons. When the electrodes are connected to a device to be powered, called a load, an electrical current flows. Batteries where the chemicals cannot be returned to their original form once the energy has been converted (that is, batteries that have been discharged) are called primary cells or voltaic cells. Batteries in which the chemicals can be returned to its original form by passing an electric current through them in the direction opposite that of normal cell operation are called secondary cells, rechargeable cells, storage cells, or accumulators. Dry Cell Battery(see picture # 2) This is the most common battery that people use today like Energizer or Duracle batteries. The most common form of a primary cell is the Leclanche cell, invented by a French chemist Georges Leclanche in the 1860s. The electrolyte for this battery consisted of a mixture of ammonium chloride and zinc chloride made into a paste. The negative electrode is zinc, and is the outside shell of the cell, and the positive electrode is a carbon rod that runs through the center of the cell. This rod is surrounded by a mixture of carbon and manganese dioxide. This battery produces about 1.5 volts. Another widely used primary cell is the zinc-mercuric-oxide cell, more commonly called a mercury battery. It can be made in the shape of a small flat disk and is used in this form in hearing aids, and electric wristwatches. The negative electrode consists of zinc, the positive electrode is of mercuric oxide, and the electrolyte is a solution of potassium hydroxide. The mercury battery produces about 1.34 volts. The fuel cell is another type of primary cell. It is unique in that the chemicals aren\'t contained within the cell but 2005-01-20T08:13:30-05:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/Research-Paper-on-Various-Types-of-Batteries-26172.aspx An Overview of Bacterial Life and Its Place in the Ecosystem Bacteria are often maligned as the causes of human and animal disease (like this one, Leptospira, which causes serious disease in livestock). However, certain bacteria, the actinomycetes, produce antibiotics such as streptomycin and nocardicin; others live symbiotically in the guts of animals (including humans) or elsewhere in their bodies, or on the roots of certain plants, converting nitrogen into a usable form. Bacteria put the tang in yogurt and the sour in sourdough bread; bacteria help to break down dead organic matter; bacteria make up the base of the food web in many environments. Bacteria are of such immense importance because of their extreme flexibility, capacity for rapid growth and reproduction, and great age - the oldest fossils known, nearly 3.5 billion years old, are fossils of bacteria-like organisms. Bacteria grow in a wide variety of habitats and conditions. When most people think of bacteria, they think of disease-causing organisms, like the Streptococcus bacteria growing in culture in this picture, which were isolated from a man with strep throat. While pathogenic bacteria are notorious for such diseases as cholera, tuberculosis, and gonorrhea, such disease-causing species are a comparatively tiny fraction of the bacteria as a whole. Bacteria are so widespread that it is possible only to make the most general statements about their life history and ecology. They may be found on the tops of mountains, the bottom of the deepest oceans, in the guts of animals, and even in the frozen rocks and ice of Antarctica. One feature that has enabled them to spread so far, and last so long is their ability to go dormant for an extended period. Bacteria have a wide range of envronmental and nutritive requirements. Most bacteria may be placed into one of three groups based on their response to gaseous oxygen. Aerobic bacteria thrive in the presence of oxygen and require it for their continued growth and existence. Other bacteria are anaerobic, and cannot tolerate gaseous oxygen, such as those bacteria which live in deep underwater sediments, or those which cause bacterial food poisoning. The third group are the facultative anaerobes, which prefer growing in the presence of oxygen, but can continue to grow without it. Bacteria may also be classified both by the mode by which they obtain their energy. Classified by the source of their energy, bacteria fall into two categories: 2005-01-20T08:12:38-05:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/The-Dirt-on-Bacteria--26171.aspx Cancer Today there are one in three people worldwide who are affected by cancer, and almost 60% of these people will almost certainly die. 7000 New Zealanders die every year from this disease. It is the second largest killer next to heart disease. Cancer does not just affect certain groups of people, it can affect anybody and it is not just one disease, it refers to more than a hundred diseases. Cancer is caused by carcinogens. At present, hundreds of chemicals are known to induce cancer. Normally, the body’s cells divide in an orderly way, allowing the body to grow and to heal after injury. Damage or mutations that occur to the proto-oncogenes (POG) and tumour suppresser Genes (TSG) in the genetic material (DNA and RNA) by these carcinogens bring about Cancer, which causes cells to have less control of cell division and differentiation. POGs lead to changed cells or transformed cells and cause excessive cell division. Further mutations cause the cells to become immortal. These cells continue to divide and form a ball of cells. These cells require a lot of energy and fluids flowing to maintain the high rate of the cell division. When these balls become too large for fluids to flow through, the middle of the ball dies. TSG’s act as anti-proto-oncogenes, they regulate the rate of cell division. POG’s and TSG’s constantly compete to overpower each other. These TSG’s can be mutated and this brings about a change in the control mechanism of cell division. Cells are stimulated to divide through a growth factor. Growth factor molecules bind to cell membranes of cells and send a chemical message to a receptor in the cell membrane. The receptor sends a message through the cytoplasm to the nucleus to stimulate cell division. Sometimes when these growth factors are absent the receptor in the cell membrane is mutated to send out the message to the nucleus. Cells are also stimulated to divide through the two proteins, cyclins and cyclin-dependent kinases. When these two join together, this stimulates cell division. These proteins act on the growth inhibitor proteins P53 and PRP, which are growth inhibitor proteins. Tumours may be malignant, spreading or benign, non-spreading. Malignant tumours are aggressive, invasive, and mobile. They invade healthy tissue and continue to divide. The original cancer is called the primary tumour. If the tumour is malignant, the disease may develop in other parts 2005-01-19T08:32:14-05:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/An-Overview-of-Cancer-and-Its-Widespread-Effects-26165.aspx What is Fetal Alcohol Syndrome (FAS)? FAS is the leading cause of mental retardation in the U.S. today. FAS affects approximately 1 in every 500 born in North America. Mother drinking alcoholic beverages during pregnancy causes FAS. FAS is characterized by: · Smaller heads · Deformed facial features (small widely spaced eyes, underdeveloped jaw, thin upper lip, and short upturned nose). · Abnormal joints and limbs- these include deformities of the small joints of the hands as well as an incomplete rotation at the elbow. · Poor coordination · Problems with learning- difficulty sequencing, difficulty understanding cause and effect, and weak generalizing skills. · Short memories · Medical problems- vision problems, hearing problems, epilepsy, renal failure, heart failure, and death. · Inappropriate behavior- poor impulse control and poor judgement. How FAS Affects Functioning In School: Beginning with infancy, the children have problems at feeding and are highly irritable. They also exhibit unpredictable sleeping and eating patterns, which make it hard for the baby to be cared for and for maternal bonding to occur. During development, both physical and mental, FAS children have very fine and poor motor coordination skills and it becomes very apparent at the preschool age. They also are very affectionate but at the same time very hyperactive, which makes it a problem for the teachers who have them in class to deal with. This is why they are, during the first few years of school, given the diagnoses of having attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD): this diagnoses is given because of there high activity level, short attention span, and poor short term memory. Many of these children require special education help regardless of the fact that their IQ falls between the normal range. Their hyperactivity calls for them to receive special attention that normal teachers cannot and at most times will not give them. As FAS children grow into FAS adults, their level of development and how they developed begins to show in everything they do. Since their social and mental health has been compromised as adults they exhibit inadequate communication skills, impulsivity, poor judgement, trouble with abstract thinking, and limited problem solving skills. With all these problems they often have difficulty holding down a job because of their unreliability, lack of social skills, and functional illiteracy. Without appropriate support services, these individuals have a high risk of developing secondary disabilities such as mental illness, getting into trouble with 2005-01-19T08:30:51-05:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/Essay-on-Fetal-Alcohol-Syndrome-FAS-26164.aspx Big Bang Effect It is always a mystery about how the universe began, whether if and when it will end. Astronomers construct hypotheses called cosmological models that try to find the answer. There are two types of models: Big Bang and Steady State. However, through many observational evidences, the Big Bang theory can best explain the creation of the universe. The Big Bang model postulates that about 15 to 20 billion years ago, the universe violently exploded into being, in an event called the Big Bang. Before the Big Bang, all of the matter and radiation of our present universe were packed together in the primeval fireball—an extremely hot dense state from which the universe rapidly expanded.1 The Big Bang was the start of time and space. The matter and radiation of that early stage rapidly expanded and cooled. Several million years later, it condensed into galaxies. The universe has continued to expand, and the galaxies have continued moving away from each other ever since. Today the universe is still expanding, as astronomers have observed. The Steady State model says that the universe does not evolve or change in time. There was no beginning in the past, nor will there be change in the future. This model assumes the perfect cosmological principle. This principle says that the universe is the same everywhere on the large scale, at all times.2 It maintains the same average density of matter forever. There are observational evidences found that can prove the Big Bang model is more reasonable than the Steady State model. First, the redshifts of distant galaxies. Redshift is a Doppler effect which states that if a galaxy is moving away, the spectral line of that galaxy observed will have a shift to the red end. The faster the galaxy moves, the more shift it has. If the galaxy is moving closer, the spectral line will show a blue shift. If the galaxy is not moving, there is no shift at all. However, as astronomers observed, the more distance a galaxy is located from Earth, the more redshift it shows on the spectrum. This means the further a galaxy is, the faster it moves. Therefore, the universe is expanding, and the Big Bang model seems more reasonable than the Steady State model. The second observational evidence is the radiation produced by the Big Bang. The Big Bang model predicts that the universe should 2005-01-19T08:28:55-05:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/Big-Bang-Effect-and-the-Creation-of-the-Universe-26163.aspx Presentation Dialogue SOLAR ENERGY. All life on Earth depends on energy from the sun. Solar energy is the source of energy for photosynthesis. It provides the warmth necessary for plants and animals to survive. The heat from the sun causes water on the Earth's surface to evaporate and form clouds that eventually provide fresh rainwater. Solar energy is the result of thermonuclear fusion reactions deep within the sun. These reactions produce so much energy that they keep the surface temperature of the sun at about 10,300B0F (5,700B0C). Even though solar energy is the largest source of energy received by the Earth, its intensity at the Earth's surface is actually very low due to the large distance betwee n the Earth and the sun and the fact that the Earth's atmosphere absorbs and scatters some of the radiation. Even on a clear day with the sun directly overhead, the energy that reaches the Earth's surface is reduced about 30 percent by the atmosphere. When the sun is near the horizon and the sky is overcast, the solar energy at ground level can be negligible. It also varies from one point to another on the Earth's surface. Nevertheless, in the 20th century, the sun's energy has become an increasingly attractive source for small amounts of direct power to meet human needs. A number of devices for collecting solar energy and converting it into electricity have been developed, and solar energy is used in a variety of ways. Solar energy is used to heat houses, and in many countries specially designed solar ovens are used for cooking. The sun also supplies energy to electric generators that provide power for weather and communications satellites and for radio and television equipment. Because the intensity of the sun's radiation at the surface of the Earth is so low, collectors designed to capture solar energy must be large. In the sunniest parts of the continental United States, for example, in orde r for a collector to gather enough energy to serve one person for one day, the area of the collector's surface must be about 430 square feet (40 square meters). The actual energy that can be used depends on the efficiency of the collector and of the device that converts the radiation into usable energy. Flat-plate collectors. The most common flat-plate collectors consist of a dark metal plate, covered with one or two sheets of glass, that absorbs heat. The heat 2004-12-29T06:58:37-05:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/Presentation-on-Solar-Energy-26096.aspx Charles Darwin proposed the theory of evolution to explain the origin, diversity and complexity of life. I will will disprove evolution by showing that natural selection only explains small evolutionary changes, collectively known as microevolution. Natural selection cannot drive large evolutionary changes, macroevolution. I will also show that the primordial soup, in which life supposedly evolved, did not exist. Neo-Darwinism incorporates the discoveries of modern science into Darwin's original theory while leaving the basic beliefs intact. Darwin proposed that individuals with favorable traits are more likely to survive and reproduce. Darwin called this process natural selection. Darwin did not understand how or why variation existed. Today scientists realize that variation arises through random changes (called mutations) to existing genes. Genes are the chemicals that determine the traits and characteristics of animals and plants. Every trait has one or more gene associated with it. Thus, natural selection provides the animals and plants with the best genes. Supporters of neo-Darwinism believe that natural selection operating upon random variation gave rise rise to all animals and plants. While the source of variation is random, the direction of evolution is not. In effect, natural selection removes chance, and it makes the theory of evolution plausible. If neo-Darwinism is correct then numerous small successive changes guided by natural selection gave rise to all animals and plants. I will prove that natural selection is not a creative process. Its primary function is to preserve the status quo. Thus, new structures and organs must arise through chance. Natural selection can only preserve and optimize these new structures and organs after they evolve through chance. In other words, natural selection does not drive evolution, and the hypothesis on which neo-Darwinism is based is flawed. Natural selection drives microevolution. Microevolution is defined as evolution involving small changes. Microevolution does not require the evolution of new structures or organs, Therefore, microevolution does not involve the creation of new genes. Changes to existing genes (mutations) result in variation. Natural selection acts on this variation and preserves the best. So while the variation may be random, the process of microevolution is not. Natural selection preserves favorable variations at the expense of less favorable variations. This process optimizes existing genes. Natural selection forces animals and plants to adapt. Microevolution happens, and it has been observed in numerous scientific experiments. The real question is not whether or not microevolution happens. It does, but can microevolution be extended to explain large evolutionary 2004-12-29T06:54:20-05:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/Darwinism-Research-Paper-26093.aspx Antibiotic Resistance in Bacteria For over 50 years, antibiotics have been the answer to many bacterial infections. Antibiotics are chemical substances that are secreted by living things. Doctors prescribed these medicines to cure many diseases. During World War II, it treated one of the biggest killers during wartime - infected wounds. It was the beginning of the antibiotic era. But just when antibiotics were being mass produced, bacteria started to evolve and became resistant to these medicines. Antibiotic resistance can be the result of different things. One cause of resistance could be drug abuse. There are people who believe that when they get sick, antibiotics are the answer. The more times you use a drug, the more it will decrease the effect it has on you. That is because the bacteria has found a way to avoid the effects of that antibiotic. Another cause of resistance is the improper use of drugs. When patients feel that the symptoms of their disease have improved, they often stop taking the drug. Just because the symptoms have disappeared it does not mean the disease has gone away. Prescribed drugs should be taken until all the medicine is gone so the disease is completely finished. If it is not, then this will just give the bacteria some time to find a way to avoid the effects of the drug. One antibiotic that will always have a long lasting effect in history is penicillin. This was the first antibiotic ever to be discovered. Alexander Fleming was the person responsible for the discovery in 1928. In his laboratory, he noticed that in some of his bacteria colonies, that he was growing, were some clear spots. He realized that something had killed the bacteria in these clear spots, which ended up to be a fungus growth. He then discovered that inside this mold was a substance that killed bacteria. It was the antibiotic, penicillin. Penicillin became the most powerful germ-killer known at that time. Antibiotics kill disease-causing bacteria by interfering with their processes. Penicillin kills bacteria by attaching to their cell walls. Then it destroys part of the wall. The cell wall breaks apart and bacteria dies. After four years, when drug companies started to mass produce penicillin, in 1943, the first signs of penicillin-resistant bacteria started to show up. The first bacteria that fought penicillin was called Staphylococcus aureus. This bug is usually harmless 2004-12-28T07:30:13-05:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/Antibiotic-Resistance-in-Bacteria-26064.aspx Stem Cell Research One of the most popular clinical studies being researched these days is stem cell transplantation. Until recently, moral issues of states and countries haven't allowed research to expound deeply into the unknowns. Within the last ten years though, scientists have made leaps and bounds in finding out concrete facts that this stem cell research has supplied. Tommy G. Thompson, Secretary of Health Services states, "I believe it will open up a world of opportunity for scientists, not only at the NIH, but elsewhere, because it demonstrates a cooperative atmosphere among academia, the private sector, and government that will allow us to move ahead" ("sign stem"1). New ways of conducting stem cell research have made the healing and repairing treatment for many diverse applications. To prove their point, scientists have broken down the basic facts of their studies throughout the last ten years. Embryonic stem cell transplantation is a related course of cells that are in charge of certain functions and systems of the body. The cells used in the transplantation process are contrived from "cryopreserved suspensions" from the fetal liver, thymus, bone marrow, spleen, brain, and the pancreas. Introducing these cells to the body can be approached in different ways. The first step taken is engrafting or multiplying cells in the affected area. These cells will then supplement missing or declining cells and replace/repair missing functions of the body. Production then commences with considerable amounts of biologically active substances such as nerve growth factor, tumor necrosis factor and interleukins etc. When these cells have been transplanted, they are capable of migrating, establishing intercellular links and responding to various effects. However, because of their immature transplantation to the human body, these cells cause a weaker immune response than mature cells. Alexander Smikodub, a doctor of Medical Science at the National Medical University states, "cells that we use are not considered by the immune system of the recipient as foreign, therefore, they can survive, multiply, and develop full function in the body of a new host" Smikodub). These cells can then survive and multiply, capable of lasting for months and years in the body of the recipient. In the areas where tissue or organs have been damaged or lost, they substitute the lack of functional activities. These cells can also produce new generations of cells that are needed by 2004-12-26T01:02:14-05:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/Stem-Cell-Research--26049.aspx Prolonged Preservation of the Heart Prior to Transplantation, Biochemistry Essay Picture this. A man is involved in a severe car crash in Florida which has left him brain-dead with no hope for any kind of recovery. The majority of his vital organs are still functional and the man has designated that his organs be donated to a needy person upon his untimely death. Meanwhile, upon checking with the donor registry board, it is discovered that the best match for receiving the heart of the Florida man is a male in Oregon who is in desperate need of a heart transplant. Without the transplant, the man will most certainly die within 48 hours. The second man's tissues match up perfectly with the brain-dead man's in Florida. This seems like an excellent opportunity for a heart transplant. However, a transplant is currently not a viable option for the Oregon man since he is separated by such a vast geographic distance from the organ. Scientists and doctors are currently only able to keep a donor heart viable for four hours before the tissues become irreversibly damaged. Because of this preservation restriction, the donor heart is ultimately given to someone whose tissues do not match up as well, so there is a greatly increased chance for rejection of the organ by the recipient. As far as the man in Oregon goes, he will probably not receive a donor heart before his own expires. Currently, when a heart is being prepared for transplantation, it is simply submerged in an isotonic saline ice bath in an attempt to stop all metabolic activity of that heart. This cold submersion technique is adequate for only four hours. However, if the heart is perfused with the proper media, it can remain viable for up to 24 hours. The technique of perfusion is based on intrinsically simple principles. What occurs is a physician carefully excises the heart from the donor. He then accurately trims the vessels of the heart so they can be easily attached to the perfusion apparatus. After trimming, a cannula is inserted into the superior vena cava. Through this cannula, the preservation media can be pumped in. What if this scenario were different? What if doctors were able to preserve the donor heart and keep it viable outside the body for up to 24 hours instead of only four hours? If this were possible, the heart in Florida 2004-12-22T23:11:11-05:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/Prolonged-Preservation-of-the-Heart-Prior-to-Transplantation-26011.aspx Chemical Waste Disposal A captain of a ship drunkenly crashes a massive oil tanker along a reef and changes the physical and emotional world forever. Chemical spills are major problems that plague the environment. Strict government regulation is trying to aid with this problem, but governmental leaders face many challenges. Disposal of harmful chemicals is often difficult and costly. Since chemical waste has destroyed the environment, steps are being taken to prevent further pollution. A local Danish based pharmaceutical company named Novo Nordisk released its 1999 environmental report. The company, which strives to keep from contaminating the environment, confessed to two separate accidents for the year. Novo Nordisk’s Clayton, North Carolina plant was fined from the United States Department of Agriculture 1,000 dollars. This was due to the fact that 11,000 liters of hydrochloric acid was disposed of in the public sewage system (“Putting Values” 36). New management has taken action to insure this does not happen again (Wall). Also, at the Gentofte site in Denmark wastewater with the E- Coli bacteria was drained into the public sewage system from a leaky heater exchanger (“Putting Values” 36). The incident was reported to the local authorities and cleaned up quickly. A local company offered to donate expired chemicals to local schools. The company reported it would be possible to set up an account for almost any needy school (Wall). The chemicals have expired in the date in which they can be used but, as one expert reported would be fine to use in schools for experiments and related activities. The companies prefer to donate the chemicals because it keeps them from the costly action of disposing of them properly. For example Novo Nordisk in Clayton, North Carolina has a program in which they donate hydrochloric acid and other expired chemicals to Clayton High School (Wall). A chemistry Starling 2 teacher at North Johnston High School was unaware that companies could donate their expired chemicals. Her comment of the quality of the expired chemicals was positive. “Expired chemicals would be fine to use for experiments and help me out a lot due to the small budget I am allowed each year for chemicals” (Barnes). A representative from Novo Nordisk stated that a program could easily be established if schools would show interest in the program (Wall). Certain disasters stick out in the mind of men. They have a lasting effect and often they 2004-12-22T23:09:42-05:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/Chemical-Waste-Disposal--26010.aspx Who are the Real Parents? Are parents those who give birth to a child or those who care for a child? Does nature or nurture make a woman a mother? As more and more heartbreaking tugs-of-war between biological and adoptive parents surface, anyone searching for a baby has good reason for concern (Casey 119). Baby Jessica was raised from infancy by adoptive parents, Jan and Roberta DeBoer. For two and a half years Jessica was at the heart of one of the most bitter custody battles in America, caught between the parents in Michigan who reared her and the parents in Iowa who gave birth to her and wanted her back (Ingrassia and Springen 60). Cara and Dan Schmidt took screaming baby Jessica from her home in 1993 when they won their court battle to get her back (Casey 119). Baby Jessica is just one of the many victims of child custody battles in America. Jane and John Doe adopted a baby boy, Richard in March of 1991. Richard's biological mother, Daniela Kirchner, gave up her son while her boyfriend, Otakar, was out of the country visiting his family. He had left Daniela just two weeks before Richard's birth. Daniela had heard rumors that Otakar had been cheating on her with another woman, in Czechoslovakia, so she decided to lie to him about their baby, Richard. She told Otakar that Richard had died just four days after his birth. In May of 1991 Otakar returned to Chicago and the couple reconciled. Daniela told him about the adoption of their son and how she lied to him about his death. Eighty days after Richard's birth, Otakar challenged the adoption. He claimed that he had no knowledge of his son until his return to the US and now he wanted his son back desperately (Ingrassia and McCormick 44). The Does met in seventh grade in a suburban Chicago school but didn't start dating until they were in their early twenties. Married in 1979, Jane, a paralegal, and John and a son. They say that they had not sought to adopt another child but were "bowled over" by that first call about Richard. Never did they expect that legal briefs and litigation would dominate their lives for the next three years (Alexander 40). After three and a half years of court battle, baby Richard was torn away from his adoptive parents where he had 2004-12-22T23:05:58-05:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/What-makes-a-Parent-a-Parent-Adoption-vs_-Birth-26009.aspx The Effects of Biological Weapons on the Past and Presents Society Thesis: Biological Warfare is morally and inhumanely wrong, It is the wrongful killing of men, women, and children. It should be stopped no matter what the circumstances are. I. Introduction into the bad effects of biological warfare through some examples. a. Example of single affect of biological warfare b. Example of a country using Biological Warfare II. Definition of Biological Warfare a. Biological Warfare Agents i. Micro-Organisms ii. Toxins b. History of biological warfare i. Definition ii. Affects it has on people III. Reasons why biological warfare should be stopped. a. Biological weapons are inhumane. b. Impossible to control or predict its effect. c. Pollutes the environment d. Genetic Mutation IV. Countries that still produce biological weapons V. Biological and Toxins Convention VI. Conclusion The Effects of Biological Weapons on the Past and Presents Society In 1978, a popular writer and Bulgarian exile by the name of Georgi Markov was going on his way to work in the British Broadcasting Corporation, which is better known as BBC, where he broadcasted to his homeland from a station named Radio Free Europe. While he was walking he felt a sudden sharp pain in his leg. When he turned around he observed a man picking up an umbrella. The man apologized for what he had done and kept on walking. Georgi Markov became sick that night and died a couple of days later. The autopsy that was conducted on the body uncovered a small pellet that had a coat of ricin on it, which is a biological poison (Mayer, p 4). Throughout the early 1900’s, Great Britain was developing a biological weapon program. It all started because Great Britain was afraid that Germany and Japan had a great advantage in biological technology in comparison to them. They were testing to see the range of spread of the anthrax spores. Great Britain tested its weapons on the coast of the Island of Gruinard in Scotland were they thought it was far enough from they coast so it would not contaminate or hurt the mainland. In the year of 1943 throughout many experiments that were conducted it was proven that sheep and cattle were affected with anthrax. The British government thought of decontaminating the island that that meant that they had to brushfire they entire island to kill all of 2004-12-22T23:04:21-05:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/The-Effects-of-Biological-Weapons-on-the-Past-and-Present-26008.aspx What is air pressure and how is it measured? Air is composed of molecules. Air is matter. It has mass and takes up space. Air is composed of different gases such as nitrogen, oxygen, carbon dioxide, water vapor, and other gases. Air molecules are in constant motion. As they move, they come in contact with surfaces. Air molecules push and press on the surfaces they contact. The amount of force per unit area that air molecules exert on a surface is called air pressure. (What is Air Pressure 6) Air pressure is caused by all of the air molecules in the Earth's atmosphere pressing down on the Earth's surfaces. We can measure air pressure to help us predict weather conditions around the world. Temperature also affects air pressure because air contracts when it cools and expands when it is heated. So if air above a region of Earth cools, it does not extend to as high an altitude as the surrounding air. In this case, its pressure at higher temperature is lower than in the surroundings even when the pressure at the surface is the same as in surrounding areas. Then air flows into the cooler region at high altitude, making the total weight of air above the region greater than in the surroundings. This is a "high". The cool air descends to the earth's surface. Near the surface, the falling air spreads out, spiraling clockwise in the northern hemisphere. The opposite happens where air is warmed by the sun or by the Earth's surface temperature. The resulting rising air is above a "low." Near the surface, air flows into the "low" to replace the rising air, spiraling counter-clockwise (Atmosphere 26). Highs and lows react to each other causing a variety of conditions. Driving up or down a mountain leads to a reduction or increase of air pressure in the outer part of the ear, creating a pressure difference across the eardrum, which separates the outer ear from the middle ear. The difference distorts the eardrum, so that sounds are muffled (What is Air Pressure 9). However, this can be taken care of by swallowing air and opening the Eustachian tube between the middle ear and the nasal cavity, which in turn is joined to the mouth. The air along the tube suddenly equalizes pressures across the eardrum, which consequently pops back to its normal shape, 2004-12-22T23:03:05-05:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/What-is-Air-Pressure-and-How-is-it-Measured-26007.aspx What is Gynecomastia? Definition Gynecomastia is a common disease of the male breast where there is a benign glandular enlargement of that breast at some time in the male's life. It usually consists of the appearance of a flat pad of glandular tissue beneath a nipple which becomes tender at the same time. The development may be unilateral or bilateral. There is rarely a continued growth of the breast tissue; ordinarily the process is of brief duration and stops short of the production of permanent enlargement of the breast. Causes A great number of patients who suffer from this disease have a disturbance in the proper ratio of androgen and estrogen levels. The normal ratio of the two hormones in plasma is approximately 100:1. "The etiology of gynecomastia in patients with a known documented cause appears to be related to increased estrogen stimulation, decreased testosterone levels, or some alteration of the estrogens and androgen so that the androgen-estrogen ratio is decreased"(Williams 373). From this information it was discovered that there is also a lower ratio of weaker adrenal androgens (delta 4-androstenedione and dehydroepiandrosterone) found in youths with this disease. It was once believed that there was an imbalance in the ratios of testosterone to estrogen or estradiol, but this is now know to be untrue. There are three areas the can be attributed to the cause of gynecomastia: physiologic, pathologic and pharmacologic. "Enlargement of the male breast can be a normal physiologic phenomenon at certain stages of life or the result of several pathologic states."(Isselbacher, 2037) In the case of physiologic gynecomastia the disease can occur in a newborn baby, at puberty or at any time in a man's life. In the newborn, transient enlargement of the breast is due to the action of maternal and/or placental estrogens. The enlargement usually disappears within a few weeks. Adolescent gynecomastia is common during puberty with the onset at the median age of 14. It is often asymmetrical and frequently tender. It regresses so that by the age of 20 only a small number of men have palpable vestiges of gynecomastia in one or both the breasts. Gynecomastia of aging also occurs in otherwise healthy men. Forty percent or more of aged men have gynecomastia. One explanation is the increase in age in the conversion of androgens to estrogens in extra- glandular tissues. Drug therapy and abnormal liver functioning 2004-12-22T23:02:08-05:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/A-Detailed-Explanation-of-Gynecomastia-26006.aspx Explain the process of Cellular Reproduction Cellular Reproduction is the process by which all living things produce new organisms similar or identical to themselves. This has to happen because if a species were not able to reproduce, that species would quickly become extinct. Reproduction consists of a basic pattern: the conversion by a parent organism of raw materials into offspring or cells that will later develop into offspring. The reproductive process, whether asexual or sexual always involves an exchange in hereditary material from the parents so that the new organism may also be able to reproduce. Reproductive processes can be categorized into either asexual reproduction or sexual reproduction. Asexual reproduction is any form of reproduction that does not require the union of male and female reproductive material (sperm or egg). Most single celled organisms reproduce by the asexual process known as fission, which is commonly called mitosis. Fission is The splitting of a nucleus into two roughly equal parts accompanied by the release of a pretty large amount of energy. Interphase, the first phase of the cell cycle and also the phase before mitosis, starts as soon as the cell is born. Interphase is broken up into three phases, G1, S, and G2. During the G1 phase, the cell increases in mass except for the chromosomes, which stay the same. Protein synthesis is also occurring during this phase. If a cell doesn't divide further, it remains in the G1 phase. Next is the S phase, in which the mass of the cell continues to increase, and DNA is duplicated, and then the chromosomes divide. During the G2 phase of Interphase, the cell becomes double its mass at birth, the chromosomes begin to shorten and coil, and the centrioles appear, the cell is now ready to enter into mitosis. In the first phase of mitosis, prophase, the chromosomes become visible and the centrioles split in half and then move to opposite sides of the cell. At this point chromosomes have formed into two chromatids separated by a structure called a centromere. Spindle fibers are barely visible. During metaphase, the second phase of mitosis, the two chromatids line up along the equator of the cell. Each chromatid has its own spindle fiber. Next comes the third phase of mitosis, Anaphase, in which the centromeres break in half, causing each of the two chromatids to start to be 2004-12-22T23:01:06-05:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/The-Process-of-Cellular-Reproduction-26005.aspx Biology and Chemical Warfare Introduction Chemical and Biological Warfare, use of harmful or deadly chemical or biological agents as weapons of war. These agents can kill many people and are considered weapons of mass destruction. Chemical weapons are made up of poisonous chemical compounds, whereas biological weapons are living microorganisms. Toxin weapons contain poisonous chemical products of living organisms and are sometimes classified separately. Chemical and biological weapons can cause injury in several ways. Most cause injury or death when inhaled, and some cause injury through contact with skin or through ingestion of contaminated food. A chemical or biological attack usually involves dispersing agents into the air. This can be done in various ways, such as firing artillery shells that burst in mid-air, or using airplanes to spray the agents over an area. If released outdoors, these types of weapons can be affected by weather conditions. Rain would reduce the effectiveness of the agents, and wind might spread them in unexpected directions. Because chemical and biological agents are seen as random, dangerous, and particularly cruel weapons, they have rarely been used. In the 20th century, chemicals were used extensively as battlefield weapons only in World War I (1914-1918) and the Iran-Iraq War (1980-1988). The release of the nerve agent sarin in a Tokyo subway in 1995 was a rare terrorist chemical attack. The 1972 Biological Weapons Convention and the 1993 Chemical Weapons Convention are the most recent international agreements prohibiting these types of weapons, and both have been signed by many countries. Nevertheless, analysts contend that following the Iran-Iraq War, more countries began to secretly develop chemical and biological weapons, and the threat of their use has become greater. Iraq in particular has been accused of stockpiling such weapons, and Iraqi resistance to United Nations weapons inspections in the late 1990s raised international awareness of the need for stronger efforts to control biological and chemical weapons. II. Chemical WarfarePrint section Chemical warfare involves the use of chemical compounds to kill or seriously injure an enemy. Several countries began eliminating their chemical weapons stockpiles in the 1990s, but the threat of their use still exists. A. Chemical AgentsPrint section Chemical warfare agents can be grouped into two general types: those that affect the body surfaces they contact, and those that damage the general nervous system. Walking with Dinosaurs Book The Map That Changed the World: William Smith 2004-12-22T23:00:34-05:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/Biology-and-Chemical-Warfare-Research-Essay-26004.aspx Heart Attack Risk in Women Under 50 Heart attacks are less common in women then men. However, they do occur and when they do women are more likely to die. Women who have heart attacks normally are worse then men who have heart attacks. Age has played a big role in heart attacks. Men who are older, the risk goes up with age. Women's risk of death is the same up to the age of 75 years old. Scientist are still looking into the reason for this. A study showed that 155,565 women and 229,313men that had heart attacks and were treated at 1,658 hospitals showed that younger women are at high risk and need special attention. This research came from The New England Journal of Medicine. Another study was also done, which involved 3,662 women and 8,480 men who all had heart problems. This study also showed that women are more likely to die then men. It also said that women, who were at risk, are more likely to a weakened heart muscle and a very low blood pressure. When they performed an electrocardiogram, the results from this were very heard to tell if the woman was having a heart attack or not. This study also showed that women had more complications from the treatment. One of the complications being that they had bleeding from the blood thing drugs that are usually given to patients who have a history of heart attacks. In women, heart attacks are known to be different from those in men. Blocked arteries are more likely to bring out heart attacks in men. In women, clear arteries were found but yet they were still having heart attacks. It is said that women who were still having these heart attacks were probably caused by spasms in the arteries and large blood clots. In the United States of America, heart disease is the leading cause of death. The American Heart Association says that 9,000 women aging from 29 to 44 had heart attacks in 1997, in comparison to 32,000 men. The American Heart Association also says that 6.1 percent of the women died from a heart attack and were under the age of 50, this was compared with the 2.9 percent of men. Dr. Viola Vaccarino, who is a professor of epidemiology 2004-12-22T22:45:57-05:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/Heart-Attack-Risk-in-Women-Under-50-25998.aspx Christian Scientists When I was first assigned this report I had no idea what Christian Science was. I researched for hours on the religion, and tried to find anything I could on it. I found out that Christian Science was a religion based on the life and teachings of Jesus Christ. As quoted from a Christian Scientist " This religion is based on the words and works of Christ Jesus, and draws its authority form the Bible. Its teachings are set forth in Science and Health with Key to the Scriptures by Mary Baker Eddy. Although a distinctive part of Christian Science is the healing of disease be spiritual means alone, it's higher purpose is universal salvation from every day evil-including sin and death ". Christian Scientists particularly believe in the healings attributed to him in the New Testament. According to the founder of the faith, Mary Baker Eddy Jesus' healings were not miraculous interruptions of natural law, but the operation of God's power, as seen in spiritual law. She attributed her sudden recovery from a severe injury in 1866 to her "glimpse of the great fact" that life is in and of God. Hence forth, she taught her students through prayer that they could heal sickness. That is why today Christian Scientist turn towards prayer rather than conventional medicine. All by the thoughts of Mary Baker Eddy. Mary Bakers early years were spent on her families farm in Bow, New Hampshire. Her childhood and much of her adulthood, before 1866, was spent in ill health. Although she was raise with puritan values, daily Bible readings, and even the talk of God's healing power, she spent many years looking for healing in many remedial ways available in her time. There she found no permanent help. In 1866, she was healed from a serious injury as she read the account of Jesus' healings in the New Testament. This led her to discover what she came to understand as the Science of Christianity, which was named Christian Science. In 1875, she wrote and published Science and Health with Key to the Scriptures, the handbook of Christian Science (a book which late was published in over 17 different languages and Braille, and in audio cassette, CD, and computerized form. In 1992 she was named one of the 75 books that women 2004-12-22T22:17:27-05:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/What-is-a-Christian-Scientist-Research-Paper-25988.aspx Kitchen Safety And Sanitation Do you follow the proper safety and sanitation guidelines in your kitchen? You probably think that your kitchen is safe and you're not at risk of food poison. Well, there is a lot more about safety and sanitation that you should know. Microorganisms are tiny living creatures that are only visible through a microscope. Parasites are organisms that get their nutrients from other living organisms. Microorganisms and parasites are everywhere in your kitchen. These are what can cause much food poisoning. You probably think that they don't live in your kitchen because you keep it clean, right? Think again. Have you ever heard of cross contamination? That is when you let microorganisms from one food get into another. Of course, 2004-12-22T22:07:06-05:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/Kitchen-Safety-And-Sanitation-25982.aspx Cloning Of all the terms coined by scientists which have entered popular vocabulary, 'clone' has become one of the more emotive. Strictly speaking a clone refers to one or more offspring derived from a single ancestor, whose genetic composition is identical to that of the ancestor. No sex is involved in the production of clones, and since sex is the normal means by which new genetic material is introduced during procreation, clones have no choice but to have the same genes as their single parent. In the same way, a clone of cells refers simply to the descendants of a single parental cell. As such, adult organisms can be viewed as clones because all their parts stem from the single cell which is the fertilised egg. Likewise, many tumours are clones, derived from one aberrant cell which no longer obeys the normal rules of growth control. The offspring of organisms which reproduce asexually, like corals, are also clones; as are identical twins produced by the natural, or sometimes deliberate, splitting of a single embryo. Members of a clone are genetically identical and genetic identity has given cloning an additional more technical meaning: namely the procedures used to create a new organism whose genetic constitution is a replica of another existing individual. Such a feat can be achieved by substituting the nucleus, which contains the genes, from one of the cells making up that individual's body, for the nucleus of a fertilised egg. Since our genes dictate to a large extent what we look like, how we behave and what we can and cannot do, having identical genes, as identical twins do, ensures something more than mere similarity. Novelists and film makers have not been slow to exploit the imagery afforded by cloning. Limitless numbers of identical beings manufactured from existing or previous generations has obvious dramatic potential, although seldom of a reassuring nature. Clones traverse the cinema screen as crowds of dehumanised humans destined for monotonous drudgery, as invincible armies of lookalikes from outer space, as replicas of living megalomaniacs and, in the ultimate fantasy, as the resurrected dead - troupes of little Hitlers and herds of rampaging dinosaurs. Of course, this is science fiction. Nonetheless there is just a whiff of plausibility, a whisker of scientific credibility; enough to plant an indelible vision of what might be, or even what could be. So it is easy to understand why the arrival 2004-12-22T21:02:27-05:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/Cloning,-Methods,-Controversy,-and-Analysis-Research-Paper-25970.aspx Carbon Dioxide: Discovery of Co2 Joseph Black was best known for his discovery and chemical activity of carbon dioxide. Black was born in Bordeaux, France, and went to school at the universities of Glasgow and Edinburgh in Scotland. He was professor of chemistry, medicine, and anatomy at the University of Glasgow from 1756 to 1766. He became a professor of chemistry at the University of Edinburgh. In about 1761 Black discovered latent heat, and three years later he measured the latent heat of steam. His student and assistant James Watt then put the 2004-12-22T20:15:12-05:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/Carbon-Dioxide-Discovery-of-Co2-25962.aspx Cochlear Prosthesis Most people in American society prejudge the deaf community’s world without really attempting to understand it. That’s why the so-called “hearing experts” have come up with a device to help deaf children hear and speak. They don’t understand that the deaf culture doesn’t feel a need to speak. Instead they are perfectly content with American Sign Language (ASL) as an adequate and complete way to converse and express themselves. This misunderstanding on the part of the hearing scientific community has resulted in the invention of a device called a cochlear prosthesis. It’s designed to remedy a disability, but I believe it is a major setback to the deaf cultures values. While the hearing people feel that all the deaf should have the desire to speak, the deaf culture itself condemns those that are deaf who insist upon wanting to speak. The deaf see these people as having no pride in themselves. They are strong in their belief that full communication can happen through spoken language and ASL. This is why the deaf are against the implantation of a cochlear prosthesis into young deaf children. They agree it will only cause them to have a false sense of being, and create in them the notion that it’s not O.K. to be deaf. Harlan Lane explains that the implant is a drastic surgical procedure in which a wire is inserted into the inner ear and into the cochlea. This wire transmits electrical signals into the ear with the intent of converting the signals into sound. However, it usually destroys any normal sense of hearing a child may have had previously. It also prevents the child from ever feeling natural again because of the large device installed on their outer ear. There are many risks involved with getting a prosthesis, many of which are still unknown. If you were considering getting a prosthesis for you or your child, would you do so if so under such circumstances’ The normal life of a child who is unfortunate enough to receive one of these implants is drastically interrupted. Up to eight hours a day can be spent on learning how to speak and most of the time this isn’t accomplished because of the poor sound quality of the device. They must endure many checkups throughout their lives to maintain proper functioning of the device. This 2004-12-21T08:09:14-05:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/Cochlear-Prosthesis-Pros-and-Cons-25947.aspx Pellagra Abstract: Pellagra is a nutrient-deficiency disease of major public health importance caused by inadequate intake 2004-12-21T06:51:34-05:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/Pellagra,-a-Nutrient-Deficiency-Disease-25936.aspx The Effects Of Steriods On The Body Drugs have been used in sports almost as long as sports themselves have been around. The ancient Incas discovered that the ashes from burned leaves of the Coca tree gave the people great stores of energy, and made sleep unnecessary for hours or even days, it was later discovered to be the stimulant cocaine. They would take it before long hunts, battles, and even found it useful in ancient sport competitions. It wasn't until 1886 that the first drug-related death in sports occurred. A bicyclist took a mixture of cocaine and heroine, called the “speedball,” and died from it. Little were the doctors aware the epidemic that would follow in the next century. Anabolic steroids, developed in the 1930's in Europe, are drugs that help to build new body tissue quickly, but with drastic side effects. Anabolic means the ability to promote body growth and repair body tissue. It comes from the Greek word anabolikos meaning “constructive.” Steroids are basically made up of hormones. Picture: One woman training to make the 1984 US women's basketball team used them, her muscles started to bulge, her voice grew deeper, and she even had the beginnings of a mustache. These are all the usual symptoms of anabolic steroids. Steroids were not always used for sports, they started out the same way most drugs did, medicinal purposes. Victims of starvation and severe injury profited from it's ability to build new tissue quickly. They also helped prevent muscle tissue from withering in patients who had just had surgery. Steroids are used to treat Addison's disease. Anabolic steroids are drugs that come from hormones or from combinations of chemicals that achieve the same result as hormones. Hormones may be given to an individual in their natural state, or in a synthetic one. The synthetic state is sometimes more potent than the natural one. Testosterone and progesterone are hormones used in steroids, another kind comes from the adrenal glands, which secrete various necessary bodily chemicals. The steroids themselves can be taken orally, as tablets or powders, and can also be liquids that are injected into the muscles. The steroids taken by athletes contain testosterone or chemicals that act in similar way to testosterone. Testosterone is found in men and women, but 2004-12-21T06:46:55-05:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/The-Effects-Of-Steriods-On-The-Body-25933.aspx Title: El Niño Model Lab Purpose: Hands on demonstration of the El Nino effect, trade winds, and upwelling. Materials: • Clear plastic oblong container (approx. 18’’x4’’x4’’, smaller will work, food containers are ideal), • Water, • Mineral oil, • Blue food coloring, • Hair dryer • (Red Oil-based Paint – optional) • Paper sheet map showing the Pacific Ocean Procedures: • Fill the tray with water to within 1’’ of the top. • Add green food coloring to the water until there is a nice “ocean blue”. (Some of the food coloring will settle to the bottom which is fine because this will show the upwelling.) • (Pour some mineral oil in a bowl and mix in some red oil-based paint until the oil is evenly colored. If you do not have oil-based paint, it does not affect the outcome – we don’t’ use it in our demos here). • Gently pour the oil over the surface of the water. (It’s okay if it mixes a bit because it will separate out again.) • Put the container on the paper and mark East and West at either end, Indonesia and South America. • Plug in hair dryer, being careful to keep it away form any water spills. Conclusion: El Niño is a warm current that occurs each year in the month of December. This natural occurrence is the cause of changes over the entire tropical Pacific. When this large phase of warm oscillation happens the surface temperature of the eastern part of the tropical Pacific varies by up to about 4°C and there are also changes in the winds and rainfall patterns. El Niño lasts anywhere from three to seven years and usually includes a cold phase known as La Niña. During the El Niño, trade winds weaken and the piled up water in the west drifts back east, carrying the warm water with it. The most severe effects of El Niño occur near the equator. Indonesia undergoes a pattern of deserts, while Peru receives heavy rainfall. There are forest fires in Indonesia and Australia to an awesome degree, while Peru experiences flooding. In our model, the hairdryer represents the trade winds which blow the warm waters from the east to the west. Because of this, the “warm” water tends to pile up in the West and sediment surfaces at the east end. This sediment upwelling brings nutrient-rich bottom waters to the surface, creating areas which are rich in fish and other sea life. The rising air moves from west to east with the warm pool, and so does the pumping 2004-12-21T06:46:30-05:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/El-Niño-Model-Lab-25932.aspx Coral Reefs Coral reefs are complex and diverse habitat. They are perhaps on of the most interesting and colorful ecosystems to be found in the marine environment. They are very unique in many ways. Coral reefs play many important poles in the marine world. They must have certain conditions to be formed, and to survive. Lots of different sea life rely on reefs for habitat and sources of food, including some endangered species. Coral reefs are perhaps one of the greatest yet least known of wonders of our world. The formation of a coral reef is a long and slow process, taking about a year for a reef to grow about half an inch. Many factors affect the growth of the coral. The general pattern of coral reefs is a continuous cycle of growth and destruction, resulting from the growth of the coral and destructive activities of animals and storms. This pattern serves to keep the coral reef alive and at a fairly constant level. Coral reefs must have certain conditions to survive. They must be in reasonably shallow water. Low levels of sedimentation in the water are very important too, because too many sediments in the water can block the sunlight needed for the coral reefs. Because of the sunlight required for reefs to survive, they can only grow to depths of 45 meters deep. They only form in tropical seas and areas that stay above 20 degrees Celsius. The amount of oxygen is also important. Oxygen is produced in the daytime by plant photosynthesis, but the level drops dramatically at night. Ocean waves and water movement play a part in the amount of oxygen in the water as well, this allows diffusion of oxygen into the surface levels. There are three different kinds of coral reefs. There are fringing, barrier, and atoll. Fringing reefs are attached to margins of an island or continent, rough, table like surface, as much as 1 kilometer wide. On their seaward side they slope steeply to the ocean floor. Fringing reefs grow in shallow water near the shore and prefer dry climates with limited river runoff. There are also barrier reefs, which are similar to fringing but separated from mainland with a lagoon. The number of barrier reefs is greatly increasing due to global warming, because of the rise of the water’s level. Barrier reefs grow best where 2004-12-21T06:39:14-05:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/Research-Paper-on-Coral-Reefs-and-their-Habitat-25930.aspx Title: Water/Penny Lab Purpose: To observe and explain several unique properties of water: cohesion, adhesion, and surface tension. Materials: Water, beaker, pipette (dropper), penny, paper towels. Procedure: 1.Place the penny on the paper towel. Using the pipette, carefully place drops of water on the penny. Observe carefully as you add water. 2.Count the number of drops until the “bubble” bursts. Record the number of drops in a clearly labeled chart. 3.Perform three trials (Repeat steps 1& 2 three times). 4.Calculate the average number 2004-12-21T05:27:49-05:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/Water-and-Penny-Lab-Research-Paper-25912.aspx Title: Chromatography Lab Purpose (Hypothesis): To understand the process of chromatography, and see which color will have the greatest rate of seperation. Materials: Nine drops of blue dye; Fifteen drops of green dye, Twenty seven drops of yellow, Seventy drops of re-orange, 250 ml beaker, Absorbent, Water, Pipette Procedures: Gather Materials  Fill Beaker W with approximately 50 milliliters of water  Fill 2004-12-21T05:23:34-05:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/Chromatography-Lab--25911.aspx A Nuclear Reactor The term Nuclear Reactor means an interaction between two or more Nuclei, Nuclear Particles, or Radiation, possibly causing transformation of the nuclear type; includes, for example, fission, capture, elastic container. Reactor means the core and its immediate container. Nuclear Reactors are used to produce electricity . The numbers of Nuclear Reactor plants have grown sufficiently . Electricity is being generated in a number of ways, it can be generated by using Thermal Power. It can be employed by using two basic systems a Steam Supply System and an Electricity Generating System these two systems are related to each other. The Steam Supply System produces steam from boiling water by the burning of coals and the Electricity Generating System produces electricity by steam turning turbines. The Nuclear power plants of this century depend on a particular type of Nuclear Reaction, Fission (The splitting of a heavy nucleus like the uranium atom to form two lighter "fission ! fragments" as well as less massive particles as the Neutrons). In the Nuclear Reactors this splitting is induced by the interaction of a neutron with a fissionable nucleus. Under suitable conditions, a "chain" reaction of fission in which events may be sustained. The energy released from the fission reactions provide heat, part of which is ultimately converted into electricity. In the present day Nuclear power plants, this heat is removed from the Nuclear fuel by water that is pumped past rods containing fuel. The basic feature of the nuclear reactor is the release of a large amount of energy from each fission event that occurs in the nuclear reactors core. On the average, a fission event releases about 200 million electron volts of energy. a typical chemical reaction, on the other hand releases about one electron volt. The difference, roughly a factor of 100 million electron volts. The complete fission of one pound of uranium would release roughly the same amount of energy as! the combination of 6000 barrels of oil or 1000 tons of high quality oil. The reactor cooling fluid serves a dual purpose. Its most urgent function is to remove from the core the heat that results when the energy released from the Nuclear reactions is transformed by the collisions into the random nuclear motion. An associated function is to transfer this heat into an outside core, typically for the production of electricity. The 2004-12-20T05:00:09-05:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/What-is-a-Nuclear-Reactor-25878.aspx Plutonium, Our Country's Only Feasible Solution Abstract: Should we begin to manufacture one of the most destructive and infamous substances on the face on the Earth once again? The engineers say yes, but the public says no. The United States stopped making this element with the ban on manufacturing nuclear weapons. But with the continuing problem with our ever diminishing energy sources, some want us to begin using more nuclear energy and less energy from natural resources. This paper is going to discuss what plutonium is, the advantages and disadvantages of its use, and why we should think about restarting our production of this useful element. After the United States dropped "Fat Man" and "Little Boy" on Japan ending World War II, the public has had some type of understanding about the power of plutonium and its devastating properties, but that is all anyone heard. After WWII, Americans started to think about what the atomic bomb could do to the U.S. and its people. When anyone mentioned plutonium or the word "nuclear" the idea of Hiroshima or Nagasaki being destroyed was the first thing people thought about. No one could even ponder the idea that it could be used for other more constructive things like sources of energy or to kept a person's heart beating. Then we started to build more reactors and produce more of the substance but mostly for our nuclear weapons programs. Along with reactors, sometimes comes a meltdown which can produce harmful effects if it isn't controlled quickly enough. After such instances as the Hanford, Washington reactor meltdown and the accident in the U.S.S.R. at the Chernobyl site, no one wanted to hear about the use of plutonium. The United States government banned nuclear testing and also ended the production of plutonium.(Ref. 5) Now we are in a dilemma. We are in need of future sources of energy to power our nation. We are running out of coal and oil to run our power plants.(Ref. 7) We also need it to further our space exploration program. People need to understand the advantages to using plutonium and that the disadvantages are not as catastrophic as they seem. With the turn of the century on its way, the reemergence of plutonium production will need to be a reality for us to continue our way of life. In 1941, a scientist at the University of California, Berkeley, discovered something that 2004-12-20T04:55:42-05:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/Plutonium-Should-it-be-Available-for-Daily-Use-25876.aspx Chemical Reactions Chemical reactions are the heart of chemistry. People have always known that they exist. The Ancient Greeks were the firsts to speculate on the composition of matter. They thought that it was possible that individual particles made up matter. Later, in the Seventeenth Century, a German chemist named Georg Ernst Stahl was the first to postulate on chemical reaction, specifically, combustion. He said that a substance called phlogiston escaped into the air from all substances during combustion. He explained that a burning candle would go out if a candle snuffer was put over it because the air inside the snuffer became saturated with phlogiston. According to his ideas, wood is made up of phlogiston and ash, because only ash is left after combustion. His ideas soon came upon some contradiction. When metal is burned, its ash has a greater mass than the original substance. Stahl tried to cover himself by saying that phlogiston will take away from a substance’s mass or that it had a negative mass, which contradicted his original theories. In the Eighteenth Century Antoine-Laurent Lavoisier, in France, discovered an important detail in the understanding of the chemical reaction combustion, oxigine (oxygen). He said that combustion was a chemical reaction involving oxygen and another combustible substance, such as wood. John Dalton, in the early Nineteenth Century, discovered the atom. It gave way to the idea that a chemical reaction was actually the rearrangement of groups of atoms called molecules. Dalton also said that the appearance and disappearance of properties meant that the atomic composition dictated the appearance of different properties. He also came up with idea that a molecule of one substance is exactly the same as any other molecule of the same substance. People like Joseph-Lois Gay-Lussac added to Dalton’s concepts with the postulate that the volumes of gasses that react with each other are related (14 grams of nitrogen reacted with exactly three grams of hydrogen, eight grams of oxygen reacted to exactly one gram of hydrogen, etc.) Amedeo Avogadro also added to the understanding of chemical reactions. He said that all gasses at the same pressure, volume and temperature contain the same number of particles. This idea took a long time to be accepted. His ideas lead to the subscripts used in the formulas for gasses. From the work of these and many other chemists, we now have a 2004-12-20T04:48:32-05:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/Chemical-Reactions--25874.aspx Isaac Newton was born on Christmas day in 1642, in Lincolnshire, England. Newton attended Trinity College in 1661 and had both his Bachelor of Arts and his Master of Arts by 1669. That same year he became the associate of the French Academy of Sciences. He was elected to Parilment, then appointed a warden, and finally, President of the Royal Society. Newton was a master of science and mathematics. He discovered calculus, before Leibniz' became popular. 2004-12-20T04:32:16-05:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/Newton-s-Three-Laws-of-Motion-25870.aspx In 1905, Einstein’s Theory of Special Relativity was proposed. The reason that it is so "special" is because it was part of the more complex and extensive Theory of General Relativity, which was published in 1915. His theory reshaped the world of physics when it contradicted all previous laws of motion erected by Galileo and Newton. By mathematically manipulating these previous laws of motion, physicists in the nineteenth century were able to explain such phenomena as the flow of the ocean, the orbits of planets around the sun, the fall of rocks, and the random behavior of molecules in gases. At first, Einstein faced great opposition when he came up with his radical new theory because the previous laws of motion proposed by Galileo and expanded upon by Newton had remained valid for over two hundred years. However, it wouldn’t be long before the "cement" in the foundation of Newtonian and Galilean physics would begin to crumble. Galileo had determined in 1608 that merely addition and subtraction could calculate relative speeds. Suppose that an observer stands on the side of the highway, and they watch two cars approach each other at 30 and 40 miles per hour. If they were to ask the question, "how fast is the 40 mile per hour car moving relative to the 30 mile per hour car?" They could solve the problem easily by adding the two speeds of the cars, which would equal 70 miles per hour. This means that the 40 mile per hour car sees the 30 mile per hour car advance at a speed of 70 miles per hour and vice versa. At the core of Newtonian physics was the fact that space and time were absolute. Newton’s absolute space was the space of everyday experience with its three dimensions: east-west, north-south, and up-down. This space gives us our sense of length, breadth, and height; according to Newton. We all, regardless of our motion, will agree on the length, breadth, and height of an object, so long as we make sufficiently accurate measurements. Newton’s absolute time was the time that flows inexorably forward as we age. It is a time whose flow is experienced in common by all humanity. The maximum speeds of birds in nature are regulated by air. No matter what direction a bird flies, it always has the same maximum speed. Newton had proposed something similar for light, 2004-12-20T04:28:55-05:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/The-Rise-of-Einsteinian-Special-Relativity-25869.aspx Millions of people all over the planet suffer from poverty and starvation. One very interesting but experimental solution to the problem of world hunger is genetically engineered food. The process involves the crossbreeding of crops in a laboratory with species that are not plant like. Say for example, that a scientist crossed a fish and a potato. The diversity of this gene mixture is supposed to give this hybrid crop special characteristics like resistance to disease, the ability to deal with extreme environmental situations, and much higher crop yields at harvest time. The production of genetically enhanced food is considered a radical approach to dealing with the world hunger crisis. Critics of gene refined food believe that tampering with the natural order of environmental evolution can be potentially dangerous. "There is an uncertainty about the effects that chemical experimenting could have on non-target species (http://www.globalissues.org/EnvIssues/GEFood/IsGEFoodSafe.asp)." Meaning that scientists fear that extracting genes that perform an apparently useful function as part of a plant or animal may not have the same effects if inserted into a totally unrelated species. These potentially dangerous mixes could create deformed, mutant like crops and animals. The effects that such altered species could have on the environment and peoples overall health is uncertain. Though the process has been proven successful in the lab, many experts feel that serious precautionary measures should be taken before genetically engineered food is mass-produced and sold on the open market. Politics act as the major obstacle in the way of genetically engineered food production. The fact is that legal advances such as copy writes and distribution need to be taken care of first. Despite the advances in genetic food, some forms of these foods still need the aid of pesticides, which are harmful to the soil and insect life. The old saying, "Time is money" can be used to explain why it may be unlikely that these foods will ever make the mainstream market. The red tape surrounding the issue makes the idea of production unattractive to companies who may be interested in investing. Trying to back the production of genetically engineered food would be a bad business move because it is too difficult to get past government health regulations. It would take too long maybe years before bankers would receive returns on their investments. Most analysts of gene enhanced food believe that it is unnecessary to take such an extreme step 2004-12-20T04:21:57-05:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/Genetically-Engineered-Food-25867.aspx Testing for Nutrients in Food Problem/Question: To test for the presence of sugar, starch, protein, and lipids in various food. Hypothesis: Our hypotheses are shown in the prediction section of the chart in which we recorded data. We based our hypotheses on previous knowledge of nutrition content in foods and recent things we learned in class. Theory: A balanced diet is important in everyone's health. It is necessary to eat a variety of foods in order to obtain sufficient quantities of the needed vitamins and minerals, such as sugars, starches, lipids, and proteins. The four food groups help us determine how much of each type of food is necessary in a healthy diet. Materials: · Test tube rack · Test tubes · Beaker · Hot plate · Bunsen Burner · Paper towels · Test tube holder · Goggles Procedure: Sugar Test: For the sugar test we added approximately 5ml of water to a small test tube and then added a small sample of the food to be tested. Then, we added 5 drops of Benedicts reagent and heated this mixture in a beaker on a hot plate or over a Bunsen burner. Yellow or orange was indicative of various levels of sugar content. Starch Test: We took a small sample of the food to be tested and placed 3 drops of iodine on it. If it turned a purple or black then starch was present. Protein Test: We added approximately 5ml of water to a small test tube and then added a small sample of the food to be tested. Then, we added 5 drops of Biuret. If the mixture turned a purple in color then protein was present. Lipid: We applied a small sample of each food to be tested to a brown paper bag. We held the bag up to the light and to see if the bag had become somewhat transparent. If it had, then lipids are present. Data: (see attached) Data Analysis: We found that carrots do not have sugar, starch, protein or lipids. Saltine crackers have minimal sugar have starch but do not have lipids. Boost Nutritional Drink has sugars proteins but lacks starches and lipids. Kudos bars have sugar, proteins and lipids but has no starches. Egg whites have only protein and lipids. Apples have lipids and proteins only. Peanut butter has sugar, protein, and lipids, but no starch according to our tests. Food Test Sugar Test Starch Test Protein Test Lipid Test Prediction Results Prediction Results Prediction Results Prediction Results Carrot YES NO NO NO NO NO NO NO Cracker NO Small YES YES NO NO NO NO Boost YES Simple NO NO YES YES NO NO Kudos YES YES YES NO NO YES YES YES Egg White NO NO NO NO YES YES YES YES Apple YES Lots YES NO NO NO NO YES Peanut Butter YES YES NO NO YES YES YES YES Conclusion: Our hypotheses were correct approximately 75% of the time. This shows that we did have some previous knowledge regarding the nutritional content of the foods we tested. This 2004-12-20T03:53:18-05:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/Testing-for-Nutrients-in-Food-Lab-25857.aspx Adrenoleukodystrophy The full name of ALD is Adrenoleukodystrophy. It is a rare X chromosome sex linked metabolic disorder that is characterized by the loss of myelin on nerve fibers within the brain. Myelin is the fatty covering on the nerve fibers. The disease causes the continued degeneration of the adrenal gland. The basic defect is that the impaired capacity to degrade very long chain fatty acids that are found in the blood plasma and tissues of the body. These fatty acids accumulate in the cerebral white matter of the brain and the adrenal glands. ALD only effects males. The symptoms of ALD may develop due to abnormal or a lack of microbodies that participate in the metabolism of fats called peroxisomes in the liver. This causes a disturbance of fatty acid metabolism and results in the abnormal accumulation of very long chain fatty acids. The exact enzyme deficiency that prevents the breakdown of VLCFAs is not known. ALD is an allelic mutation. The disease is caused by one mutation at the locus Xq28. The mutation causes deficient activity of the ligase enzyme. Diagnosis of the disease can be made from cultured skin fibroblasts or amniotic fluid cells. The disease is preventable through a combination of oleic and erucic acid (as used in Lorenzo’s Oil) and a restricted diet lacking in very long fatty acids. More recently, some ALD patients have been experimentally treated with Glycerol Trioleate. Continued research is being done to determine the effectiveness and safeness of these substances. For those that are identified with the disease prenatally or soon after birth, this is a successful treatment. Those that take the prescribed dose of the oil and are restricted in their diet appropriately can live otherwise normal lives. The Myelin Project is the research project dedicated to the cure of this disease and others related to it. It is supported by many families affected by this disease. They are attempting to hurry science and advance to the moment where myelin can be restored. The Myelin project has branches in Italy, Austria, Canada, Britain, France, Denmark, Spain, Dubai, and Switzerland. The Myelin Project allows researchers to work together effectively in conjunction with those (and their families) affected by the disease(s). Myelin leads to the reduction or blockage of nerve impulse conduction. Thus, regrowing Myelin should restore conduction in diseases for which therapies capable of halting “demyelination” have been found. It could also prove beneficial 2004-12-20T03:52:01-05:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/Adrenoleukodystrophy-what-is-it-An-Explanation-Essay-25856.aspx Cellular Reproduction is the process by which all living things produce new organisms similar or identical to themselves. This has to happen because if a species were not able to reproduce, that species would quickly become extinct. Reproduction consists of a basic pattern: the conversion by a parent organism of raw materials into offspring or cells that will later develop into offspring. The reproductive process, whether asexual or sexual always involves an exchange in hereditary material from the parents so that the new organism may also be able to reproduce. Reproductive processes can be categorized into either asexual reproduction or sexual reproduction. Asexual reproduction is any form of reproduction that does not require the union of male and female reproductive material (sperm or egg). Most single celled organisms reproduce by the asexual process known as fission, which is commonly called mitosis. Fission is The splitting of a nucleus into two roughly equal parts accompanied by the release of a pretty large amount of energy. Interphase, the first phase of the cell cycle and also the phase before mitosis, starts as soon as the cell is born. Interphase is broken up into three phases, G1, S, and G2. During the G1 phase, the cell increases in mass except for the chromosomes, which stay the same. Protein synthesis is also occurring during this phase. If a cell doesn't divide further, it remains in the G1 phase. Next is the S phase, in which the mass of the cell continues to increase, and DNA is duplicated, and then the chromosomes divide. During the G2 phase of Interphase, the cell becomes double its mass at birth, the chromosomes begin to shorten and coil, and the centrioles appear, the cell is now ready to enter into mitosis. In the first phase of mitosis, prophase, the chromosomes become visible and the centrioles split in half and then move to opposite sides of the cell. At this point chromosomes have formed into two chromatids separated by a structure called a centromere. Spindle fibers are barely visible. During metaphase, the second phase of mitosis, the two chromatids line up along the equator of the cell. Each chromatid has its own spindle fiber. Next comes the third phase of mitosis, Anaphase, in which the centromeres break in half, causing each of the two chromatids to start to be pulled to different sides of the cell. The spindle fibers pull 2004-12-12T05:44:28-05:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/Cellular-Respiration--25826.aspx Anti-Cloning Research: To those against it, cloning presents as much a moral problem as a technical problem. For them, cloning is an affront to religious sensibilities; it seems like "playing God," and interfering with the natural process. There are, of course, more logical objections, regarding susceptibility to disease, expense, and diversity. Others are worried about the abuses of cloning. Cloning appears to be a powerful force that can be exploited to produce horrendous results. Their basic objections to cloning research are outlined here. Cloning may reduce genetic variability, Producing many clones runs the risk of creating a population that is entirely the same. This population would be susceptible to the same diseases, and one disease could devastate the entire population. One can easily picture humans being wiped out be a single virus, however, less drastic, but more probable events could occur from a lack of genetic diversity. For example, if a large percentage of an nation's cattle are identical clones, a virus, such as a particular strain of mad cow disease, could effect the entire population. The result could be catastrophic food shortages in that nation. Cloning may cause people to settle for the best existing animals, not allowing for improvement of the species. In this way, cloning could potentially interfere with natural evolution. Cloning is currently an expensive process. Cloning requires large amounts of money and biological expertise. Ian Wilmut and his associates required 277 tries before producing Dolly. A new cloning technique has recently been developed which is far more reliable. However, even this technique has 2-3% success rate. There is a risk of disease transfer between transgenic animals and the animal from which the transgenes were derived. If an animal producing drugs in its milk becomes infected by a virus, the animal may transmit the virus to a patient using the drug. Any research into human cloning would eventually need to be tested on human. The ability to clone humans may lead to the genetic tailoring of offspring. The heart of the cloning debate is concerned with the genetic manipulation of a human embryo before it begins development. It is conceivable that scientists could alter a baby's genetic code to give the individual a certain color of eyes or genetic resistance to certain diseases. This is viewed as inappropriate tampering with "Mother Nature" by many ethicists. Because clones are derived from an existing adult cell, it has older genes. Will the clone's life 2004-11-21T21:42:56-05:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/AntiCloning-Research--25740.aspx Cloning Supporters: Supporters of cloning feel that with the careful continuation of research, the technological benefits of cloning clearly outweigh the possible social consequences. In their minds, final products of cloning, like farm animals, and laboratory mice will not be the most important achievement. The applications of cloning they envision are not nightmarish and inhumane, but will improve the overall quality of science and life. Cloning will help to produce discoveries that will effect the study of genetics, cell development, human growth, and obstetrics. Human cloning is not the issue, it is merely a threat to the continuation of cloning research. Their arguments for such research are displayed here. Cloning might produce a greater understanding of the cause of miscarriages, which might lead to a treatment to prevent spontaneous abortions. This would help women who can't bring a fetus to term. It might lead to an understanding of the way a morula (mass of cells developed from a blastula) attaches itself to the uterine wall. This might generate new and successful contraceptives. Cloning experiments may add to the understanding of genetics and lead to the creation of animal organs that an be easily accepted by humans. This would supply limitless organs to those in need. The growth of the human morula is similar to the growth at which cancer cells propagate. If information derived from cloning research allows scientists to stop the division of the human ovum, a technique for terminating cancer may be found. Cloning could also be used for parents who risk passing a defect to a child. A fertilized ovum could be cloned, and the duplicate tested for disease and disorder. If the clone was free from defects, then other would be as well. The latter could be implanted in the womb. Damage to the nervous system could treated through cloning. Damaged adult nerve tissue does not regenerate on its own. However, stem cells might be able to repair the damaged tissue. Because of the large number of cells required, human embryo cloning would be required. In in-vitro fertilization, a doctor often implants many fertilized ova into a woman's uterus and counts on one resulting in pregnancy. However, some women can only supply one egg. Through cloning, that egg could be divided into eight zygotes for implanting. The chances of pregnancy would be much greater. Cloning would allow a women to have one set of identical twins instead of going through two pregnancies. 2004-11-21T21:42:14-05:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/Pros-of-Cloning-research-25739.aspx Ohm’s Lab Purpose: The purpose of this lab is to see if and how Ohm’s Law applies in a circuit that doesn’t have a resistor. Theory: [i:6a028197ab]Equations[/i:6a028197ab] Resistance = Voltage/Current R = V/I Voltage = Current * Resistance V = I * R Current = Voltage/Resistance I = V/R Hypothesis: I hypothesize that the resistance will be between 8 and 10 ohms. Procedures: Assemble a circuit with a multimeter, to measure the current, a voltmeter, to measure the volts, and a resistor that will provide the resistance. Next, a hand-held generator will power the circuit. Record the voltage and current while keeping the generated voltage at a constant rate. Record an estimate of the absolute uncertainty for both the voltage and the current. Choose five target voltages. Then, graph the Voltage versus the Current to get the resistance of the light bulbs. Use uncertainty bars on your graph of Voltage versus Current to get a best fit. Data: Voltage (V) .1 .3 .5 .7 .9 1 Current (A) Low, Average, High 10, 14, 18 45, 55, 65 120, 127.5, 135 120, 135, 150 180, 187.5, 195 180, 190, 200 ·Voltage = # of volts = V ·Current = # of amps/1000 = A ·Voltage = + or - .1 V ·Current = high and low given ·Actual Resistance = 6.7 Ohms Analysis: Voltage (V) .1 .3 .5 .7 .9 1 Average Current (A) 14 55 127.5 135 187.5 190 Resistance in Ohms 7.14 5.45 3.92 5.18 4.8 5.26 Results: The resistance we got from the calculations was close to the actual resistance of 6.7 ohms. However, the 7.14 ohms with a voltage of 0.1V and 3.92 ohms for the voltage of 0.5 ohms were not very accurate. We could have made many mistakes when doing this lab. Of course, the main error we made was when trying to keep the voltage constant using the generator we were unable to be perfect. This could have been improved had we used a motor for example, that kept the voltage at a constant rate. It was also hard to read the measurements on for example the voltage meter. This could have been improved if we used a digital one. Conclusion: This lab’s purpose was to see if Ohm’s Law could actually be applied to a circuit board. In order to test this, we made a “circuit board” that had a resistor. We connected it to a voltmeter, a multimeter, and generator. My hypothesis was close, but not correct. I hypothesized that the resistance would be between 8 and 10 ohms, but it was only about 6.7 ohms. This lab could have been done better if we had a generator that provided a constant voltage, and if our voltmeter and multimeter were 2004-11-04T06:39:08-04:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/Lab-Ohm-s-Law-Application--25733.aspx Tension in Guitar Strings Problem: To find the tension in the strings of a bass guitar. Hypothesis: Using an oscilloscope, we have measured the frequency of the string wave, recording time between each wave to enable us to find the resulting 2004-11-04T06:26:57-04:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/Lab-Tension-in-Guitar-Strings-25728.aspx ACID RAIN What is Acid Rain? The majority of people consider rain to be an undamaging weather occurrence. However the increase in acidity of rain is both unsafe and damaging. In order to fully understand the term acidity, it is essential to know something about the pH scale. This scale has a range of 0 to 14, with 7 being neutral. Anything below 7 (0-6) is known to be acidic and anything above 7 (8-14) is alkaline. A change in only one unit is equal to a tenfold increase in the strength of the acid or base. Therefore a unit change from pH 6 to pH4 is equal to a 10 x 10 increase in it acidity. Taking the above into consideration, it is easy to see how the normal phenomenon “rain” is becoming more and more acidic as its pH has dropped from around 6and 7 to about 4.3and 5.3.This occurrence is known as Acid Rain and was first noted in1852 by the English chemist called Robert Angus Smith. Acid rain in other words is the term used to describe rainfall that has a pH level below5.6. It is a form of air pollution that is currently a theme of huge debate due to its wide spread damages. It is responsible for the destruction of thousands of lakes and streams in the United States, Canada and parts of Europe. How Acid Rain is formed The two most important primary sources of acid rain are sulphur dioxide (SO2) and oxides of nitrogen (NOx). Sulphur is a colourless, pungent gas produce during the combustion of fossil fuels containing sculpture. A variety of industrial processes such as the production of steel and iron and crude oil processing produce this gas. This gas is also emitted into the atmosphere by natural means. Ten percent of the sculpture in the atmosphere comes from volcanoes, sea spray, plankton and decomposing vegetation. The other gas primarily accountable for the formation of acid rain is nitrogen oxide. The term ‘oxides of nitrogen’ describes any compound of nitrogen with any amount of oxygen atoms. The only oxides of nitrogen are nitrogen monoxide and nitrogen dioxide. These gases are produced by firing processes at very high temperatures (vehicle) and chemical industries. There are natural processes such as forest fires, volcanoes and bacterial action in soil that also emit nitrogen oxides. Transportation and industrial combustion also contribute to the emissions 2004-11-02T09:33:09-04:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/Acid-Rain-Description-and-Analysis-25712.aspx This short report will give you a short summary on evolution and how it my affect us, or even surroundings. Also, how it my affect our food chain and if one thing would die how the other would suffer because of that, for an example if you had snakes and birds and if snakes were to die birds population would drop. Why, because birds feed on snakes. Now a part of the food chain contains something called “niche” now you are asking what that is, so I guess that I will answer that question, it basically what the organism will do in the food chain. A food chain is how in the world’s animals, people, parasites, and insects get all of their food ,and what predators will eat them.. Plus, it has to do with how all of the organisms on this earth, and maybe; not to be insulting, but to those who believe in Extra Terrestrial, and how all of these came to our extraordinary planet. But, there is a man by the name of Darwin, a man who I think might believe in God , yes God ,but God of “Thunder” maybe any God but not the one that I think really counts. This DARWIN who is kind of dumb, believed that everything on this earth came from nothing. Now, what Darwin really doesn’t know is how nothing came from nothing. What they call people who believe in this dumb theory are called Darwinist. So I guess you could call these people pessimist or at least him. On the other hand there are people who believe in what you, me, and almost all of the “intelligent” people would believe in these people are called creationist. Are creationist believe that there were things that put this nothing on the earth. Now since this is creative writing, I can not understand how people can tolerate this nonsense on how there was nothing and how it created Dinosaurs etc… So in a way he did kind of believe in evolution he just could not understand that animals came from a creator and not from a particle. If you were to take your imagination, picture being in a food chain. Now everybody know that humans don’t eat human in the “present day” but if humans were in the food chain and we did not have a Martins’ or a 7UP we would 2004-10-30T05:24:15-04:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/Evolution--25642.aspx My brother was studying for his biology test. The next morning he was telling me about the dream he had. He said he traveled through a cell. I started to call him insane. My brother have an educational dream? I thought to myself, impossible. My brother started to tell me his crazy dream. The first place he came upon was the cell wall. He was trying to find a way out. He said he started to talk to the cell wall. He asked the cell wall the way out. The cell wall said to him “How should I know? I’m the outer most part of the cell all I do is make cellulose. You might want to ask the cell membrane she is right next to me.” He told me he didn’t have to walk far to get to the cell membrane. He described the inside of the cell membrane. He said he saw parts flying in and out of there. Kind of like an assembly line. He asked the cell membrane the way out. The cell membrane just replied “ How should I know? I’m an envelope that engulfs the cell which permits a passage of materials into and out of the cell. I’m very thin and flexible. You might want to ask the chloroplast.” He went on with the story by walking to the chloroplast. He asked the chloroplast the way out here. The chloroplast just said, “ I have no idea.” Will you stop bugging me I’m trying to work?” “What’s your job” my brother asked. The chloroplast replied, “ I help with the photosynthesis process by providing chlorophyll. If you want to get out of here ask the mitochondria.” As my brother was on his way to the mitochondria he saw a small round structure that looked like a bean. My brother asked, “What are you and what job do you do?” “I’m a lysosome I help in the digestive activities of the cell.” My brother asked her do you know where the mitochondria? The lysosome replied, “ of course he is right over there.” My brother started to walk that way. He asked the mitochondria the way out. The mitochondria said “ I don’t know all I know is how to do my job.” “What’s your job?” my brother asked. The mitochondria replied in a deep tone, “I’m the powerhouse of the cell in which 2004-10-30T05:21:34-04:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/Biology-Test-Cells-25641.aspx With the great concern surrounding the destruction of the earth’s atmosphere due to air pollution, the immediate and direct harm caused to the human body is often over shadowed. While many are aware that our careless use of hazardous chemicals and fossil fuels may leave the planet uninhabitable in the future, most over look the fact that they also cause real damage to our bodies at this moment. Not only are beautiful sights such as this hidden behind the pollution this world causes everyday, but an increase in diseases, infections and death occurs. What causes pollution? What can we do to prevent it, and get rid of it? Is it fair to the children of the future to have to suffer the consequences that pollution causes? Why not take care of the problem now? Factory and business owners have the ability to prevent air pollution. Air pollution is the presence in the atmosphere of harmful gases, liquids, or solids. Such pollutants cause damage to our respiratory system, leading to the fluctuation of the life span of an individual depending on a number of conditions. Amongst these conditions are the individuals specific geographic location, age, and life style. In order to understand how air pollution affects our body, you must understand exactly what pollution is. The pollutants that harm our respiratory system are known as particulates. Particulates are the small solid particles that you can see through a ray of sunlight. They are products of incomplete combustion in engines (example: automobile engines, road dust, and wood smoke). Billions of coal and oil are consumed around the world every year. Air pollution, known as smoke pollution for many years, resulted from coal combustion. Smog has been a problem in coal-burning areas for several centuries. Smog finally decreased when coal combustion was replaced by oil and gas combustion. Air pollution is caused by a number of different types of pollutants. The first type, particulate matter, consists of solid and liquid aerosols suspended in the atmosphere. These arise from the burning of coal and from industrial processes. Atmospheric particles can scatter and absorb sunlight which reduces visibility. Particles also reduce visibility by attenuating the light from objects and illuminating the air causing the contrast between the objects and their backgrounds to reduce. 2004-10-30T04:46:17-04:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/Pollution-s-Effect-on-the-Body-25637.aspx Photosynthesis is process by which green plants and certain other organisms use the energy of light to convert carbon dioxide and water into the simple sugar glucose. In so doing, photosynthesis provides the basic energy source for virtually all organisms. An extremely important byproduct of photosynthesis is oxygen, on which most organisms depend. Photosynthesis occurs in green plants, seaweeds, algae, and certain bacteria. These organisms are veritable sugar factories, producing millions of new glucose molecules per second. Plants use much of this glucose, a carbohydrate, as an energy source to build leaves, flowers, fruits, and seeds. They also convert glucose to cellulose, the structural material used in their cell walls. Most plants produce more glucose than they use, however, and they store it in the form of starch and other carbohydrates in roots, stems, and leaves. The plants can then draw on these reserves for extra energy or building materials. Each year, photosynthesizing organisms produce about 170 billion metric tons of extra carbohydrates, about 30 metric tons for every person on earth. Photosynthesis has far-reaching implications. Like plants, humans and other animals depend on glucose as an energy source, but they are unable to produce it on their own and must rely ultimately on the glucose produced by plants. Moreover, the oxygen humans and other animals breathe is the oxygen released during photosynthesis. Humans are also dependent on ancient products of photosynthesis, known as fossil fuels, for supplying most of our modern industrial energy. These fossil fuels, including natural gas, coal, and petroleum, are composed of a complex mix of hydrocarbons, the remains of organisms that relied on photosynthesis millions of years ago. Thus, virtually all life on earth, directly or indirectly, depends on photosynthesis as a source of food, energy, and oxygen, making it one of the most important biochemical processes known. Plant photosynthesis occurs in leaves and green stems within specialized cell structures called chloroplasts. One plant leaf is composed of tens of thousands of cells, and each cell contains 40 to 50 chloroplasts. The chloroplast, an oval-shaped structure, is divided by membranes into numerous disk-shaped compartments. These dislike compartments, called thylakoids, are arranged vertically in the chloroplast like a stack of plates or pancakes. A stack of thylakoids is called a granum, the grana lie suspended in a fluid known as stroma. Photosynthesis is a very complex process, and for the sake of convenience and ease of 2004-10-30T04:00:26-04:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/Process-of-Photosynthesis-25628.aspx A superconductor is an element, inter-metallic alloy, or compound that will conduct electricity without resistance below a certain temperature. When it comes to the uses of superconductors, there are several different ways for them to be used. Magnetic-levitation is an application where superconductors perform extremely well. Transport vehicles such as trains can be made to “float” on strong superconductors magnets, virtually eliminating friction between the train and its tracks. An area where superconductors can perform a life-saving function is in the field of biomagnetism. Doctors need a non-invasive means of determining what’s going on inside the human body. By impinging a strong superconductor-derived magnetic field into the body, hydrogen atoms that exist in the body’s water and fat molecules are forced to accept energy from the magnetic field. They then release this energy at a frequency that can be detected and displayed graphically by a computer. An example of this could be a MRI, which stands for Magnetic Resonance Imaging. This type of test was actually discovered in the mid 1940’s. Probably the one event, more than any other, that has been responsible for putting “superconductors” into the American lexicon was the Superconducting Super-Collider project planned for construction in Ellis county, Texas. Though congress cancelled the multi-billion dollar effort in 1993, the concept of such a large, high-energy collider would never have been viable without superconductors. High-energy particle research hinges on being able to accelerate sub-atomic particles to nearly the speed of light. Superconductor magnets make this possible. Another use of superconductors is in electric generators made with superconducting wire are far more effeicient than conventional generators wound with copper wire. In fact, their efficiency is above 99% and their size is about half that of conventional generators. General Electric has estimated the potential worldwide market for superconducting generators in the next decade at around $20-30 billion dollars. Other commercial power projects in the works that employ superconductor technology include energy storage to enhance power stability. An idealized application for superconductors is to employ them in the transmission of commercial power to cities. However, due to the high cost and impracticality of cooling miles of superconducting wire to cryogenic temperatures, this has only happened with short “test runs.” The most ignominious military use of superconductors may come with the deployment of “E-bombs.” These 2004-10-30T03:42:05-04:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/Superconductors--25625.aspx LSD comes from Ergot, a parasitic fungus of the genus Claviceps purpurea that grows on wild grasses, corn, rye and other grain producing plants. Fungus infected kernels grow into light brown curved “pegs” that stick out of the cornhusk. Starting in the middle Ages, midwives would use ergot to speed up childbirth. In the 18th century, chemists tried to isolate and make drugs from the compounds that affected childbirth, and overtime ergot became a source of many remedies. In 1917, Professor Arthur Stoll founded the Sandoz Company’s pharmaceutical department, and ergot research became a main topic in his Basel, Switzerland lab. Soon he isolated an alkaloid he called ergotamine that had uterine and childbirth effects. In 1932, the ergot alkaloid ergobasin was isolated at Sandoz as a uterine-specific drug. At about this time, Sandoz chemist Albert Hoffman finished other work and asked Stoll if he could work with ergot. His first goal was to partially synthesize ergobasin because its chemical structure was lysergic acid propanolamide, and Lysergic acid was the “common nucleus” of all medicinally important ergot alkaloids. Synthesis of a lysergic acid compound was important because if the natural product could be synthesized the same process could be used to chemically modify the natural compound. Hoffman synthesized a lot of ergobasin analogs in 1938. These included lysergic acid butanolamide (Methergine) to stop postpartum bleeding. The 25th compound in this series of chemical modifications was lysergic acid diethylamide, a compound that seemed to stimulate blood circulation and respiration. In German it was called Lysergsäure-diäthylamid, or LSD-25. At this time, Sandoz stopped testing and producing LSD, but Hoffman couldn’t forget the abandoned LSD-25 and on April 16, 1943 he repeated the original LSD-25 synthesis. While he was working, he abruptly had a life-changing experience. The surroundings seemed to have changed in an odd way, and had become “more luminous, more expressive”. He also perceived “an uninterrupted stream of fantastic pictures with an intense kaleidoscopic play of colors.” The next day Hoffman considered his experience from the day before and decided that something he’d worked with in the lab caused the bizarre experience through skin absorption. Three days later he tried it again. He had used dichloroethylene to purify the LSD so he tried snorting dichloroethylene fumes. There was no effect, which left LSD as the only possible candidate. He carefully mixed 250 mcg (twice the strength as a 90’s street 2004-10-30T02:13:53-04:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/LSD,-History-of--25621.aspx The Human Genome Project began in 1990 in the United States as an attempt to identify all of the genes in a human cell. While the U.S. began its efforts in the 90’s, many countries including France, Germany, Japan, and the United Kingdom started programs in an unofficial collaboration to speed up the process. In addition, private companies including Genomics and Celera are currently working on sequencing the human genome. There is an estimated 140,000 genes in the nucleus of a human cell. As of the year 2000, the Project had mapped more than 9,000 genes to specific chromosomes and was already ahead of schedule with 17% completed. The Program had also finished sequencing the complete genome of human chromosome 22 in addition to complete organisms, such as E. Coli (Escherichia coli), yeast (Saccharomyces cerevisiae), the roundworm (Caenorhabditis elegans), and the fruit fly (Drosophila melanogaster). The purpose of sequencing the genes of other organisms would be to determine any possible similarities between their genes and human genes. The Project has already determined the specific genes associated with cystic fibrosis, muscular dystrophy, Huntington’s disease, neurofibromatosis, and retinoblastoma. A popular analogy is used to explain the relationship between chromosomes, DNA, and genes. In a library, or a human body, there are 46 books, or chromosomes. 23 of the books are from your mother, the egg, and the other 23 books are from your father, the sperm. The chromosomes are made up of a coiled chain of DNA, short for deoxyribonucleic acid. The DNA is composed of smaller segments called genes. The genes are the words in the book. The genes are made up of letters called nucleotides. There are four letters, A (adenine), T (thymine), C (cytosine), and G (guanine). On the strand of DNA, each nucleotide matches up with another. Adenine pairs with thymine; and cytosine pairs with guanine. The genome project hopes to sequence the order of these nucleotides. The sequence of the genes is what makes us what we are. They code for height, hair color, and even genetic diseases. The purpose in determining the order is to assist in curing genetic diseases by creating treatments and medicines, correcting fatal errors in the genetic code, and to have an overall better understanding of the human body. 2004-10-29T22:21:45-04:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/Genome--25609.aspx Few scientific achievements of the twentieth century in the field of biology have as much significance as the completion of the Human Genome Project. Completed almost fifty years after the discovery of the DNA double helix and two years after the cloning of Dolly the sheep; no one, just a few years ago would be guessed that in a few short years we would have a complete documented human genome. A genome is all the genetic material in any given organism. The purpose of the Human Genome Project was to document a complete human genome. Every human cell contains a nucleus in which chromosomes are stored. Humans have twenty-three chromosomes. Twenty-two are autosomes, which are responsible for all the inherited characteristics of an organism and one is a sex chromosome. Each cell had two pairs of these chromosomes one from each of its parents. The two sex chromosomes determine the sex of an organism XX being female and XY being male. Genetic material is stored in the form of Chromosomes in the nuclei of cells. Each chromosome contains thousands of genes. Every snippet of genetic information is programmed into a DNA double helix with only the four nucleotides of adenine, cytosine, thymine, and guanine. The final result of the Human Genome Project was a many thousand page book of all the DNA in one human being. The code for DNA is organized into three nucleotide segments, which code for one of twenty different amino acids. The point of DNA is to code for proteins and enzymes, which are both made up of amino acids. Therefore, one strand of DNA can program for one protein, interesting as well because it takes protein to create DNA. One interesting thing scientist discovered during this process was that a large amount of DNA seemed dormant and was unused; scientists are still trying to figure out the point of this seemingly excess DNA. The US Department of Energy started the Human Genome Project in 1990 but due to the slow pace private industry started their own project and a race ensued between them for a rough draft of the human genome. The private industry project finished only marginally before the governments and both are vowing to put this information to good use. The cells were taken from a variety of different races and their results will be compared so they can research any discrepancies. This all seems to 2004-10-29T11:17:51-04:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/Human-Genome-Project--25597.aspx How do you suppose there is water in the ground? We know that water comes down in dew and in rain (and snow), that it flows along in rivers and streams, and that there is water in lakes, oceans, and any 2004-08-27T06:40:50-04:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/How-is-there-Water-in-the-Ground-25561.aspx How does the ocean happen to have so many minerals? Let's see if we can duplicate a small part of the answer to this question. Wash some aquarium sand several times, then set the sand out to dry. When it is dry, mix a teaspoonful of table salt with each 4 cups of dry sand. Make a simulated inclined river bed with aluminum foil, and pour the sand and salt mixture into the river bed. Place a bowl at one end to catch the river water. Pour some rain water or distilled water at the top of the river bed. Taste the collected water to see if it contains salt, or set the collected water out to evaporate. You will realize that in a similar way rain water dissolves salts in rocks and soil, carries them from the land 2004-08-27T06:37:33-04:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/The-Ocean-s-Minerals-25560.aspx Geology, study of the planet earth, its rocky exterior, its history, and the processes that act upon it. Geology is also referred to as earth science and geoscience. The word geology comes from the Greek geo, “earth,” and logia, “the study of.” Geologists seek to understand how the earth formed and evolved into what it is today, as well as what made the earth capable of supporting life. Geologists study the changes that the earth has undergone as its physical, chemical, and biological systems have interacted during its 4.5 billion year history. Geology is an important way of understanding the world around us, and it enables scientists to predict how our planet will behave. Scientists and others use geology to understand how geological events and earth’s geological history affect people, for example, in terms of living with natural disasters and using the earth’s natural resources. As the human population grows, more and more people live in areas exposed to natural geologic hazards, such as floods, earthquakes, tsunamis, volcanoes, and landslides. Some geologists use their knowledge to try to understand these natural hazards and forecast potential geologic events, such as volcanic eruptions or earthquakes. They study the history of these events as recorded in rocks and try to determine when the next eruption or earthquake will occur. They also study the geologic record of climate change in order to help predict future changes. As human population grows, geologists’ ability to locate fossil and mineral resources, such as oil, coal, iron, and aluminum, becomes more important. Finding and maintaining a clean water supply, and disposing safely of waste products, requires understanding the earth’s systems through which they cycle. The field of geology includes subfields that examine all of the earth's systems, from the deep interior core to the outer atmosphere, including the hydrosphere (the waters of the earth) and the biosphere (the living component of earth). Generally, these subfields are divided into the two major categories of physical and historical geology. Geologists also examine events such as asteroid impacts, mass extinctions, and ice ages. Geologic history shows that the processes that shaped the earth are still acting on it and that change is normal. Many other scientific fields overlap extensively with geology, including oceanography, atmospheric sciences, physics, chemistry, botany, zoology, and microbiology. Geology is also used to study other planets and moons in our solar system. Specialized fields of extraterrestrial geology include lunar geology, the 2004-08-27T06:34:52-04:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/Background-Info-on-Geology--25559.aspx On August 7, 1996, NASA announced a startling discovery – by examining a meteorite that originated on Mars, they found what they believe is evidence for a primitive form of life that may have existed on Mars 3.6 billion years ago. More work needs to be done to confirm this preliminary result, and many scientists remain unconvinced by the present evidence. But if this preliminary result is confirmed, if the structures inside the meteorite turn out to be fossil evidence for cellular organisms, then some important steps can be taken. First, we would need to launch a mission to Mars, manned or unmanned, to secure and return to earth core samples that might provide evidence for or against DNA as the organizing scheme for the Mars life form. Having accomplished the return of a biological sample and determined the presence or absence of DNA, we are then faced with a quandary. If the Mars life form is not based on DNA, it supports the hypothesis that life is a likely outcome for a planet with the correct temperature range, atmospheric pressure, liquid water, and sufficient time with these conditions. This would be a very important finding – two planets with different histories, temperatures, atmospheric makeups and surface gravity, both producing life through random processes – life based on different models, but life nevertheless. We could use this result to reinforce the theory that life is common in the universe. This single data point, the existence of life of a different form on our sister planet, would greatly aid the theory that life may be a likely event in a reasonably wide range of planetary conditions. This finding would re-energize our search for evidence of alien civilizations. But if the Mars life form is based on DNA, this is an equally interesting result, for a different reason – because of the peculiar and ad hoc nature of DNA, and the number of equally viable alternatives to its specific structure, this outcome would strongly argue for a common origin for life on Earth and Mars. It is hard to imagine two independent processes producing a mechanism such as DNA, especially if the two DNA forms turn out to be alike in their essential characteristics. It is much more likely that the two planets somehow shared some early organisms. This conclusion leads to three likely hypotheses for DNA sharing: 1.) Earth's DNA got to Mars. 2.) Mars' DNA got to 2004-07-12T22:17:07-04:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/Did-Earth-s-Life-Originate-on-Mars-25552.aspx Outline the factors that are responsible for vegetation change over time Vegetation develops in many different and varied environments with each environment having different effects on the vegetation change over time. This essay will examine these different factors, in different environments. It will examine different sereal stages in different environment, the lithosere or rock environment, the psammosere or sand environment, the halosere or saltwater environment and hydrosere or fresh water environment. A sere is a stage of events by which the vegetation of an area develops over time. This begins with the pioneer community and end with the climatic climax vegetation. The first plants to colonise an area are called the pioneer community. The climatic climax vegetation is when the ultimate vegetation development has taken place and the environment has reached equilibrium e.g. when the natural vegetation has reached a stable balance with the climate and soil of an area. As an environment goes through more sereal stages the number of species of plants will increase as will their height. The island of Krakatoa in the Sundra strait between Java and Sumatra is a volcanic island, which erupted in 1883. Its development was rapid only taking twenty-five years to develop from the pioneer community to climatic climax vegetation because of the high humidity and temperatures and the rapid weathering of the volcanic rock. The diagram below shows the way an environment such as Krakatoa develops. There are two types of sereal succession primary and secondary. Primary sereal succession occurs on a new or previously sterile land. It occurs in four different types of environment lithosere, psammosere, halosere and hydrosere. A lithosere is a rock environment. These are initially colonised by blue-green bacteria, which are completely self-sufficient. Therefore the pioneer community is the mosses and lichens which are capable of living in areas which lack soil. The lichens and mosses help to weather the rock along with other types of weathering. This along with the decayed matter of mosses and lichens helps to form a veneer of soil, which can support more advanced plant life. Seeds usually of grass then colonise this soil as time passes the grasses will give way to fast growing shrubs which in turn will be replaced by fast growing trees. Finally these will face competition from slow growing trees such as ash and oak. Although each stage of the succession has been superseded the vegetation from each previous sereal 2004-07-05T22:52:04-04:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/Outline-on-Factors-for-Vegetation-Evolution-Over-Time-25526.aspx All the nutrients the body needs can easily be obtained from a vegetarian diet. In fact, research shows a vegetarian diet can be healthier that that of a typical meat eater. Nutrients are usually divided into five classes: carbohydrates, proteins, fats and oils, vitamins and minerals. We also need some dietary fibre and water. All are needed in varying quantities, from about 250g of carbohydrate per day to less than two micrograms of vitamin B12. Most foods contain a mixture of nutrients, but it is convenient to classify them by the main nutrient they provide. Girls aged 15-18 years need around 45g of protein a day (more, if very active or lactating) and boys aged 15-18 need about 55g (more if very active). Too much protein may aggravate poor or failing kidney function. Vegetarians obtain protein from four main sources: - Nuts and Seeds - Peas, Beans and Pulses - Grains and Cereals - Dairy and Eggs The humble Soya bean is an excellent source of vegetarian protein and is found in veggie bacon, tofu, pot noodles, sausages and sauces! It can be made into milk and other dairy substitutes for vegans. It is also consumed widely by omnivores as soya is found (as a bulking agent) in 70% of processed foods. It is maintained by some that it is necessary to 'combine' the proteins in a vegetarian diet to obtain an adequate supply of amino acids, eight of which are essential for adults and nine for children. Vegetarian proteins are usually deficient in one of the eight essential amino acids, so some people advise that we combine the proteins we eat in a meal or throughout the day to achieve a full complement. Any two of the protein groups in the diagram above can be combined to achieve a full complement of protein. Meals such as beans on toast, or cereal and milk are excellent examples of how proteins can be easily combined to create the full complement of amino acids. The latest research suggests that the body has a short term pool of amino acids and, because of this, we don't have to worry about complementing amino acids at every single meal, as long as our diet is varied and well-balanced. Even foods not considered to be very high in protein are adding some amino acids to this pool. Carbohydrates give us energy. There are three main types of carbohydrates: simple 2004-07-05T22:48:50-04:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/Efficacy-of-Vegetarian-Diets-25523.aspx What is Cardiovascular Disease? How may it be prevented and to what extent is heart transplant surgery a sensible solution to the problem of Coronary Heart Disease? Cardiovascular Disease, or CVD, is Britains biggest killer, responsible for 40% of premature deaths in Britain. CVD is a comprehensive term for several afflictions of the cardiovascular system - the heart and blood vessels of the body. These afflictions are Coronary Heart Disease (CHD), Atherosclerosis and arteriosclerosis, Angina, Coronary Thrombosis and Myocardial Infarction and Stroke. Apart from the high mortality rate - it is estimated that CVD kills 140,000 people a year under 75 years old, chronic heart disease causes incapacitation, suffering and pain in many of it's victims. Much heart disease is also self-inflicted and therefore avoidable. Atherosclerosis and Arteriosclerosis The underlying cause of CHD, strokes and other diseases of the blood vessels is usually atherosclerosis. Atherosclerosis is caused by the build up of cholesterol and other fatty substances in walls of arteries. Firstly the deposits form small streaks on the endothelium of the artery, but gradually build up to form patches known as atheromatous plaques. The deposit is called an atheroma and causes the arterial walls to thicken, hence narrowing the lumen of the artery. The onset of an atheromatous plaque may be caused by some physical damage to the artery, sometimes caused by high arterial pressure - hypertension. Smooth muscle cells proliferate at the site of damage and then lipids and cholesterol are deposited from the blood. The cholesterol deposited in the walls may be attacked by free radicals released by phagocytes which may slow down the passage of low density lipoproteins which carry cholesterol back into the blood with the result of increased deposition of cholesterol. Atheromatous plaques roughen the lining of the artery and disturb the flow of blood, which can stimulate the formation of a clot known as a thrombus. When blood comes into contact with fatty and fibrous tissue, platelets stick to the roughened surface and release clotting factors called thromboxanes. In healthy arteries the amount of thromboxane and prostaglandin is balanced, but in damaged arteries the balance is upset because the endothelial cells lining the artery are damaged so blood clots form. This can block the blood vessel it is forming in, or small pieces known as emboli can break off and travel through the blood vessels and jam at any narrow point in the system, causing a restriction of blood flow to 2004-07-05T22:48:08-04:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/Cardiovascular-Disease-Research-Paper-25522.aspx Mendelian Genetics Gregor Mendel was an Augustinian nineteenth century monk who, due to a series of momentous experiments, is now widely regarded as the forefather of genetics. Mendel studied the inheritance of seven contrasting characteristics of the species Pisum sativum, more commonly known as the garden pea. Each of the variables that Mendel experimented with were discontinuous; there were no intermediate forms. For example, one of the variables was length of stem, which was always either tall or short. From his experiments Mendel was able to draw solid conclusions about the inheritance of characteristics in organisms. With the advancements in genetics since his time we are now able to explain Mendel's principles in terms of chromosomes and genes. Understanding of these exact terms did not exist in Mendel's lifetime. However, Mendel's principles still form the basis of modern day genetics. In his first series of experiments Mendel allowed Pisum to self-fertilise for several generations, so that he knew that these pea plants were purebred. He then cross-fertilised plants which were purebred for contrasting characteristics. For example, he crossbred pure-bred dwarf Pissum with pure-bred tall Pissum. He carried out reciprocal crosses. Even though these plants obviously showed many characteristics he only looked at one characteristic at a time. In collecting the results of his experiments, Mendel recorded the numbers of individuals in each class in the progeny, this established the ratios of the contrasting characters of many subsequent generations. In the F1 generation all the plants were tall. Mendel then left the F1 generation plants to self-fertilise. In the F2 generation there were both tall and dwarf plants in an approximate ratio of 3:1. The same ratio was found in the F3, F4, and F5 etc. generations. Mendel realised that because the 'dwarf' characteristic had disappeared in the F1 and had then reappeared in the F2, the controlling factor for 'dwarf' had remained intact and undiluted from one generation to another. It is never expressed, however, in the presence of a factor for 'tall'. He understood that there must be two independent factors for 'dwarf' and 'tall'. Mendel comprehended that the 3:1 ratio was the product of the binomial expression derived from randomly combining two pairs of unlike elements. We now know Mendel's 'factors' to be genes found on homologous pairs of chromosomes in the nucleus of the cell. There are two or more forms of each gene known as alleles. In Mendel's experiments 2004-07-05T22:45:42-04:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/Mendelian-Genetics--25519.aspx Man has had many far-reaching effects on the environment over the years. Global warming, pollution and the damage to the ozone layer are a few of the major things that can be heard about in the news. Man has damaged the earth gradually over the years and this damage cannot be reversed, we are now trying to stop any more damage being caused to the environment. For example, hedgerows have been destroyed but now people have realized what effects this is having on the environment the government are paying farmers to replant them instead of fencing. Not all of man's effects on the environment are harmful some are beneficial. Conservation work is going on across the country and this is helping to preserve the wildlife and countryside that we have left. The expanding human population has placed a huge demand on the food production of the country. The resources are limited but the population is increasing quite rapidly so the problems are growing. The demand for food means that crops need to be perfect so the use of fertilizers and herbicides is increasing too. One of the problems in the countryside affecting the environment is the disposal of effluent and other pollutants. The main type of waste that we have to dispose of is organic effluent particularly from farms and sewage works. This is disposed of in several ways, the main one being pumping it into the sea and rivers around the country. In more recent years sewage recycling plants have been developed to reuse the water in the waste. Water treatment works are used to treat the waste before it is pumped into the river or sea. The disposal of the waste is accomplished in several ways. Direct removal into a stream or lake is the most commonly used means of disposal. In parts of the world that are faced with worsening shortages of water for both domestic and industrial use, authorities are reusing appropriately treated wastewater for, irrigation of non-edible crops, industrial processing, recreation, and other uses. In one such project, the Potable Reuse Demonstration Plant in Denver, Colorado, the treatment process uses normal primary and secondary treatment followed by lime clarification to remove suspended organic compounds. During this process, an alkaline state is created to improve the process. In the next step, re-carbonation is used to bring the pH level to neutral. Then the water is filtered through several 2004-07-05T22:44:10-04:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/Man-s-Effect-on-the-Environment-25518.aspx Introduction Chromatography is a common technique used by biochemists in separating and identifying different amino acids and helps to reveal the function of cell organelles. Chromatography is particularly approved for its accuracy in distinguishing between each compound, which it does by separating the chemicals according to their Relative Molecular Mass (RMM). The term was introduced in 1906 by Mikhail Tswett and is derived from the Greek words 'chroma´, meaning colour and 'graphein´, meaning to draw. The most popular type of chromatography employs either absorbent paper, or a dried, thin layer of powder on a glass or plastic base. There are 20 naturally occurring amino acids. The generalised structure of an amino acid is NH2CHRCOOH. This consists of an amine group (NH2), carboxylic acid group (COOH) and a distinctive R group bonded to the ?-carbon atom. The R group (or 'side chain´) varies in size, shape, charge, hydrogen bonding, capacity and chemical reactivity. The simplest structure is glycine, which has only an extra hydrogen atom in the side chain. Proteins consist of long chains of amino acids which are held together by chemical linkages called peptide bonds In this experiment, albumen will be used as the chosen protein. Albumen is globular and has a simple structure. Trypsin will be added (the enzyme functioning in the hydrolysis reaction) to the test tube and it will be given a 24 hour incubation at the ideal temperature of 30oC. The trypsin should then have broken up all the albumen into the separate amino acids. Aim To separate and identify a mixture of amino acids by paper chromatography. Method Cut a piece of chromatography paper to about 25cms in length and place on a clean surface. To avoid contamination, hold the paper at the top and wear plastic gloves throughout the whole experiment. Draw a line in pencil three centimetres from the bottom of the paper and then four marks lightly along the line at four centimetre intervals. Using a micropipette, take the prepared albumen from the test tube and lightly dot a small amount on each pencil mark The paper should then by wafted swiftly over a blue flame to speed evaporation. This process should then be repeated 40 times, applying the same amount of albumen to the same area, to build up a concentration. This is necessary for the chromatogram results to be clear and distinct. Always remain standing and be careful with the evaporation process, as it is very easy for the 2004-07-05T22:43:06-04:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/Identification-of-amino-acids-by-chromatography-lab-25517.aspx A HIV particle approaches and attaches to a lymphocyte. (Lymphocytes, which include helper T cells and killer T cells, are small white blood cells that are critical in immune defense and are HIV's principal target.) In order to replicate itself, an HIV particle must get its RNA, which is the genetic blueprint for a new particle, inside the host cell. To do that, the viral particle must first bind to two chief receptors on the outside of the host cell, much like a key fitting into a lock. If even one of those receptors, which are known as CD4 and CCR5 receptors, is missing, the viral core containing the RNA will not get into the cell. (Researchers have found that some AIDS patients, known as long-term non-progressors because they are HIV-positive yet show few or no symptoms of the disease, are missing the gene for one of these receptors.) The binding process is facilitated by a molecule on the surface of the HIV particle called gp120 (for glycoprotein with a molecular weight of 120). Once the viral particle has successfully binded to the host cell, its core can pass through the cell wall into the cell's cytoplasm. The core then dissolves, leaving the RNA and catalyzing enzymes ready to begin the process of replication. Viral RNA transforms itself into double-stranded DNA, and then integrats into the host cell's DNA in order to produce new viral RNA. Once inside the host cell, the viral RNA migrates toward the nucleus through the cell's cytoplasm and eventually through the nuclear membrane. A series of steps that ultimately ends in a new HIV particle follows. First, through a process known as reverse transcription, the enzyme known as reverse transcriptase catalyzes the formation of double-stranded viral DNA using the single-stranded viral RNA as a template. Employing other enzymes such as integrase (shown by the starburst in step 4 and in the graphic at right above), the new viral DNA then breaks open the host cell's DNA and integrates itself into it. This leads to the formation of a new viral RNA strand, which migrates out of the host's DNA. The new viral RNA moves into the cytoplasm, where new viral proteins are built using the viral RNA as a blueprint. A new viral particle is assembled and then migrates out of the host cell to infect new cells. Once the viral protein parts have been built, they are assembled into 2004-07-05T22:41:20-04:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/HIV-Life-Cycle--25513.aspx Exotic diseases are one of the greatest threats to humanity. In a world where so many things are overlooked, diseases and epidemics are clearly overlooked and underestimated far more than any threat of nuclear war, global warming, or any comet headed for earth. Throughout history epidemics have plagued the earth several times resulting in a devastating number of deaths. In this new millennium, many new and old diseases await humanity. What the world doesn't comprehend is that an epidemic can be easily spawn off by many other problems humanity faces today. Some of those problems are high population density, newly inhabited areas, increased travel, new generation without immunity, mutation in microbes, over use of antibiotics, poverty/poor sanitation, and change in human activities. Diseases come into existence, change, and vanish, but some have always been with us. An epidemic attacks a population, it and runs its course, and then dies out, claiming hundreds to thousands of lives. There are ways of preventing some epidemics from starting, but not everyone agrees with the terms. Thus, these prevention plans for some diseases fail. Humanity is faced with many dangers of a doomsday in the next millennium, but the one that seems the most likely to happen is a world epidemic. Pg. 2 Human activities and behavior often help increases the risk of a world epidemic. In such activities like increased travel, shipments of resources and wild animals increase the possibility of catching a deadly virus and starting to spread an epidemic. Human behavior such as neglect can determine the fate of a world epidemic. Most people believe that Ebola or any other exotic disease would spawn off and epidemic only in third world countries, but that´s not true. In 1989 Ebola made it´s way to the United States. The virus hit Virginia, but luckily only in some Monkey´s. The monkeys were shipped in from West Africa, for experiments. What most people didn´t realize right away was that some of the monkeys were infected with Ebola. When the monkey´s arrived, the World Health Organization had found some dead, and diagnosed them with Ebola. The military had to quarantine and then kill all 400 monkey´s before the virus could start an epidemic in the United States. They were lucky they found some of the monkey´s dead and quickly knew from the way they died what from, if the monkey´s were still in the early stages of 2004-07-05T22:40:33-04:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/Exotic-Diseases--25512.aspx The nature of all aquatic environments depends upon the following factors which exert their effects in varying degree: i) The depth of water Has an important secondary effect by reducing the penetration of light and hence the degree of colonization by plants. ii) Light Water absorbs light of long wavelengths, particularly the blue part of the visible spectrum. Since this would not normally be sufficient for photosynthesis, many freshwater plants possess adaptations so that light does not become a limiting factor in their growth. iii) Substrate Streams that carry a large amount of sediment in suspension (e.g. due to a muddy stream bed) may have a decreased amount of light available to submerged aquatics. A muddy stream bed may also pose problems to the attachment or respiration of animals, and can lead to a build up of semi decomposed organic matter. This can lead to a high biological oxygen demand (BOD) and the water becoming anoxic, killing off most life. iv) Temperature Water possesses certain thermal properties which make it a unique environment. In particular, it has a high specific heat, high latent heat of fusion and the highest known latent heat of evaporation. The combination of these properties explains why temperature variations occurring in water are less than those on land. Moreover, when they occur, they take place far more slowly. Most aquatic organisms are well able to tolerate the normal range of temperature variations that occur throughout the year and are known as eurythermous. Species with a narrow temperature tolerance (stenothermous) tend to be restricted in their distribution to particular habitats such as the sources of mountain streams, where the temperature of the water changes little throughout the year. Another important physical feature of water is that it achieves its maxiumum density at 4°C. Above and below this temperature it expands and therefore becomes lighter. This accounts for the fact that deeper waters never freeze solid in cold weather - an important consideration for the animals that live there. v) Availability of Oxygen Freshwater contains significantly less oxygen than air, causing aquatic animals to need to move much more of the surrounding medium than land organisms, to extract the equivalent oxygen. The availability of oxygen relates closely to the development of gills and other respiratory organs. Some burrowers in mud, such as the lavae of some Diptera make use of respiratory pigments like haemoglobin which aid oxygen uptake, indicating the degree of adaptation to anaerobic conditions. Fast flowing water, because 2004-07-05T22:39:53-04:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/Fresh-Water-Ecology-25509.aspx Succession is "A sequence of ecological changes in an area whereby one group of plant or animal species successively gives way to another, culminating in a climax community." This succession occurs in a number of sereal stages. A sere is a stage in a sequence of events by which succession occurs. The complete chain of seres is called a prisere. It begins with a pioneer community and ends with a climax community. This climax community occurs when the ultimate vegetation has become in equilibrium with the local environment. There are four main areas where succession occurs rocky environment called a lithosere, sandy environment called a psammosere, a fresh water environment called a hydrosere and a salt-water environment called a halosere. Two examples of a litosere are Sutsey a newly, formed volcanic island and Krakatoa an island striped of all its vegetation by a series of volcanic eruptions. Sutsey is located to the south east of Iceland and is slowly becoming colonised. The first colonisers of the bare rock on a lithosere environment are blue-green bacteria and single cell photosynthesisers, both of which have no need of a root system. Blue-green bacteria are autotrophs producing their own food through photosynthesis. The presence of blue-green bacteria along with weathering processes help to break up soil creating a very thin soil layer. More advanced plant life can then be supported in this thin soil. Once this plant life dies it rots down to create a humus layer to the soil. This humus layer is then capable of supporting grass seeds. As time progresses the grass species will give way to more dominant species such as small shrubs which in turn will replaced by relatively fast growing trees such as rowan. Eventually these trees will face competition from slow growing trees such as ash and oak. Sutsey however is unlikely to ever reach this climax community due to its frequent salty spray, storms and low temperatures for much of the year. Krakatoa however has reached its climax community with eight hundred different species being recorded in 1983 one hundred years after the clearance of the island. Psammoseres occur in a sandy environment. An example of this is Camber Sands, which has developed over time from a small beach to a complete dune system. The pioneer community in a psammosere is usually lyme grass, sea twitch and marram grass that begin to initiate dune development. These plants hold 2004-07-05T22:37:37-04:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/Ecological-Succession-25508.aspx Creutzfeldt-Jakob disease: Rare fatal degenerative disease of the central nervous system. Creutzfeldt-Jakob disease occurs throughout the world at an incidence of one person in a million; however, among certain populations, such as Libyan Jews, rates are somewhat higher. The disease commonly arises in adults between the ages of 40 and 70, although some young adults have been stricken with the disease. Both men and women are affected equally. The onset of the disease is usually marked by vague psychiatric or behavioral changes, which are followed within weeks or months by a progressive dementia that is often accompanied by abnormal vision and involuntary movements. There is no known cure for the disease, which usually proves fatal within a year of the onset of symptoms. Creutzfeldt-Jakob disease was first described in the 1920s by two German physicians, Hans G. Creutzfeldt and Alfons M. Jakob. It is similar to other neurodegenerative diseases such as kuru, a human disorder, and scrapie, which occurs in sheep and goats. All three diseases are types of transmissible spongiform encephalopathies, so called because of the characteristic spongelike pattern of neuronal destruction that leaves brain tissue pitted with holes. It is this deterioration that causes progressive loss of mental functioning and motor control. The cause of the neurodegeneration has been the topic of much debate. In the 1960s researchers demonstrated that the disease was transmissible from humans to animals. The disease-causing agent was thought to be a slow virus--i.e., a virus that is incubated within the body for years without causing symptoms. Subsequent evidence suggested that Creutzfeldt-Jakob disease, as well as other spongiform encephalopathies, is not caused by a virus but by an unusual pathogenic agent called a prion. A prion is a deviant form of a normally harmless protein found in the brains of mammals and birds. As prions replicate--by converting normal forms of the protein into their abnormal shape--they build up within nerve cells, causing neurodegeneration. Although Creutzfeldt-Jakob disease can be acquired through infection with the prion protein, all but 1 percent of cases are either inherited or sporadic (i.e., occurring at random). Sporadic forms account for the majority of cases of the disease--between 85 and 90 percent. In these cases it is unclear what molecular process causes the aberrant protein to appear in the first place. Researchers speculate that the protein may arise from a mutation incurred as the body ages or as a result of a spontaneous conversion in 2004-07-05T22:36:43-04:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/Creutzfeldt-Jakob-Disease-25506.aspx Actions and Effects of Creatine Throughout time, humans have had a fascination with being excellent at what they do, and athletics have been no exception. Many substances exist, and many have been criticized and analyzed for their safety, legality, and morality for athletes. With the banning of steroids from competitive sports, and the implementation of random drug testing in most sports, most athletes, professional, recreational, and would-be professionals are hoping to gain an edge. More recently, one such edge has been discovered, and it has found itself in locker rooms across the country, in the hands of these athletes, and all the while, and probably more importantly, in the media's direct line of fire. Although legal, creatine has it's proponents and it's opponents, through this paper, I'll discuss some of the factors that make creatine such a hot topic in sports and the health industry. To understand why people use creatine, we must first understand what it is. Creatine is a naturally occurring nutrient that is found in the body (Sahelian, 2000). It is also found in meat and fish, usually at a concentration of about 4 grams of creatine per kilogram (Sahelian, 2000). As a general fact, we consume around 1 gram per day from out daily diet. Vegetarians have a much lower intake of creatine than most meat eaters, and will usually have a noted reaction to creatine supplementation due to this fact (Sahelian, 2000). To apply creatine to the muscle building process, we must understand what it does. When we use our muscle everyday for any activity, we use oxygen to make energy. This energy is created by breaking down a chemical that exists in our body known as adenosine triphosphate (ATP), into another chemical, adenosine diphosphate (ADP), but using oxygen to make energy is a very slow process (Sahelian, 2000). This is the part of the process where creatine makes itself known. Current studies show that creatine supplementation can increase the amount of creatine in muscles, which in turn, speeds up the ATP refueling process (Murphy, 2000). This enhances performance by producing more energy for brief, high-intensity exercise such as sprinting, and allowing for more strenuous workouts (Gutfeld, 1997). All of these factors are crucial to athletes who are searching for their legal "magic bullet". Creatine was first discovered by a French scientist in 1832 (Bamberger, 1998). This scientist discovered a naturally occurring organic compound that could 2004-07-05T22:34:57-04:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/Actions-and-Effects-of-Creatine-25504.aspx A balanced diet is one that provides an adequate intake of energy and nutrients for maintenance of the body and therefore good health. A diet can easily be adequate for normal bodily functioning, yet may not be a balanced diet. An ideal human diet contains fat, protein, carbohydrates, vitamins, minerals, water and fibre all in correct proportions. These proportions vary for each individual because everyone has different metabolic rates and levels of activity. Malnutrition results from an unbalanced diet, this can be due to an excess of some dietary components and lack of other components, not just a complete lack of food. Too much of one component can be as much harm to the body as too little. Deficiency diseases occur when there is a lack of a specific nutrient, although some diet related disorders are a result of eating an excess. An adequate diet provides sufficient energy for the performance of metabolic work, although the energy food is in an unspecified form. A balanced diet provides all dietary requirements in the correct proportions. Ideally this would be 1/7 fat, 1/7 protein and 5/7 carbohydrate. Energy is provided by carbohydrates, fats and proteins. Proteins are a provider of energy in an emergency, but are primarily used as building blocks for growth and repair of many body tissues. These energy providing compounds are needed in large quantities in our diet so are described as macronutrients. We also need much smaller amounts of other nutrients, such as vitamins and minerals. Because much smaller quantities are needed for a balanced diet these are known as micronutrients. Despite the small quantities needed these are essential to provide a healthy diet as they have specific roles in metabolic reactions and as structural components. Within the cells of our body, the nutrients ingested are converted to other compounds which are then used for metabolism and other cellular reactions. Starch, a major carbohydrate is converted to glucose which can be then synthesised into fat for storage, proteins are synthesised from amino acids, and phospholipids are made from glycerol and fatty acids. However there are some organic compounds which despite being essential for a healthy diet cannot be made by cells so must be provided by diet. These are essential amino acids, essential fatty acids and vitamins. Carbohydrates Carbohydrates are a rapid source of energy, they are the body's fuel. The bulk of a balanced diet should be made from carbohydrates. If eaten in an 2004-07-05T22:34:10-04:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/A-Balanced-Diet--25501.aspx Water is essential to life itself, with out water life on earth would not exist. Water is a major component of cells, typically forming between 70 and 95% of the mass of the cell. This means that we are made from approximately 80% water by mass and some soft bodied creatures such as jellyfish are made of up to 96% water. Water also provides an environment for organisms to live in, 75% of the earth is covered in water. Water itself is a simple molecule made up of 2 hydrogen atoms and one oxygen atom, H20. The hydrogen and oxygen atoms are bonded covalently as shown in the diagram of water's electron structure. Water is not a linear molecule, the two hydrogen atoms form a bond with the oxygen at the angle of 104.5o. Diagram of water's electron structure Covalent bonds are formed by sharing electrons in the outer orbits of the quantum shells. In the case of water however the large number of protons in the oxygen nucleus have a stronger attraction for these shared electrons than the comparatively tiny hydrogen nuclei. This pulls the electrons slightly closer to the oxygen nucleus and away from the hydrogen so that the oxygen develops a slight negative charge and the hydrogen's a slight positive charge. This makes the molecules slightly polar. Diagram of water molecule showing slight charges This slight charge means that when water molecules are close together the positively charged hydrogen atoms are attracted to the negatively charged oxygen atoms of another water molecule to form a weak hydrogen bond. The bonds are weak individually but the sheer number of them means that the total force keeping the molecules together is considerable. Diagram of water molecules forming hydrogen bonds Water is an unusual substance, mostly due to it's hydrogen bonds, it's properties allow it to act as a solvent, a reactant, as a molecule with a cohesive properties, as an environment and as a temperature stabiliser. Water can dissolve polar or ionic substances and can keep them in solution because of water's own polar properties. Substances that dissolve in water are know as hydrophilic substances. Ionic substances such as sodium chloride, NaCl, are made up of positive and negative ions. Sodium chloride is held in it's structure by the strong attraction between it's positive sodium ions and negative chloride ions. Normally these ionic attractions require a large amount of energy to break but when put into water the 2004-07-05T21:54:06-04:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/Biological-Importance-of-Water-25452.aspx Since the beginning of time, energy has pervaded our earth. These days we rely on it to advance in our technological developments. We also need energy for a variety of other things such as: to keep our bodies alive and healthy, to run our machines and other technical devices, we also rely on energy to keep warm in winter and cool in summer. Energy is the ability to do work. People and other things can run out of energy (e.g. a marathon runner) in which case they can no longer have the ability to do work. In a mechanical situation, if a machine has energy it has the ability to apply a force to another body. There are many different forms of energy and there are many different places by which energy can be gathered. Forms of energy include: Potential energy, kinetic energy, gravitational potential energy, elastic potential energy and there are many more. Energy can be gathered in many ways using our natural recourses from the environment, for example: solar energy (from the sun) and hydroelectricity (where electricity is gathered by rushing water) Hydroelectricity is when electricity is generated by rotating coils of wire (rotors) between the poles of a magnet. The rotors are turned by rushing water falling over them. In a hydroelectric plant, water in usually stored in a damn. As the water falls down and rushes over the vanes connected to the rotors it looses gravitational potential energy and gains kinetic energy. As the metal wire rotates around the magnet it generates electricity which is then sent along power lines to all areas of the city or town. Here is a description of the transformation of energy as a pole-vaulter completes a jump. Firstly, when the pole-vaulter runs forward the muscles in the legs are doing work as a result of energy to push him/her forward. As the pole digs into the ground and stops, the forward motion of the runner causes the pole to bend, giving it elastic potential energy. If the pole-vaulter were to let go of the pole at this point, the pole release upwards rapidly. As he/she jumps off the ground, it slowly releases the elastic potential energy of the pole and transforms it into kinetic energy, forcing the pole-vaulter upward and forward. If he/she jumps too early, there would not be enough elastic potential energy created to force him/her over the 2004-07-05T09:39:30-04:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/Physics-Essay-The-Conservation-of-Energy-25356.aspx Ecological Succession Ecosystems undergo changes in their structure and function as time passes. Some of these changes are minor and only affect a small area, others are the cause of major changes in the species present and affect the ecosystem as a whole. Major changes can be caused by changes in climate, external factors such as fire, trampling or pollution and development due to the system itself. Succession is a result of these changes and is defined as a series of progressive changes in an area with one community replacing the other until a climax community is created. A climax community consists of plants and animals, the animals present are dictated by the plants available. There will normally be a dominant species of plant and animal or a number of co-dominant species, these species are normally the most numerous and have the greatest biomass. The climax community is normally seen as the ultimate development of the ecosystem. There are 2 types of succession; primary and secondary. Primary succession is the colonisation of an area which has not supported an ecosystem before, eg sand dunes, volcanoes and new ponds. Secondary succession is ecological succession in an area which has supported an ecosystem whose development to a steady state has been prevented by inhibitory factors such as grazing or fire. When the inhibitory factor is removed secondary succession takes the ecosystem to maturity. The sequence of communities during succession is known as a sere, the type of sere is determined by the environment being colonised, eg a hydrosere is a series of successions in an aquatic environment and a xerosere is a succession beginning in a dry area. The individual communities of each succession are the seral stages, the seral stages are not normally distinct but tend to merge into one another as the succession progresses. During succession energy flow in an ecosystem is fundamentally changed, the changes are demonstrated in the quantity of standing crop in the ecosystem. During early seral stages the energy inputs to the system are larger than the energy outputs, this results in little change in the standing crop. The energy flow is at a maximum during the climax stage. When the ecosystem is disturbed by external factors, eg fire the energy loss is greater than energy inputs. This results in a decrease in the amount of standing crop. The accumulation of energy as biomass is most marked 2004-07-05T09:36:42-04:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/Ecological-Succession-25351.aspx Evolution is defined as genetically based change from generation to generation. IF and ONLY if you look exactly the same as both your parents and they look exactly the same as your grandparents and so on back to the beginning of life (however you define that beginning) can you say that evolution has not occurred. Since I assume you are an organism born on this planet, and that you are a human being, rather than some clonal organism (one that reproduces by budding or similar method), I assume you do not look exactly like both your parents and that they do not look exactly like their parents, and that the differences are, at least in part, genetically based. Therefore, within your own family, evolution has occurred. You have seen evolution. Evolution is a fact, not a theory. How long evolution has occurred, under what circumstances, and what drives it are theories. Evolution is not the theory, HOW life has been shaped by evolution is the theory. When a scientist says "the theory of evolution", it's not the "theory that evolution occurred," it's the "theory of how evolution occurred" that's being spoken of. Even so, a scientific theory is a bit different than "I think the moon is made of green cheese." A scientific theory must be 1) falsifiable and 2) not disproved after some investigation. Falsifiability means that you can disprove it without resorting to supernatural phenomenon. Show me a way to disprove that some god (any god) created the world, that could be done through natural investigation, and I'll say it meets one of the criteria. I haven't seen such a way even offered yet. So far, the theory evolution by means of natural selection (which was Charles Darwin's theory) has been shown to be the best explanation for the path evolution has taken life. The hypotheses ("sub-theories") of the exact nature of how natural selection works are constantly being modified as we learn more and more about our world. Those hypotheses are constantly challenged and should be (that's how science learns more!). And much of what Darwin and Wallace wrote about in their early work has been found to be incorrect, but the basic premise that evolution occurs through natural selection has not been disproved. The theory of natural selection says that organisms which do better in a particular environment will pass that ability to do better on to their offspring, and that those 2004-07-05T04:17:21-04:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/What-is-Evolution--25288.aspx The Theory of Evolution can be divided into two parts, micro-evolution and macro-evolution. Micro-evolution deals with small changes within a species which adapt that species to be better suited to its environment. This process is well supported with scientific evidence and doesn't conflict with a Christian understanding of reality. Macro-evolution claims that through major genetic mutations one species can evolve into another, so over a long period of time fish could evolve into insects, birds and mammals. From this concept it's suggested that all life could have evolved from simple chemical structures, thus life could have resulted from natural processes without the need for a creator. Macro-evolution is highly contentious and its more extreme interpretations challenge conventional Christian thinking. It's sometimes suggested that God chose to create life through evolution, however, there's now a weighty and growing body of both scientific and philosophical evidence that discredits macro-evolution. This article very briefly surveys that evidence. Firstly, there's the question of how life itself originally got started. The theory of macro-evolution suggests how to develop from one species to another, but it can't explain how to jump from no life to life or from unconscious to conscious. There are two questions in this area that macro-evolution can't answer. Firstly, the DNA molecules which store the genetic code for living beings are extremely complex even for the most basic forms of life. Where did the original injection of the genetic information for life come from? The second question centres around an issue termed irreducible complexity. Even in the simplest life forms there are a number of different and complex components which must all be in place for life to occur. Take any of the components away and you no longer have life. The building blocks of living beings are complex and are not independent. How can these components have been assembled separately apart from pre-existent life? A second serious challenge to macro-evolution comes in the forms of fossils. The theory suggests that through genetic mutations over a long period of time, species gradually evolve into new species. If this were the case, you'd expect to find a whole spectrum of species within the fossil record at different stages of evolution. However, the fossil records do not show life evolving from one species to another. On the contrary, there's a notable absence of any fossils of species at intermediate stages of evolution. Further, there aren't obvious intermediate species around today. The 2004-07-05T04:11:05-04:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/What-About-Evolution-A-Christian-Outlook-25286.aspx Imagine thirty or forty years form now. Biotechnology has really advanced. Scientist can now clone people and also change their DNA strands making them better or perfect all around. Do you think that it is safe to tinker with Mother Nature? Is it wise to try and control Mother Nature? Better yet can she ever be controlled? Whether or not she can be controlled is a big of deal. If we can control Mother Nature she will end up controlling us sooner or later. It is not a smart idea to tinker with such a great power that the world has depended on for many years. Scientist can study and try to do many things but one thing they can never do is control Mother Nature. I believe biotechnology is not really necessary in this day in age. What is the point in trying to clone a person and make them better? This technology can be very harmful to us as well as the earth. Biotechnology will change many things and can ruin the balance of nature. In the short story by Jeremy Rifkin, he states "Initial fears focused on the nightmare scenario of newly engineered microorganisms escaping from the lab and causing uncontrollable damage to the other organisms in the environment." (The Ultimate Therapy: Commercial Eugenics on the Eve of the Biotech Century p.542-543) If the balance of nature is interrupted it can cause a lot of destruction. For example if a scientist were to take a species of any type from its original habitat and introduce it to a new environment it will cause the environment to change as well as its balance. The species may eliminate other species causing the food chain to change. Biotechnology is a great danger to the human species. Imagine people walking around looking like twins but one is better in every way then the other. There is already enough racism in this world why do we need to set new standard of a persons well being in his or her society. If scientist were to clone people they could improve the clone, putting the natural human specie at a lower level of life. There would no longer be natural people all the clones would survive caused by Darwin's theory "Survival of the fittest." 2004-07-05T01:02:59-04:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/Tinkering-With-Mother-Nature-25270.aspx The issue of bio-ethics presents a myriad of new dilemmas; all of which have arisen in the recent past, and must be addressed in the near future. The majority of these questions stem from the introduction of new, genetically-engineered organisms. These organisms, or at least many of them, are created in laboratories, by gene splicing, swapping, etc. and essentially, these scientists are playing god, creating biological entities as they want them. This is the main source of the controversy. In more developed countries where genetically engineered disputes may ensue, the trend is total protection through patents and other regulatory and monitoring agencies. These problems come about from identification of the new bio-engineered organisms, and this approach allows the industries and entrepreneurs to recover the enormous costs involved in the research and development of genetic engineering. It promotes the development of products to benefit society, and it allows access for a larger genetic bank for analyses, experimentation, and investigation. There is a second side to this coin-it means that the researchers can assert an excessive price to their 'product' while eliminating any competition for a given period of time. It allows for copies of living things to be made easily and inexpensively. This happens outside the United States, where strict regulations are not in continuity with those pirating compact discs in Japan, bottling Coca Cola in India, etc. No countries spend any monetary amount comparable to the over 300 million dollars to run the patent and trademark office, as the U.S. does. Another observation can be made that because of the time involved and the cost that the free flow of information is inhibited between researchers. These arguments all take place under the umbrella that "Life forces can be controlled by ownership." Many countries take the view that these genetic products are not intellectual property, and as such, not subject to the conventional patent laws. These properties should not be protected and belong to society as much as any organism which has naturally evolved through normal processes. GATT (General Agreement on Trade and Tariff) has attempted to address this issue through a larger commercial / trade package; however, this is a position in which very little agreement among parties is found. In this case, the outcome will most likely be the elimination of the issue in favor of reaching 2004-07-05T01:02:35-04:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/Bio-Ethics--25269.aspx Genetic Engineering: Science vs. Religion What View Does Science Have on Genetic Engineering? For the first time in history, evolution has taken a backseat to the meddling of humankind with their own genetic makeup. There is an "ongoing realization that humanity is capable of directly shaping its own and other species' evolution". As we ease into the twenty-first century, we realize that genetic engineering is undoubtedly going to have a dramatic effect on our lives. It seems that "with genetic engineering, science has moved from exploring the natural world and its mechanisms to redesigning it." Now, we must ask ourselves this, will that influence be for better, or for worse? However, even the responses of science differ in this topic. Scientists remain divided in their opinions. Some have warned against the hazards of genetic engineering, while others have dismissed these perils as inconsequential. Two opposing viewpoints, which is right? Lewis Wolpert, professor of biology as applied to medicine at University College London, says that, "There are no ethical issues because you are not doing any harm to anyone." And indeed, the gist of his statement is staunchly supported by James Watson, a Nobel Prize winner and president of Cold Spring Habour Laboratory. "If we can make better human beings by knowing how to add genes, why shouldn't we do it? The biggest ethical problem is not using our knowledge." They are both extremely critical of excuses that genetic engineering is a bad idea. Are they absolutely right? Are the predictions of "doomsday" just insubstantial bits of fluff with no proof to support these claims? Are we truly so confident as to proceed with no holds barred? Both scientists seem not to have the slightest bit of anxiety regarding potential glitches. They have found a fascinating "playground" in genetic engineering, and appears that it is not only a way for them to earn their livelihood, but also gain fame and fortune. Is their attitude towards this serious issue too cavalier or biased? Are they too unclear about the likelihood of threats to civilization? In contrast, two other prominent scientists have displayed their displeasure about genetic engineering. They have made no secret of the rather strong feelings against genetic engineering. George Wald, Nobel Prize-winning biologist and Harvard professor, wrote: "Recombinant DNA technology [genetic engineering] faces our society with problems unprecedented not only in the history of science, but of life on the Earth. It places in human hands the 2004-07-04T20:54:47-04:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/Genetic-Engineering-Science-vs_-Religion-25259.aspx COSMOLOGY, THEORIES The twentieth century has seen cosmology transformed from metaphysics into a branch of physics, and the laws governing fundamental forces and elementary particles have been wedded to astronomical observations to produce a description of the past and present states of the visible universe. Prior to the creation of the general theory of relativity in 1915 by Albert Einstein, no attempts had been made to produce a mathematical description of the entire universe. Einstein's new relativistic theory of gravitation allowed consistent mathematical models of entire universes-even those with infinite size-to be formulated. Einstein's equations describe how these universes will change in time and from place to place. The simplest possible universe that can arise is one that is unchanging in time and uniform from place to place. This static universe was first proposed by Einstein in 1917 as a manifestation of the centuries-old prejudice that the universe as a whole be unchanging. In order to achieve this static state Einstein had to modify his original equations by the addition of a small constant term (dubbed the "cosmological constant") that was allowed, but not required, by the internal consistency of the theory. Subsequently, in the 1920s, it was shown by Willem de Sitter, Alexander Friedmann, and Georges Lemaitre that such static solutions are of a very special sort that would not arise in practice; the slightest deviation from perfect uniformity would cause the universe either to expand or contract as a whole. Following this discovery attention focused upon universes that expand in time. In the late 1920s Edwin Hubble discovered that the light from distant galaxies is shifted in the direction of the red end of the spectrum of visible light by an amount that is directly proportional to their distance away from us. This redshifting of the spectrum is characteristic of the Doppler shift produced by a receding source of radiation. These observations established the expanding-universe theory as the basic paradigm of twentieth-century cosmology. The standard theory of the expanding universe is a reconstruction of its past history and is usually called the Hot Big Bang theory (a term invented by Fred Hoyle), because the expansion implies that the universe was hotter and denser in the past. The expansion and the attractive The expansion and the attractive nature of gravity imply that the expansion must have begun at some finite past time (about 15 billion years ago) if the laws 2004-07-04T01:01:01-04:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/Cosmology-Theory-25199.aspx Skin Cancer Gone are the days when people sent children outside to play to get a little color in their cheeks. They know too much about the dangers of unprotected sun exposure and the threat of skin cancer. Or do they? Despite the fact that 58% of parents remembered hearing about the importance of protecting their children from the sun, children are still playing in the sun without sunscreen or protective clothing (3., p 1). Sunburn is the most preventable risk factor of skin cancer. Skin type and family history cannot be changed. Protection from the sun and education of the potential hazards of the sun need serious attention. The American Cancer Society estimates that over 850,000 cases of skin cancer will occur in the United States during 1996. Of those cases, they predict that 9,430 will end in death (4., p 1). Apparently, Americans still do not have an adequate amount of prevention information to help reduce the disfigurement and mortality from this cancer. Exposure to the ultraviolet radiation from the sun is the most frequently blamed source of skin cancer. Due to the reduction of ozone in the earth's atmosphere, UV radiation is higher today than it was several years ago. Ozone serves as a filter to screen out and reduce the UV light that reaches the earth's surface and its people. Very simply, sunburn and UV light can damage the skin and lead to skin cancer (1., p 1). The American Cancer Society also faulted repeated exposure to x-rays, artificial forms of UV radiation like tanning beds, and contact with chemicals like coal tar and arsenic as other causes of skin cancer (4., p 1). Additionally, if there is a history of skin cancer in the family, an individual may be at a higher risk (1., p 1). Individuals who have experienced only one serious sunburn have increased their risk of skin cancer by as much as 50% (1., p 4). There are three main types of skin cancer: basal cell carcinoma, squamous cell carcinoma, and malignant melanoma. Basal cell carcinoma usually imposes itself on areas of the skin that have been exposed to the sun. It usually appears as a small raised bump with a smooth shiny surface. Another type resembles a scar that is firm to the touch. Although this specific type 2004-06-26T17:48:23-04:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/Skin-Cancer-The-Potential-Hazards-of-Too-Much-Sun-25186.aspx Ruse and Wilson in “Moral Philosophy as Applied Science” give the example of brother-sister incest avoidance as being an ethical code motivated by an epigenetic rule that confers an adaptive advantage on those who avoid intercourse with their siblings. In this discussion, Ruse and Wilson argue that moral laws disallowing incest are redundant relics of mankind’s evolutionary history that provide nothing to mankind but explanations of a hard-wired evolutionary trait (179). I reject this argument. While Ruse and Wilson are undoubtedly correct in believing that mankind’s capacity for moral reasoning is a result of natural selection pressure and that most ancient moral laws have an evolutionary basis, I believe that describing the genesis of moral reasoning in this way provides no information about the content of our moral beliefs now. While our capacity for moral reasoning may have evolved for the purpose of informing our otherwise unjustifiable acts with a sense of objective certitude, it is not hard to imagine that this capacity, once evolved, would be capable of much more than simply rubber stamping mankind’s collective genetic predisposition. In this paper, I will use the example of an evolutionary explanation against intentional killing for personal gain to argue for the existence of a disconnect between evolutionary biology and ethics. Ruse and Wilson might argue that human beings evolved with a genetic predisposition against murder for convenience. It is easy to see how this might be true. A person who kills others for convenience must live apart from society and apart from potential mates or else must be killed by society. This epigenetic rule “predisposes us to think that certain courses of action are right and certain courses of action are wrong (180).” These motivate ethical premises which “are the peculiar products of genetic history” and can “be understood solely as mechanisms that are adaptive for the species that possess them (186).” I reject this notion that evolution completely prescribes ethics. Nature is amoral absent intelligent beings who make moral judgements. Once the capacity for moral reasoning is established, it does not follow that our ethical laws must necessarily mimic our evolutionary predisposition. While in the cases of selection against brother-sister incest avoidance or against murder for convenience it is easy to see how evolution can bring about an outcome that we now judge to be moral, it can just as easily effect traits that we now believe immoral. Few people would 2004-06-13T00:19:11-04:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/Ruse-and-Wilson-on-Incest-Essay-25164.aspx Genetic Testing And Individuals With Disabilities Some individuals within the disabilities community have stated that the use of genetic testing, which results in the abortion of fetuses with certain traits or dispositions, can be interpreted as a form of eugenics. Prenatal screening programs that prevent the occurrence of children being born do exist, as noted earlier in the state of California. "The success of the program is evaluated not in terms of information given to mothers but rather in terms of the number of children with handicaps who were not born. When number of births prevented is the measure of a public health intervention it is hard to say that anything other than negative eugenics fuels support for such programs" (Duster). Whether or not professionals within our society believe that we are moving away from the ideas of the early 20th century of "purifying our society," genetic testing and information is still being utilized for similar eugenics purposes today. We could easily move further away from this idea by providing more information about individuals with disabilities to people within our community, especially prospective parents. Potential parents need more information on raising a child with a disability before they can make an informed decision about genetic testing and diagnosis. Also, genetic professionals must think about their own feelings and points of view on individuals with disabilities if they plan on assisting couples along the way. Genetic testing is not always the case of why people abort the fetus, they have a choice also; in many cases, the prognosis of a disability would not affect their decision one way or another. I believe that if an individual truly feels that they cannot handle the special needs of a child with or without disabilities, then it should be their choice to cease the pregnancy. Many people perceive bearing a child with a disability as a frightful situation, although the truth is that no one, other than the experienced, knows what it is like to bear a child with a disability. Some people that I have spoken with say that it was the most enriching experience of their life, and that they would never change any of their choices concerning the birth of their child with a disability. It may be a difficult situation for a parent to give birth to a child with a genetic 2004-06-10T05:58:42-04:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/Eugenics-Discussinon,-Genetic-Testing-Essay-25129.aspx Sea Otter Research Essay In the oceans today there are many different types of animals. This includes over 27,000 different types of bony fish along with thousands of other types of various animals. But would you have thought that an animal that is part of the weasel family lives in the ocean alongside all these other animals? Well it is true. The sea otter is this animal and has adapted well to an oceanic life. The sea otter has differences between the male and female. As with following with nature the male of the two is the larger animal at approximately four and a half feet in length and weighing in at up to 85 pounds. The female is approximately four feet in length and weighs in at around the 55-pound mark. A newborn young of the species weighs in at 3-5 pounds and is approximately 16 to 22 inches in length. Sea otters do not have the blubber that whales and dolphins do for insulation against the cold. They use fur as their insulation against the cold of the water. The fur that the sea otter has is the thickest fur of any mammal, with up to one million hairs per square inch. Since the fur is the key to the sea otter staying warm the amount of time that the sea otter must groom himself/herself is several hours a day. This is to keep the fur warm and fluffed full of air for insulation. If the sea otter was not to groom for several hours a day the fur would become matted and dirty and lose the insulation properties relied on to keep the sea otter warm. This is one of the reasons that oil spills are so devastating to the sea otter. The oil from the spill mats the animals fur and they die from hypothermia. Another little trick that sea otter's use to conserve heat when resting is to remove their paws and hind flippers up out of the water. These appendages have little or no fur and therefore lose heat very rapidly. However these appendages are very strong and well articulated for use in hunting, eating and swimming. The sea otter employs one more method of keeping warm in the cold ocean temperatures. The animal's body produces a lot of body heat. As the animal is producing a lot of body heat through a high metabolism 2004-06-10T05:55:07-04:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/Sea-Otters-Research-Essay-25128.aspx Colon Cancer Cancer is considered a genetic disease. Cancer is a group of abnormal cells, known as a tumor, that grow uncontrollably.' Cancerous tumors invade and destroy surrounding tissue. Cancer is named according to the type of organ tissue from which it develops. Nearly eight million people, worldwide, get different types of cancer every year. Colon cancer is the second most common cancer death in the United States. Colon cancer, also known as colorectal cancer, arises in the lining of the large intestine and rectum.' The colon and rectum are apart of the digestive system. Their main function is to remove wastes from the body and absorb water and other types of nutrients. There are four layers of the colorectal wall. These layers are the Mucosa, the Submucosa, the Muscularis Propria, and the Serosa. It is important to know these layers because the staging of colorectal cancer relates to the degree of penetration of the tumor through the bowel wall.' Colon cancer patients have a great survival and recovery rate if the cancer is detected early. Often, colon cancer does not give any signs at all until the late stages of the disease. Symptoms of colon cancer include rectal bleeding, dark stools called melena, iron loss, frequent bowel movements, mucus discharge from the rectum, gas pains, and hemorrhoids.' As the tumor in the colon grows, it blocks the bowel which leads to later infections or bleeding in the abdominal cavity. As the tumor spreads, it can cause other types of problems in the body such as liver pains, loss of appetite, or other cancer of the organs. Colon cancer can be diagnosed in many different ways. Unfortunately, not many are getting tested for the disease until it is too late. Screening for blood in stool is recommended for people over the age of fifty even if they have no risk factors. If there is suspicion of possible colon cancer, there are other more thorough ways to test. One way it can be tested is by having a colonoscopy. A colonoscopy is a procedure in which doctors can look into the entire colon and collect tissue through the scope.' Another way is an endoscopy. That is where a small tube is used to take a sample of tissue without making an incision, and the tissue is examined for cancer under a microscope.' After detection of the cancer is made, the cancer is categorized into 2004-06-10T05:01:04-04:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/Colon-Cancer-Essay--25107.aspx During the Scientific Revolution scientists such as Galileo, Copernicus, Descartes and Bacon wrestled with questions about God, human aptitude, and the possibilities of understanding the world. Eventually, the implications of the new scientific findings began to affect the way people thought and behaved throughout Europe. Society began to question the authority of traditional knowledge about the universe. This in turn, allowed them to question traditional views of the state and social order. No longer was the world constructed as the somewhat simple Ptolemaic Model suggested. The Earth for the first time became explicable and was no longer the center of the universe. Many beliefs that had been held for hundreds of years now proved to be false. In addition to this, the Roman Catholic Church, which had always clarified the movements of the universe with the divine power of God, was now questioned by many. The Roman Catholic Church was naturally set as an opponent of the Scientific Revolution, not so much because of opposition to new ideas but instead because the new information contradicted the model of the world the church had created. Fortunately the revolution did not happen overnight but moderately over a 150-year period. Nicolaus Copernicus was one of the first astronomers to question the single worldview that the Christian faith supported. Though it was in the later years of his life that the he published On the Revolutions of Heavenly Spheres, the question was now raised as to the correctness of the mechanics of the world. In his writings, Copernicus was not able to accurately describe the revolutions of the Earth, Sun and Stars, but he was the first man to use mathematics and observation in order to create a more accurate picture of the universe. However, in order to conform to the Roman Catholic Church, Copernicus expressed himself carefully. Copernicus states, I may well presume, most Holy Father, that certain people, as soon as they hear that in this book about the Revolutions of the Spheres of the Universe I ascribe movement to the earthly globe, will cry out that, holding such views, I should at once be hissed off the stage… (Aspects of Western Civilization 41) Through this statement, Copernicus’s expresses his concern that the church will not agree with him. Instead of stating his findings freely and allowing the Roman Catholic Church to 2004-06-10T04:38:42-04:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/The-Scientific-Revolution-25095.aspx “To be or not to be…” In the last fifty years new forms of technology have been the center of attention for every human being. It seems that every day scientists come up with some new, perhaps even controversial, and exciting ways to improve the quality of life. These new technologies affect every aspect of life, as we know it. One such technology is the research being done in the area of cloning. Cloning is the production of one or more cells, individual plants, or animals that are genetically identical to another cell, plant or animal. Although the first steps forward in cloning have brought a storm of protest, the experimental research should be studied to prolong the existence of human life. In February 1997, the Roslin Institute in Scotland, a farm animal research facility, announced that it had succeeded in cloning a sheep from an adult cell. The cloned sheep, Dolly, made headlines around that world and launched a fierce debate over the potential uses for this technology. The breakthrough showed for the first time that genetic information encoded in the DNA of an adult cell could be “reset” and made young again. Once reset, the cell with rejuvenated DNA could produce all of the cells needed to grow a complete organism. Since Dolly, much has happened. In the United States, the National Bioethics Advisory Commission issued a report calling for federal legislation to ban human cloning for three to five years because of the moral dangers of cloning. President Clinton imposed a ban on all federally funded cloning research. Other European countries also adopted a similar ban. The misconceptions of cloning have risen from the lack of knowledge about the discoveries. Most people do not understand the basic principles of cloning, and are likely to make rash generalizations about whether cloning is natural or not. Other misconceptions focus on the societal problems resulting from cloning. Many of these misconceptions are only valid in a society without regulations or laws of any kind. People tend to forget that along with new technological developments come rules and guidelines to prevent the nightmarish scenarios that many believe will come true. Each of these misconceptions results from a distortion of the truth. Yet Congress seems hell-bent on stopping the medical advances that cloning can make possible. 2004-06-10T04:18:49-04:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/Cloning-Research-25092.aspx The phenomenon we call a tsunami is a series of waves of extremely long wavelength and period generated in a body of water by an impulsive disturbance that displaces the water. Although tsunamis are often referred to as "tidal waves" by English-speaking people, they are not caused by the tides and are unrelated to them. Tsunamis are primarily associated with earthquakes in oceanic and coastal regions. When an earthquake occurs, the energy travels outward in all directions from the source. This can be illustrated by throwing a pebble into a small, still pond. The pebble represents a meteorite or some other energy source, and the pond represents the ocean. The ripples that travel out in all directions from the focus, or the point where the pebble hit the water, represent the energy that creates a sea wave. Notice how the waves become larger as they reach shore, where the water is shallower. Detecting tsunamis is a very difficult thing to do. When a wave begins in the deep ocean waters, it may only have a height of about twelve to twenty-three inches and look like nothing more than the gentle rise and fall of the sea surface. An example of how easy tsunamis are to overlook is the Sanriku tsunami, which struck Honshu, Japan, on June 15, 1896. Fishermen twenty miles out to sea didn't notice the wave pass under their boats because it only had a height at the time of about fifteen inches. They were totally unprepared for the devastation that awaited them when they returned to the port of Sanriku. Twenty-eight thousand people were killed and 170 miles of coastline were destroyed by the wave that had passed under them. Tsunamis in deep water can have a wavelength greater than 300 miles (500 kilometers) and a period of about an hour. This is very different from the normal California tube, which generally has a wavelength of about 300 feet (100 meters) and a period of about ten seconds. (The period of a wave is the time between two successive waves.) Tsunamis are shallow-water waves, which means that the ratio between water depth and wavelength is very small. These shallow-water waves move at a speed equal to the square root of the 2004-06-10T02:53:45-04:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/Danger-of-Tsunamis--25084.aspx The Andromeda galaxy is the closest full size galaxy to the Milky Way because of this it is known as our nearest galactic neighbor. The Andromeda Galaxy is also the only galaxy visible to the naked eye in the Northern Hemisphere. At 2.9 million light-years from Earth, Andromeda is also the farthest object that can be seen from Earth. Andromeda is not only known as our closest neighbor but scientists also refer to Andromeda and the Milky Way as sister galaxies. Andromeda closely resembles the Milky Way in shape (spiral), structure, and distribution of chemical elements. But that is where their similarities end, for Andromeda dwarfs the Milky Way and contains around twice as many stars. This galaxy is set among the stars of the constellation of Andromeda, the tiny misty blur that astronomers know by the catalog number M 31 is easy to miss. Yet despite its unassuming appearance, M 31 is immensely greater than the stars that surround it. For centuries, astronomers thought that the Andromeda galaxy was nothing more than a nebula, a cloud of light-reflective dust and gas situated within the Milky Way. Then, in the 1880s, astronomer Isaac Roberts used a 20-inch telescope to take the first detailed photograph of Andromeda. For the first time, the spiral arms were revealed; but since no one could make out any individual stars, M 31 was still assumed to be a nebula. Ideas changed after a 100-inch telescope, the world's largest, opened on Mount Wilson near Los Angeles in 1917. The great astronomer Edwin Hubble was able to see for the first time that the outer spiral arms of the Andromeda galaxy contained individual stars. Theses appeared similar to many found in the Milky Way, but were much fainter. Hubble located three novae. One of these novae, however, turned out to be a Cepheid variable, a star that changes predictably in brightness. This Cepheid, and others subsequently discovered in the Andromeda Nebula, enabled Hubble to prove that the Nebula was not a star cluster within our own Milky Way, but a galaxy more than a million light years away. Andromeda is especially important for astronomers because is so similar o the Milky Way. Since we can never see our own galaxy from the outside, we can observe and learn from our nearby sister instead- the next best thing. Despite the large amount of knowledge we now have about the Andromeda Galaxy, its 2004-05-07T00:01:39-04:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/The-Andromeda-Galaxy--130.aspx Gravity is the key to the Earth's rising and falling tides. The combined gravitational effects of the Sun and the Moon constantly pull the world's oceans in different directions and create tidal effects. But there are several other factors that complicate this basic process. Friction, the Earth's rotation, the tilt of its axis and the gravitational pull given off by the Sun and Moon that affects Earth's atmosphere. These forces together conspire to make our planet's oceans into a battleground. These forces tug the oceans this way and that way around the globe, thus creating high tides and low tides. The Moon's gravity stretches the earth into an oval. The effect is so tiny that the solid parts of the planet are distorted by little more than eight inches. But because of of water's fluidity, the effect on the oceans is more noticeable. At the point on the Earth directly beneath the Moon, the ocean is tugged into a bulge of high water. At the same time, a second tidal bulge forms on the opposite side of the planet. This is partly a result of the centrifugal force created by the Moon and Earth's combined rotation around their common center of mass, a theoretical point called the barycenter. Because the Earth spins on its axis once every 24 hours, the two bulges sweep around the planet in waves, creating two high tides per day at every point on the globe. But the twice daily cycle is complicated by he fact that the Earth is tilted, which puts the Moon alternately to the north and south of the equator. This creates slight differences between the two tide each day and adds a daily set of local variations to this natural rhythm. A further complication is added by the Sun, whose gavational pull on the earth also affects the tides. The tidal force of the Sun and Moon together is almost a third more than that of the Moon alone, with the Sun imposing a solar rhythm. At the new and full moons, when the two bodies are in line, they combine to create extra high spring tides. When the Moon is in its first and last quarters, the Sun is at right angles to it, and their gravitational pulls work against each other to create extra low neap tides. The story continues as the tidal waves are weakened by friction between the ocean and the 2004-05-06T23:59:36-04:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/Gravity-and-the-Earth-s-Tides-129.aspx Cosmology is the study of the origin, current state, and future of our Universe. With recent technological advances, we have been able to probe deeper and deeper into the large scale structure of the vast universe and the small scale structure of matter. Our basis of understanding and determining fundamental physical laws in assumed to be correct when measured locally in laboratory experiments. These laws are verified over and over again so that they can be extrapolated to a distant time and place where they can be investigated with modern astronomical methods. The universe is basically used as a massive laboratory. The universe as defined by Dr. Green, is "everything that can be measured now or at any time in the future." What if our current understanding of the universe is not as perfect as we believe it to be? Our just we being egocentric in assuming that the fundamental physical laws that we have determined locally can apply to the rest of the universe? I am going to discuss why our universe is the best laboratory for understanding and determining the fundamental physical laws and then I will make an argument against this premise using dark matter, dark energy, Standard Candles, and Type 1a supernovae as a basis for discussion. A great reason why our universe is such a good laboratory is that everything is right in front of us; it is just a matter of us looking in the right direction at the right time using the right tools. A standard candle is a term used for an astronomical object, often a star, of well understood intrinsic brightness which enables us to determine cosmic distances (CAS online). If an object can be found whose luminosity you knew absolutely just from looking at it, then by comparing the apparent luminosity with the absolute luminosity, you could figure how far away it was. As the light from a distant object travels to Earth through an expanding universe, the cosmic expansion stretches the distances between galaxy clusters and the wavelengths of the photons emitted from the object. By the time the light reaches us, the spectral wavelength will have been redshifted by exactly the same factor that the universe had been stretched in the time interval since the light left the source. In order to get the time interval, the speed of light (3*10^8 meters/second) must be multiplied by the object's distance 2004-05-06T23:55:57-04:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/Our-Universe-as-a-Laboratory-for-Understanding-Physical-Laws-128.aspx Human during their evolutionary course and in order to understand the world around them, attended to explain the universe. Two of the biggest mysteries though, about man have always been and remain to be time and space. In order to analyze the "phenomenon" of space and time the effort to give some kind of definitions about those two terms composes a necessity. Describing time, it can be absolute, real and imaginary or global. By the term absolute, time is meant that for each event there is a number called time, and that those numbers have a logic continuance, from that part to the future. Referring now to the real and the imaginary time in the real time case, time, independently from spatial directions, follows and corresponds always an increasing course. In contrast, the imaginary time can increase and decrease adapting a spatial dimension's behavior. Concerning space now a satisfying try to define the term would be to support that space includes everything besides time and matter (even though we all know for sure that it exists). Space and time combined to each other form the known space-time. Space-time as a term and phenomenon has occupied a serious number of cosmologists. The first report about space-time came with special relativity in 1905. according to the upon theory, space-time is composed by four dimensions, three dimensions of time and one dimension of time. Furthermore in special relativity space-time is "flat" meaning that time as each observes counts it , increases normally in space-time from infinity-past to infinity-future. The perception about space-time transformed tremendously with a general theory of relativity. Space-time as described by Einstein's particular theory doesn't appear to be flat but distorted. This distortion is owed to the presence of mass and energy in space-time and consequently to gravitational force. As a result, even though particles tend to move up to straight linear, That's the main difference between special and general relativity concerning space-time, the involvement of gravity to space-time's distortion. Another subject on space-time, that must be discussed is its structure and expansion. If space-time has N points, the function that shows its expansion is 2N - 1. The expansion of time space has a double nature, timelike and spacelike. The steps expansion goes through, shows us the time nature, whereas the growing number of points shows the space nature. At every step, an image of each N points existing at the previous 2004-05-06T23:51:17-04:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/Space-Time-and-Relativity-127.aspx For ages people have been determined to explicate on everything. Our search for explanation rests only when there is a lack of questions. Our skies hold infinite quandaries, so the quest for answers will, as a result, also be infinite. Since its inception, Astronomy as a science speculated heavily upon discovery, and only came to concrete conclusions later with closer inspection. Aspects of the skies which at one time seemed like reasonable explanations are now laughed at as egotistical ventures. Time has shown that as better instrumentation was developed, more accurate understanding was attained. Now it seems, as we advance on scientific frontiers, the new quest of the heavens is to find and explain the phenomenom known as a black hole. The goal of this paper is to explain how the concept of a black hole came about, and give some insight on how black holes are formed and might be tracked down in our more technologically advanced future. Gaining an understanding of a black hole allows for a greater understanding of the concept of spacetime and maybe give us a grasp of both science fiction and science fact. Hopefully, all the clarification will come by the close of this essay. A black hole is probably one of the most misunderstood ideas among people outside of the astronomical and physical communities. Before an understanding of how it is formed can take place, a bit of an introduction to stars is necessary. This will shed light (no pun intended) on the black hole philosophy. A star is an enormous fire ball, fueled by a nuclear reaction at its core which produces massive amounts of heat and pressure. It is formed when two or more enormous gaseous clouds come together which forms the core, and as an aftereffect the conversion, due to that impact, of huge amounts of energy from the two clouds. The clouds come together with a great enough force, that a nuclear reaction ensues. This type of energy is created by fusion wherein the atoms are forced together to form a new one. In turn, heat in excess of millions of degrees farenheit are produced. This activity goes on for eons until the point at which the nuclear fuel is exhausted. 2004-05-06T23:48:45-04:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/The-Search-for-Black-Holes--126.aspx Acid-Base Equilibria: Determination of Acid Ionization Constants Introduction: The purpose of this lab is to learn about acid ionization constants and buffer solutions. We will be determining the acid ionization constant by finding pH with pH meters. In part three we will prepare a buffer solution and then observe the change in pH as either an acid or base is added. Data: [img:92409efbd7]http://www.collegepimp.com/echeat/lab16.gif[/img:92409efbd7] Discussion: The majority of this experiment was focused on determination of Ka, or the acid ionization constant. To find Ka we were given concentrations of each chemical in the solution and its concentration individually. We then determined the pH, and solved using an ICE table. In part 1, we found the half equivalence point by titrating HA with NaOH, plotting the graph with excel, and then visually finding the halfway mark. The pH at this point was 4.26, which tells us that Ka = 5.50 x 10-5 by knowing pH = pKa and Ka = 10-pKa at the half equivalency point. This means that HA has very little dissociation in an aqueous solution, which is expected because it is a weak acid. In part 2, we were yet again attempting to find the disassociation constant of acetic acid in different solutions by knowing volume, concentration and pH. We found three very different constants, an error which will be covered later. Actually completing these steps was very elementary and does not need to be discussed. Part 3 was the second half of this lab. We created a buffer solution using 30mL each of 1.0M NaA and HA, and the pH was recorded. We then divvied this into two beakers. 2mL 1.0M HCl was added to one and 2mL 1.0M NaOH was added to the other. The pH level was recorded for each of these solutions. The original buffer solution had a pH of 4.49. Solution 1 with HCl was 4.30, and Solution 2 with NaOH was 4.55. Previous to this we created an unbuffered solution with DI water and added the same amounts of acid and base to the solution. For HCl, there was a negative 5.62pH change and positive 4.6 for NaOH. In the buffered solution, the changes were: HCl – (-0.19); NaOH – (+0.06). This demonstrates the degree to which a buffer solution can resist change. All Ka values determined are far off from the actual 1.76x10-5. I believe a very large factor in this is the measuring device itself. From the beginning there were numerous 2004-04-30T03:55:14-04:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/Lab-Research-Paper-on-Determination-of-Acid-Ionization-Constants-101.aspx Antacid Analysis and the Determination of the Percent of Acetic Acid in Vinegar Introduction: The purpose of this lab is to teach us three new methods and give us a better understanding of acid-base reactions. We will be learning how to standardize a solution, determine % acid in a solution (Vinegar), and how to determine neutralization capacity (antacids). Data: [img:210695bd20]http://www.collegepimp.com/echeat/lab15.gif[/img:210695bd20] Discussion: The first part of this lab was a required step for the next two parts. We standardized NaOH so that we could determine its exact Molarity. We used phenolphthalein as the indicator for neutralization. We titrated KHP with the NaOH until we reached the equivalence point which told us the moles of H+ ions equaled that of OH- ions. By knowing moles of KHP, we knew moles of NaOH titrated. Dividing moles NaOH over liters titrated we found the average Molarity for three trials to be .290M. This is very close to the goal of .3M, and now we have a standardized solution of NaOH for the next parts of the lab. Part two was to determine the moles of acetic acid and its percent in vinegar. Once again we used phenolphthalein as the indicator. We titrated 20mL of Vinegar with 34.6mL and 34.3mL of NaOH for trials 1 and 2 respectively, until the equivalence point was reached. Multiplying by the concentration found earlier of NaOH, we found .00986 and .00995 moles for each trial. Since only one H+ ion from acetic acid (Only one is bonded to the electronegative oxygen, giving up its electron) bonds with OH- we know that the moles of acid are the same as NaOH. Dividing by .020L of Vinegar gives us the concentration of .493M and .498M. We found an average of 2.85% acetic acid in Vinegar. Part three was the most involved piece of the lab. The goal was to find the moles, mass, and % composition of the active ingredient in the antacids, Tums and Rolaids. We weighed each antacid to find total grams so we could find % composition later. We dissolved the antacids in excess HCl because they are insoluble in water. We added Thymol blue indicator for this solution. We then titrated the solution with NaOH until the equivalence point was reached. Rolaids required considerably less NaOH to reach this point. Since NaOH only reacts with the excess HCl not consumed by the base in the antacid, the number of moles of NaOH equals the excess 2004-04-30T03:50:24-04:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/Lab-Antacid-and-Acetic-Acid-in-Vinegar-100.aspx Determination of an Equilibrium Constant Using a Spectrophotometer Introduction: In this lab we will be given a variety of different solutions with known amounts of each substance. We will be determining the concentration of 2004-04-30T03:47:22-04:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/Lab-Equilibrium-Constant-Using-a-Spectrophotometer-99.aspx Determination of Avogadro’s Number Introduction: In this experiment we will determine Avogadro’s number by calculating the area of a one-molecule thick layer of oleic acid. Because we know the volume of one molecule, we can solve for area. Then, we use density and the molar mass of oleic acid to find Avogadro’s number. Data: [img:73069628eb]http://www.collegepimp.com/echeat/lab10.gif[/img:73069628eb] Discussion: The purpose of this lab was to give us a different perspective of where Avogadro’s number comes from. We learn in a hands-on approach how it can be determined by the unique properties of oleic acid, water, and pentane. The first step in this lab was to achieve a properly diluted solution of oleic acid. This turned out to be the key step in returning accurate results. We did this using the not-so-precise method of measuring 1mL of the original solution of 1 part oleic acid and 10 parts pentane, and moving it into another test tube of 10mL pentane. This was repeated two more times. The next step was preparing a surface to allow the oleic acid to spread out so that it was only one-molecule tall. This involved using a large convex watch-glass, pouring water onto the top until there was enough surface tension to create a near-perfectly-flat surface. 0.05mL of the dilute solution was then dropped onto this surface. Because pentane is so volatile, it evaporated quickly leaving only the oleic acid. We were able to see this because of the light dusting of Lycopodium powder which was forced out of the way of the oleic acid. Using the rough technique of sketching the outline of the oleic acid onto a plate of glass we were able to determine the area. By setting a simple proportion to find the weight to area ratio for printer paper, we solved for the approximate area of the oleic acid. Using a formula provided, we calculated the true volume of the oleic acid in cubic centimeters or milliliters. The next step was to finally solve for the number of molecules. We know that by multiplying molar mass times the inverse density times the inverse volume, we can find molecules (g/mol x mL/g x mL/molecule). Our first trial proved to be the most accurate: we determined there were 4.9 x 1023 molecules of oleic acid, an error of approximately -1.1 x 1023. There are two major sources of error in this experiment. The first is in the creation of the diluted solution. Measuring 1mL accurately with a 2004-04-30T03:42:38-04:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/Lab-Determination-of-Avogadro’s-Number-98.aspx Atomic Spectroscopy Introduction: The purpose of this lab is to learn about light and the light emitting properties of different atoms. We will use a spectrometer to observe these relationships. Data: [img:c4daeb4fff]http://www.collegepimp.com/echeat/lab8.gif[/img:c4daeb4fff] Discussion: The purpose of this lab was to learn about spectroscopy, which would give us a better understanding about the light properties of atoms. By observing light emission and absorption we learn more about the changes in energy states of atoms. We used a spectrometer and the naked eye to observe visible changes of these energy states. The first part of the lab was to calibrate our spectroscopes. This was not done in the sense I had imagined it, which would be to actually actively calibrate the spectroscope so the reading would be correct. Instead, we had to find the level of error in our spectroscopes, then correct for it each time we took a reading. After observing the emission of mercury we created a graph with a trend line to help us determine the actual wavelength of light. In part 2 we observed the emission of hydrogen. We found that hydrogen emits violet, blue, green, and red light in the visible spectrum. We calculated a maximum of a 2.88% error, which tells us two things: one, that our spectrometer has been calculated fairly accurately, and that we are observing the correct colors because they correlate so closely to the accurate . We also found the change in energy states through trial and error for hydrogen. As expected, the higher the initial energy state, the shorter the wavelength, since there is a greater change in energy than between that of a lower energy state. 410nm had an initial energy state of 6. Energy states went consecutively down as the wavelength increased, until the initial energy state was 3 at 565nm. In part 3, we observed the light emission from various Alkali and Alkaline Earth Metals. The purpose of this was to give us an even further understanding of the relationship between atomic structure and the energy emitted and its relationship with wavelength. Based on the visible light spectrum, LiCl emitted the least energy based on the bright red color, and KCl would have emitted the most energy based on the white-violet color. A source of possible error is in the calibration of the spectrometer. If the correction for the spectrometer is off, all further calculations will be adversely affected. Another source of error would be if the wire 2004-04-30T03:39:15-04:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/Lab-Atomic-Spectroscopy-97.aspx Reaction Enthalpies and Hess’ Law Introduction: This lab will show us how to first determine enthalpy using a simple calorimeter then apply Hess’ law to determine the change in enthalpy for a third reaction. Data: Part1: The Heat Capacity of the Calorimeter Ccal = 135kJ (Very off, so we used 30kJ for the rest of our calculations) [img:732940a099]http://www.collegepimp.com/echeat/lab7.gif[/img:732940a099] Discussion: The purpose of this lab was to learn how to determine the change in enthalpy of HCl & Mg and HCl & MgO, and the heat capacity of a calorimeter which should help us better understand Hess’ law and enthalpy in general. To determine the heat of the calorimeter we added hot water to cold water contained inside our calorimeter and observed the change in temperature inside the calorimeter. Knowing that the heat of gained by cold water and the calorimeter should be exactly equal to the heat lost by the hot water, we are able to solve for the heat capacity of the calorimeter itself. We found the heat capacity of our calorimeter to be 135kJ. This result is not accurate for a reason which we were unable to determine. As instructed I used 30J for the heat capacity instead of our experimental value to gain more accurate calculations in the rest of the lab. Our next task was to determine the change in enthalpy for HCl and magnesium ribbon. We first determined the heat of the reaction, after finding the change in temperature, to be -2220J and -3808J for trials 1 and 2 respectively. From this we could divide by moles of Mg in each trial, and found that the average change in enthalpy was -313kJ/mol  104kJ/mol. The calculated value of 467kJ/mol is 154 kJ/mol higher than the experimental mean. If you account for standard deviation, it may be off by only 50 kJ/mol. Taking this into account, and assuming trial 2 was more accurate, subtracting 50 kJ/mol to our recorded -417kJ/mol gives us our exact calculated value. Our next task was to determine the change in enthalpy for HCl and MgO. We followed nearly exactly the same procedures as in the reaction of HCl with Mg, only having determine grams of MgO using a different method since it is not possible to put all measured MgO into the calorimeter. We found the change in enthalpy to be -167kJ/mol  31.5kJ/mol which is only off by 15kJ/mol from the calculated change in enthalpy. One source of error is, 2004-04-30T03:32:10-04:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/Lab-Reaction-Enthalpies-and-Hess’-Law-96.aspx Thermochemistry Introduction: This lab will teach us some of the basics of thermochemistry, such as temperature, heat, and heat capacity through creating our own simple calorimeter. Data: [img:4c4688b9b8]http://www.collegepimp.com/echeat/lab6.gif[/img:4c4688b9b8] Discussion: The purpose of this lab was to learn how to determine the specific heat of metal, a solution, neutralization and the heat capacity of a calorimeter. To determine the heat of the calorimeter we added hot water to cold water contained inside our calorimeter and observed the change in temperature inside the calorimeter. Knowing that the heat of gained by cold water and the calorimeter should be exactly equal to the heat lost by the hot water, we are able to solve for the heat capacity of the calorimeter itself. We found the heat capacity of our calorimeter to be 25.97kJ. Our next task was to determine the heat capacity of an unknown metal. Using the same idea from the previous experiment, we knew that the heat lost by the metal would be exactly equal to the heat gained by the water and calorimeter. Since we now know the heat capacity of the calorimeter we can solve for the heat capacity (Cmetal) of our metal. Both my lab partner and I found the specific heat capacity of the unknown metal to be 0.129 J/Kg. This corresponds most “reasonably” with lead, even though according the chart given, it would be gold. This result does not seem reasonable however because I would not expect us to be handling lead with our bare hands. We are unable to determine the cause for this potential error. To determine the heat of the solution we multiplied the heat capacity of the calorimeter by the change in temperature and added the mass of the solution times the specific heat capacity of the solution and the change in temperature, then set the entire quantity negative, resulting in 633 joules. From this we could determine the molar heat of the solution by dividing by moles of NH4NO3. ΔHsolution was found to be 25.3kK/mol. Lastly, we were tasked with determining the heat of neutralization. This was found by using the same equation as in part 3 of our experiment but changing ΔT and the mass of our solution. We found the heat of the neutralization for NaOH & HCl to be -4424J and NaOH & CH3COOH to be -4443J. It is interesting that both values were similar; I believe this means that both acetic acid and hydrochloric acid have 2004-04-30T03:26:57-04:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/Lab-Thermochemistry-95.aspx The Molar Volume of Gases Introduction: Using FeCl3 to decompose H2O2 and then HCl to decompose Mg we will determine the volume of gas using the state of gas law. The purpose is to learn how to determine molar volume of gas Data: [img:d84877280a]http://www.collegepimp.com/echeat/lab5.gif[/img:d84877280a] Discussion: The purpose of this lab was to learn to determine molar volume in an experimental environment utilizing two different methods. The first method was by determining the weight of the flask containing H2O2 before and after the catalyst FeCl3 was introduced, thereby determining the mass of oxygen. We found the mass to be 0.256g, which is 0.008 mol. From there we were able to determine the volume of oxygen by looking up the water vapor pressure at the recorded temperature, and subtracting that from the current barometric pressure to give the pressure in torr for oxygen (739.3 torr), then utilized the state of gas law V2 = V1 (P1 / P2) * (T2 / T1). We found V2 to be 0.192L. Simply dividing the volume of O2 by moles of O2 (hence L/mol = Molar Volume), we found the molar volume of oxygen to be 24L/mol. This is only off by approximately 1.6 L/mol, so our experiment yielded fairly accurate results. The next method to determine molar volume was a stoichiometric approach. We found the mass of the reactant Mg to be 0.079g. Since the mol-to-mol ratio of Mg to H2 is 1:1, moles of hydrogen will be the same as moles magnesium. Dividing 0.079g by 24g (≈ 1 mol Mg), we find we have 0.0033 mol Mg, hence 0.0033 mol H2. Once again, using the same state of gas law, we can determine the volume of hydrogen at STP (V2 = 0.090L (738 torr / 760 torr) * (273K / 296K)) to be 0.081L. Dividing 0.081L by 0.0033mol, we find the molar volume of hydrogen to be 24.5L/mol. The molar volume that we determined for hydrogen is slightly higher than what we found for oxygen (by 0.5L/mol). This is interesting, but looking back to the charts provided in the lab notebook, the true molar volume for hydrogen is 0.037L/mol greater than oxygen. Assuming that the experimental conditions for both the production of O2 and H2 were the same, this actual difference could account for our observed deviation. The main source of error for this experiment is within the reactions themselves. Hydrogen and oxygen gas may have partially dissolved into the water itself, 2004-04-30T03:21:20-04:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/Lab-The-Molar-Volume-of-Gases-94.aspx Determination of a Chemical Formula Introduction: This lab will show us how we can use acid-base titration to find molecular formulas of compounds. Specifically, we will be working with Zinc, Calcium, Hydrochloric Acid, and Water. Data: [img:61fe0dee2e]http://www.collegepimp.com/echeat/lab4.gif[/img:61fe0dee2e] Calculations: See notebook tear-out under “Calculations” heading Discussion: The purpose of this lab was to observe the reactions of metals with water and acid. We used Zinc and Calcium specifically. As I expected, the Calcium samples were more reactive to both water and hydrochloric acid. I determined this based on its location on the periodic table and the knowledge that the column of metals, of which Calcium is a part of, is highly reactive. When my lab partner and I lit the match and held it to the mouth of the test tube it went 2004-04-30T03:16:44-04:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/Lab-Determination-of-a-Chemical-Formula-93.aspx Analysis of Water Introduction: This lab will teach us how to identify several different substances that may be present in tap water and ocean water using different chemical tests. It will also show us the presence of solids in both tap water and ocean water. [img:88464c657d]http://www.collegepimp.com/echeat/lab3.gif[/img:88464c657d] Balanced Equations: 9. Test Tube #3: a) Ca + CO3 -> CaCO3 b) Mg + CO3 -> MgCO3 10. Test Tube #4: Ag+ + Cl- -> AgCl(s) 11. Test Tube #5: Ba + SO42- -> BaSO4 12. Test Tube #6: Pb + HCl -> PbCl2(s) + H+ Calculations: Weight of Residue = (Original Weight) – (Weight after boiling) 151.734g – 151.726g = 0.008g %Total solids in Tap Water = (Grams of residue) / (Grams of original solution) 0.008g/(223.238g-151.726g) = 0.008g/75.512g = 0.011% ppm = (mg solute) / (Liters Solution) 8mg/(0.075L) = 100ppm Discussion: The purpose of part one of this experiment was to observe the presence of solids in the local tap or ocean water. To do this we boiled 75mL of tap water in a beaker. We compared the masses of the beaker before water was added, and after it was evaporated to determine the weight of the remaining residue. We obtained a light crusty brown residue at the bottom of our beaker. It was found to weight only 8mg, which means the local tap water has very little solids. Still looking at tap water, part two was to determine the presence of several different elements. We used a variety of different chemical solutions and observed their reactions when added to tap water. The water contained no nitrate ions because there was no reaction with iron (II) sulfate and sulfuric acid. However, we did get to see what it would look like if nitrate was present because in one sample we added HNO3. Both calcium and magnesium were present because when added ammonium carbonate to our sample it formed calcium carbonate and magnesium carbonate as can be seen in the following balanced equations: Ca + CO3 -> CaCO3, Mg + CO3 -> MgCO3. Chloride was also present because when we added nitric acid and silver nitrate, silver chloride was formed as can be seen in the balanced equation: Ag+ + Cl- -> AgCl(s). Sulfate was also present because when we added barium nitrate, barium sulfate was formed as can be seen in the balanced equation: Ba + SO42- -> BaSO4. Lead was 2004-04-30T03:13:13-04:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/Lab-Analysis-of-Water--92.aspx Introduction: The goal of this lab is to familiarize ourselves with basic laboratory equipment and how to use this equipment. Simple measurements will be performed to aid this process. Pre-Lab Questions: No pre-lab for lab 1. [img:39a2fb9bde]http://www.collegepimp.com/echeat/lab1.gif[/img:39a2fb9bde] Discussion: In part one we learned the basics to reading volumes. We practiced on two graduated cylinders, an Erlenmeyer flask, and a burette. They were pre-filled with water to random points and we took approximate measurements. Measurements were recorded along with the standard deviation. In part two we practiced taking measurements with a precise digital scale. We learned how to zero the device using the tare feature. We discovered that post-1983 pennies weighed less than pre-1982 pennies because different metals were used. In part three we used the skills learned in part two to weigh a flask with and 2004-04-30T03:02:38-04:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/Lab-Introduction-to-Laboratory-Techniques-91.aspx Article Summary – “Criminal Genes” Summary As we all know, genes control much of who we are, but the can they make us criminals? Scientists now believe that there is one gene that is at least partially responsible for criminal behavior. The gene that controls the production of monoamine oxidase A (MAO A) is the enzyme that breaks down excess amounts of certain neurotransmitters. Production of MAO A may be what causes, in part, a higher potential for criminal behavior. In 1972, a study was conducted in New Zealand of 442 subjects. Some of which had history of abuse or criminal tendencies. Researchers found that only 12% of the subjects had low MAO A levels and that 12% represented “half of their generation’s convictions for violent crimes in New Zealand.” The National Center for Scientific Research in France did an experiment with mice. They turned off the gene which controlled MAO A encoding. “The animals exhibited fearless, impulsive behavior.” The mice had the neurotransmitter serotonin levels nine times above normal. In 1993, Harm G. Brunner found in a study of a family of Dutch criminals that they all had a defect in the gene that controls MAO A. This further explains why many criminals have high levels of serotonin. Just having low levels of MAO A does not automatically make someone a criminal. There are plenty of people that have normal lives with low levels of MAO A. The trigger it seems is abuse during childhood. However, abuse does not necessarily mean there will be low levels of MAO A. The combination leads to a very likely chance of criminal tendencies. Scientists speculate that high levels of MAO A may give a higher tolerance for abuse during childhood. “The genotype of high MAO A activity may promote trauma resistance,” says Terrie Moffet, a psychologist who worked on a University of Wisconsin-Madison. Relevancy to Biology Class Although we are not yet to the chapters that cover genetics, we will be covering those chapters shortly I presume. Also, I already have taken the advanced biology course my freshmen year which included a lot of study of genetics. Once we reach the chapter on genetics, which I have skimmed over, we will definitely be covering topics on how the MAO A genotype can affect criminal behavior, most likely along with why it, by itself, does not necessarily make one have criminal tendencies. Reason for Choosing I have a subscription to the 2004-04-30T02:38:24-04:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/Criminality-and-Genetics-Article-Summary-89.aspx H, hydrogen to the He, Helium Lithium, Be, Beryllium Already getting sick of ‘em Next is Boron with a B Then Carbon with a C Man, it’s just so easy when I know that N is Nitrogen Continue with my flow to the O in Oxygen So fresh and so clean Number 9 is F Fluorine Then Ne is Neon I won’t be just a peon Never ever be wrong Know the atoms like I’ve been here the last 7 eons …So anyway, Na is Sodium Look at my flodium, I’m eroding ‘em Straight leaving em In the dust Mg magnesium As I bust, no fuss cuz I must ta rush Aluminum abbreviated with an Al Si for Silicon number 14 I yell Fifteen’s a P for Phosphorous And then it’s Sulfur the S Cl after atomic number sixteen It’s chlorine Followed by Argon Ar Potassium K And not by far By Calcium Ca Oh! That was the first twenty I know you think that, that is plenty But you gotta be able To know the whole freakin periodic table! Scandium Sc Titanium Ti Vanadium V Man, look at those rhymes Chromium Cr Manganese Mn Fe is Iron And we’re back again Well not really though Cobalt is Co Nickel is Ni Copper is Cu Don’t you just want to die? Well you can’t Zinc is Zn Ga is Gallium Then As Arsenic And we’re no where near done Se like special edition So easy it’s Selenium That’d be the intuition Listen, Br for Bromine And Kr for Krypton My minds every bit gone Rb is Rubidium Sr is Strontium Then Y for Yttrium, which, I can’t even pronounce Finally, forty is Zirconium And I know that didn’t rhyme, So please, no phonin in That was the next twenty I know you think that, that is plenty But you gotta be able To know the whole freakin periodic table! Holy crap, there’s still sixty more I’d rather list this even though you’d probably snore Niobium Nb Mo and Tc I couldn’t pronounce those either But neither can you, so don’t worry Ru for Ruthenium Rh for Rhodium Pd for Palladium And now I’m cold foldin ‘em Oh! Forty seven is Silver Ag Cadmium CD Indium In You can’t slow me As I move to Sn That’s Tin then Sb Also known as Antimony Tellurium Te Iodine the I And Xenon Xe Fly on right by To Cesium Cs Barium Ba Moving quick through the rest Lanthanum La 57 Cerium Ce What can I say? It’s Pr Nd Sm, Eu Gd, then Tb, So what you wanna do? Memorize the rest is what I suggest Dy, Ho Er, Tm That’s how it goes Lu Lutetium 72 Next is Hafnium Hf And to the opposite of left Tantalum Ta Tungsten W And everyday It troubles you Rhenium the same way Re to the Os, Osmium Ir, Iridium Man, there’s no stopping them I know this one quite well If you can’t even tell It’s Pt Platinum Plat SamSkillz always wearing silver-plated in place of that But no worries if you like the Au Gold keeps it 2004-03-24T02:49:19-04:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/Periodic-Table-Rap--75.aspx Throughout history scientific advances have been both a means of helping and destroying society. In all of the three major scientific disciplines weapons of mass destruction have been created. In physics nuclear weapons were created, in biology viruses were created and turned into weapons, and in chemistry elements were mixed together to create poisonous gases and toxins. In modern times the most widespread uses of these types of weapons have been with chemical weapons because they are the cheapest and easiest to produce. The first large-scale usage of chemical weapons came during World War I, forty years later the Nazis used cyanide gas during WWII against Jews. The United States used Agent Orange against the Vietnamese, and later in the 1980’s the Iraqis gassed the Iranians and Kurds. In 1995 a religious cult let off a chemical bomb in a Tokyo subway, and currently the biggest fear of chemical weapons is from the possibility of their use in a terrorist attack. There are a few different types of chemical weapons. The most dangerous type of chemical weapons are nerve agents that can cause death in seconds and are odorless and tasteless. Nerve agents disrupt the functions of the nervous systems and shut down all vital body functions. The most common type are blistering agents which were commonly used in WWI and cause most organic tissue that comes in contact with the chemical to burn and blister. Other types include choking agents, blood agents, and toxins. Although some chemical weapons were developed as early as 1855 the first time they were used in battle to deliberately kill soldiers was during World War I. In 1915 the Germans launched their first chemical attack against the British. By 1918 at the end of the war almost a million people had been killed or injured by poisonous gases. The most common type of chemical weapon was mustard gas that was put on shells, which were fired at the enemy. Mustard gas is considered a blistering agent because it burns any part of the skin, lungs, or eyes that it comes in contact with. After the horrors of gas attacks in WWI the allies and axis powers refrained from using any chemical weapons during battle. During this same time, however, the largest genocide in the history of the world was taking place with the use of chemical agents. The Nazis used chemical pesticides to kill millions of Jews 2004-02-22T19:34:41-05:00 http://75.150.148.189/free-essay/Chemical-Warfare-and-Terrorism-44.aspx